Hate Speech in Social Media Comments on the UEC Issue: A Linguistic Analysis of Malaysian Online Discourse
Authors
Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, UiTM Shah Alam (Malaysia)
Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, UiTM Shah Alam (Malaysia)
Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, UiTM Shah Alam (Malaysia)
Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, UiTM Shah Alam (Malaysia)
Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, UiTM Shah Alam (Malaysia)
Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, UiTM Shah Alam (Malaysia)
Article Information
DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS.2026.102100059
Subject Category: Education
Volume/Issue: 10/21 | Page No: 688-699
Publication Timeline
Submitted: 2026-07-08
Accepted: 2026-07-13
Published: 2026-07-24
Abstract
1. Azman, N. F., Zamri, N. A. K., & Hassim, M. N. (2023). Hate Speech on Social Media in Malaysia - A Thematic Review. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(6), 1466-1477. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v13-i6/17177
2. Buletin Malaysia TV3. [@buletintv3]. (2026, May 14). Kerajaan bersetuju membenarkan pelajar lepasan di luar sistem pendidikan kebangsaan untuk melanjutkan pengajian di Institusi Pengajian tinggi Awam (IPTA) dalam program tertentu #PendidikanTinggi #KPT #Tahfiz #UEC #IPTA #BuletinTV3 #BU [Video]. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/@buletintv3/video/7639728876687478017?q=uec%20buletin%20tv3&t=1783135654
3. Buletin Malaysia TV3. [@buletintv3]. (2026, May 15). Kerajaan sedang merumuskan beberapa perincian berhubung keputusan membenarkan pelajar lepasan luar sistem pendidikan kebangsaan melanjutkan pengajian di IPTA. #UEC #AnwarIbrahim #BuletinTV3 #BU [Video]. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/@buletintv3/video/7640112117323975954?q=uec%20buletin%20tv3&t=1783135654
4. Castaño-Pulgarín, S., Suárez-Betancur, N., Vega, L. M. T., & López, H. M. H. (2021). Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 58, 101608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101608
5. Chetty, N., & Alathur, S. (2018). Hate speech review in the context of online social networks. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 40, 108-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.003
6. Culpeper, J. (2021). Impoliteness and hate speech: Compare and contrast. Journal of Pragmatics, 179, 4-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.04.019
7. Esau, K. (2021). Impoliteness (Hate Speech/Incivility). DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis, 1(5). https://doi.org/10.34778/5b
8. Guerra, R., Carvalho, P., Marques, C., Carmona, M., Sarroeira, R., Batista, F., Ribeiro, R., Fonseca, A., Moro, S., & Silva, C. (2025). Unpacking online hate speech in Portuguese social media: a social-psychological and linguistic-discursive approach. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1709), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05392-9
9. Haron, H. H., Aziz, A. S. A., Badarulzaman, M. H., Wahed, H., Nasir, N. A. M., & Hashim, Z. (2025). Unmasking hate through socio-legal perspective: Understanding the roots of youth online hate speech in Malaysia. International Journal of Law, Government and Communication. 10(40), 476-487. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijlgc.1040034
10. Jerome, C., Hasbi, N., & Ting, S. (2024). “Stop being racist”: What Malaysians say about race on social media - A thematic analysis. International Journal of Law, Government and Communication. 9(36), 392-407. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijlgc.936030
11. Kovács, G., Alonso, P., & Saini, R. (2021). Challenges of hate speech detection in social media. SN Computer Science, 2(95). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-021-00457-3
12. Lam, K., Ting, Y. W., Ang, L., & Hoe, F. (2022). Framing of the Unified Examination Certificate by Malaysian ethnic newspapers. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities. 25(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1163/26659077-25010021
13. Liew, T. S., & Hassan, H. (2021). The search for national identity in the discourse analysis of YouTube comments. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 17(4), 1806-1821. https://doi.org/10.52462/jlls.131
14. Liu, D. (2024). Content moderation, platformised speech governance, and legitimacy: TikTok in South and Southeast Asia. Companion Publication of the 16th ACM Web Science Conference, 27-31. https://doi.org/10.1145/3630744.3658613
15. Maity, K., Bhattacharya, S., Saha, S., & Seera, M. (2023). A deep learning framework for the detection of Malay hate speech. IEEE Access, 11, 79542-79552. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3298808
16. Manik, D., Tanjung, Y. A., Utomo, A. A., Amelia, A., & Natsir, M. (2026). Discursive toxicity and cyberbullying in TikTok user comments: A critical discourse analysis approach. Student Scientific Creativity Journal, 4(3), 327-338. https://doi.org/10.55606/sscj-amik.v4i3.6177
17. Na’im Brundage. [@naimbrundage10]. (2026, May 15). Setinggi mana pun jawatan kita, tetap ada boss kat atas. [Video]. TikTok https://www.tiktok.com/@naimbrundage10/video/7640102336114740498
18. Rashid, R. A., & Ding, A. (2025). Online discursive contestations over educational reform in Malaysia’s multiethnic society. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 20(1), 46-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2025.2556724
19. Retta, M. (2023). A pragmatic and discourse analysis of hate words on social media. Internet Pragmatics, 6(2), 197-218. https://doi.org/10.1075/ip.00096.ret
20. Saidin, M., & Azrun, N. (2024). Digital media and religious sentiments in Malaysia: Critical discourse analysis of Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party and Democratic Action Party cyberspace campaigns in the 15th General Election. Religions. 15(8), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080920
21. Salleh, N. A. A. M., & Yusof, M. (2026). Hate speech related to 3R issues in social media: Analysis of directive speech acts. Quantum Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 7(1), 266-273. https://doi.org/10.55197/qjssh.v7i1.1093
22. Schmid, U. K., Kümpel, A., & Rieger, D. (2022). How social media users perceive different forms of online hate speech: A qualitative multi-method study. New Media & Society, 26(5), 2614-2632. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221091185
23. Xia, N., Yang, Y., & Lee, Y. F. (2018). Chinese education in Malaysia under Malaysian ethnic politics. Journal of Programming Languages, 11(2), 23-36. https://doi.org/10.5539/jpl.v11n2p23
24. Zamri, N. A. K., Nasir, N. A. M., Hassim, M., & Ramli, S. M. (2023). Digital hate speech and othering: The construction of hate speech from Malaysian perspectives. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2229089
Keywords
hate speech, impoliteness, UEC, TikTok, Malaysian online discourse, social media comments
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References
1. Azman, N. F., Zamri, N. A. K., & Hassim, M. N. (2023). Hate Speech on Social Media in Malaysia - A Thematic Review. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(6), 1466-1477. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v13-i6/17177 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
2. Buletin Malaysia TV3. [@buletintv3]. (2026, May 14). Kerajaan bersetuju membenarkan pelajar lepasan di luar sistem pendidikan kebangsaan untuk melanjutkan pengajian di Institusi Pengajian tinggi Awam (IPTA) dalam program tertentu #PendidikanTinggi #KPT #Tahfiz #UEC #IPTA #BuletinTV3 #BU [Video]. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/@buletintv3/video/7639728876687478017?q=uec%20buletin%20tv3&t=1783135654 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
3. Buletin Malaysia TV3. [@buletintv3]. (2026, May 15). Kerajaan sedang merumuskan beberapa perincian berhubung keputusan membenarkan pelajar lepasan luar sistem pendidikan kebangsaan melanjutkan pengajian di IPTA. #UEC #AnwarIbrahim #BuletinTV3 #BU [Video]. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/@buletintv3/video/7640112117323975954?q=uec%20buletin%20tv3&t=1783135654 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
4. Castaño-Pulgarín, S., Suárez-Betancur, N., Vega, L. M. T., & López, H. M. H. (2021). Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 58, 101608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101608 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
5. Chetty, N., & Alathur, S. (2018). Hate speech review in the context of online social networks. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 40, 108-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.003 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
6. Culpeper, J. (2021). Impoliteness and hate speech: Compare and contrast. Journal of Pragmatics, 179, 4-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.04.019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
7. Esau, K. (2021). Impoliteness (Hate Speech/Incivility). DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis, 1(5). https://doi.org/10.34778/5b [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
8. Guerra, R., Carvalho, P., Marques, C., Carmona, M., Sarroeira, R., Batista, F., Ribeiro, R., Fonseca, A., Moro, S., & Silva, C. (2025). Unpacking online hate speech in Portuguese social media: a social-psychological and linguistic-discursive approach. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1709), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05392-9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
9. Haron, H. H., Aziz, A. S. A., Badarulzaman, M. H., Wahed, H., Nasir, N. A. M., & Hashim, Z. (2025). Unmasking hate through socio-legal perspective: Understanding the roots of youth online hate speech in Malaysia. International Journal of Law, Government and Communication. 10(40), 476-487. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijlgc.1040034 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
10. Jerome, C., Hasbi, N., & Ting, S. (2024). “Stop being racist”: What Malaysians say about race on social media - A thematic analysis. International Journal of Law, Government and Communication. 9(36), 392-407. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijlgc.936030 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
11. Kovács, G., Alonso, P., & Saini, R. (2021). Challenges of hate speech detection in social media. SN Computer Science, 2(95). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-021-00457-3 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
12. Lam, K., Ting, Y. W., Ang, L., & Hoe, F. (2022). Framing of the Unified Examination Certificate by Malaysian ethnic newspapers. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities. 25(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1163/26659077-25010021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
13. Liew, T. S., & Hassan, H. (2021). The search for national identity in the discourse analysis of YouTube comments. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 17(4), 1806-1821. https://doi.org/10.52462/jlls.131 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
14. Liu, D. (2024). Content moderation, platformised speech governance, and legitimacy: TikTok in South and Southeast Asia. Companion Publication of the 16th ACM Web Science Conference, 27-31. https://doi.org/10.1145/3630744.3658613 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
15. Maity, K., Bhattacharya, S., Saha, S., & Seera, M. (2023). A deep learning framework for the detection of Malay hate speech. IEEE Access, 11, 79542-79552. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3298808 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
16. Manik, D., Tanjung, Y. A., Utomo, A. A., Amelia, A., & Natsir, M. (2026). Discursive toxicity and cyberbullying in TikTok user comments: A critical discourse analysis approach. Student Scientific Creativity Journal, 4(3), 327-338. https://doi.org/10.55606/sscj-amik.v4i3.6177 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
17. Na’im Brundage. [@naimbrundage10]. (2026, May 15). Setinggi mana pun jawatan kita, tetap ada boss kat atas. [Video]. TikTok https://www.tiktok.com/@naimbrundage10/video/7640102336114740498 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
18. Rashid, R. A., & Ding, A. (2025). Online discursive contestations over educational reform in Malaysia’s multiethnic society. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 20(1), 46-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2025.2556724 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
19. Retta, M. (2023). A pragmatic and discourse analysis of hate words on social media. Internet Pragmatics, 6(2), 197-218. https://doi.org/10.1075/ip.00096.ret [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
20. Saidin, M., & Azrun, N. (2024). Digital media and religious sentiments in Malaysia: Critical discourse analysis of Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party and Democratic Action Party cyberspace campaigns in the 15th General Election. Religions. 15(8), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080920 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
21. Salleh, N. A. A. M., & Yusof, M. (2026). Hate speech related to 3R issues in social media: Analysis of directive speech acts. Quantum Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 7(1), 266-273. https://doi.org/10.55197/qjssh.v7i1.1093 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
22. Schmid, U. K., Kümpel, A., & Rieger, D. (2022). How social media users perceive different forms of online hate speech: A qualitative multi-method study. New Media & Society, 26(5), 2614-2632. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221091185 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
23. Xia, N., Yang, Y., & Lee, Y. F. (2018). Chinese education in Malaysia under Malaysian ethnic politics. Journal of Programming Languages, 11(2), 23-36. https://doi.org/10.5539/jpl.v11n2p23 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
24. Zamri, N. A. K., Nasir, N. A. M., Hassim, M., & Ramli, S. M. (2023). Digital hate speech and othering: The construction of hate speech from Malaysian perspectives. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2229089 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]
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