Innovative Teaching in the Digital Age: Exploring the Role of Teachers through Pre-Service Teachers’ Lenses

In the era of rapid digital transformation, the role of teachers extends beyond classroom instruction to include designing innovative digital learning materials. This study explores how pre-service teachers perceive the teacher’s role in digital innovation, particularly in creating engaging and relevant digital learning content and drawing on qualitative data from 42 participants enrolled in a postgraduate teacher education programme in Malaysia, an open-ended online reflection was used to gather participants’ views. Data were analysed thematically following Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework. Three central themes emerged: (1) teachers as designers of digital learning materials tailored to learners’ needs; (2) technological competence and innovation culture; and (3) collaboration and knowledge sharing as enablers of digital practice. Findings indicate that pre-service teachers view teachers as proactive creators who require not only technical skills but also pedagogical creativity, reflective practice, and institutional support. The study proposes a conceptual framework linking digital design, technology integration, and professional collaboration as key components of teacher-led innovation. These insights contribute to understanding how future educators situate themselves within the digital landscape and provide guidance for improving teacher education curricula, professional development, and policy frameworks supporting digital transformation in education.

Pre-Service Teachers

1. L. Meng, "The Changes and Challenges of Educational Technology Innovation on the Role of Teachers," Advances in Educational Technology and Psychology, 2024-01-01 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. O. Trevisan, R. Christensen, K. Drossel, S. Friesen, A. Forkosh-Baruch, and M. Phillips, "Drivers of Digital Realities for Ongoing Teacher Professional Learning," Technol. Knowl. Learn., vol. 29, pp. 1851-1868, 2024-08-02 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Y. Su, "Delving into EFL teachers’ digital literacy and professional identity in the pandemic era: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework," Heliyon, vol. 9, 2023-05-01 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. G. Falloon, "From digital literacy to digital competence: the teacher digital competency (TDC) framework," Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 68, pp. 2449-2472, 2020-03-29 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. O. Wohlfart and I. Wagner, "Teachers’ role in digitalizing education: an umbrella review," Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 71, pp. 339-365, 2022-10-31 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. N. Hamzah, M. Nasir, and J. L. A. Wahab, "The Effects of Principals’ Digital Leadership on Teachers’ Digital Teaching during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Malaysia," Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, 2021-01-01 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. A. S. M. Nordin and B. S. Alias, "Digitalization of Education," International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 2023-06-16 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. M. K. Omar and I. R. Mohmad, "Pedagogy, ICT Skills, and Online Teaching Readiness as Factors on Digital Competency Practices among Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia," Asian Journal of Vocational Education and Humanities, 2023-06-27 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Y. Zou, F. Kuek, W. Feng, and X. Cheng, "Digital learning in the 21st century: trends, challenges, and innovations in technology integration," Frontiers in Education, 2025-03-28 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. J. Aroz, E. Larson, and J. Mandernach, "Fifteen Technologies to Enliven Online Teaching and Learning," eLearn, vol. 2024, 2024-04-10 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. R. Mulenga and H. Shilongo, "Hybrid and Blended Learning Models: Innovations, Challenges, and Future Directions in Education," Acta Pedagogia Asiana, 2024-11-08 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. M. Mushtaq and Z. Iqbal, "Hybrid Pedagogies: Assessing the Effectiveness of Blended and Flipped Learning in Digital Learning Environments," International Journal of Emerging Knowledge Studies, 2024-09-30 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. J. Alivi, "A REVIEW OF TPACK AND SAMR MODELS: HOW SHOULD LANGUAGE TEACHERS ADOPT TECHNOLOGY?," Journal of English for Academic and Specific Purposes, 2019-12-19 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. M. Li and B. Li, "Unravelling the dynamics of technology integration in mathematics education: A structural equation modelling analysis of TPACK components," Educ. Inf. Technol., vol. 29, pp. 23687-23715, 2024-05-30 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. I. Engeness, "Developing teachers’ digital identity: towards the pedagogic design principles of digital environments to enhance students’ learning in the 21st century," European Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 44, pp. 96-114, 2020-11-15 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. T. Volkodav, "Digital Learning Resources In Teaching," 2021-07-15 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. R. Frei-Landau, Y. Muchnik-Rozanov, and O. Avidov-Ungar, "Using Rogers' diffusion of innovation theory to conceptualize the mobile-learning adoption process in teacher education in the COVID-19 era," Education and Information Technologies, vol. 27, pp. 12811-12838, 2022-06-10 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Ü. Çakıroğlu, E. Saylan, I. Çevik, M. Z. Mollamehmetoğlu, and E. Timuçin, "Faculty adoption of online teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic: A lens of diffusion of innovation theory," Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2022-04-23 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. H. Reinius, I. Kaukinen, T. Korhonen, K. Juuti, and K. Hakkarainen, "Teachers as transformative agents in changing school culture," Teaching and Teacher Education, 2022-12-01 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. C. Damşa, M. Langford, D. Uehara, and R. Scherer, "Teachers’ agency and online education in times of crisis," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 121, pp. 106793-106793, 2021-03-25 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. V. A. p. Muniandy and I. Kamsin, "Readiness and Challenges in Implementing Digital Learning," International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2024-11-17 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. K. H. Donald and H. Hashim, "Exploring Digital Education: Experiential Insights of ESL Teachers in Rural Malaysian Schools," International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 2025-01-01 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. C. M. Jeng and M. H. Zaini, "The Level of Use of Digital Technology for Teaching and Learning Purposes Among SJKC Teachers in Seberang Perai Tengah District," International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 2025-04-15 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. S. M. Ibrahim and H. Husnin, "Challenges of Integrating Digital Technology Based Teaching among Secondary School Teachers in Petaling Perdana," International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2025-04-27 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. S. Sulaiman, N. Shaifuddin, and A. Z. H. Samsudin, "Navigating New Horizons: Challenges of Malaysian secondary school teachers in cultivating digital information literacy (dil) competencies," Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 2024-01-17 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. F. Caena and C. Redecker, "Aligning teacher competence frameworks to 21st century challenges: The case for the European Digital Competence Framework for Educators ( Digcompedu)," European Journal of Education, 2019-08-07 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. R. Christine, "European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators:DigCompEdu," 2017-11-01 2017 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. K. Tzafilkou, M. Perifanou, and A. Economides, "Assessing teachers’ digital competence in primary and secondary education: Applying a new instrument to integrate pedagogical and professional elements for digital education," Education and Information Technologies, pp. 1-24, 2023-05-05 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Ł. Tomczyk, "Digital competence among pre-service teachers: A global perspective on curriculum change as viewed by experts from 33 countries," Evaluation and program planning, vol. 105, p. 102449, 2024-05-01 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. D. Dolezal, R. Motschnig, and R. Ambros, "Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competence: A Call for Action," Education Sciences, 2025-01-28 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. R. Tárraga‐Mínguez, C. Suárez-Guerrero, and P. Sanz‐Cervera, "Digital Teaching Competence Evaluation of Pre-Service Teachers in Spain: A Review Study," IEEE Revista Iberoamericana de Tecnologias del Aprendizaje, vol. 16, pp. 70-76, 2021-02-01 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. S. Seufert, J. Guggemos, and M. Sailer, "Technology-related knowledge, skills, and attitudes of pre- and in-service teachers: The current situation and emerging trends," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 115, pp. 106552-106552, 2020-09-06 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. S. Zhang, M. M. Gu, W. Sun, and T. Jin, "Digital literacy competence, digital literacy practices and teacher identity among pre-service teachers," Journal of Education for Teaching, vol. 50, pp. 464-478, 2023-11-18 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. D. Byrne, "A worked example of Braun and Clarke’s approach to reflexive thematic analysis," Quality & Quantity, vol. 56, pp. 1391-1412, 2021-06-26 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. M. Naeem, W. Ozuem, K. Howell, and S. Ranfagni, "A Step-by-Step Process of Thematic Analysis to Develop a Conceptual Model in Qualitative Research," International Journal of Qualitative Methods, vol. 22, 2023-01-01 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. N. Zainal, "TPACK Development in Teacher Education Programs: Malaysian Context," The International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, vol. 6, pp. 237-244, 2016-12-17 2016 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. R. M. Adnan and M. M. Matore, "Development of Adversity Quotient (AQ) index of pre-service teachers in Institute of Teacher Education (IPG)," Frontiers in Public Health, vol. 10, 2022-09-29 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. A. Bohari, W. Wider, L. Jiang, J. Tanucan, S. P. Lim, and S. F. A. Hossain, "Exploring the key factors influencing the adoption of Education 4.0 in the Malaysian institute of teacher education (IPGM)," Asian Education and Development Studies, 2025-04-17 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. P. Näykki, H. Kontturi, V. Seppänen, N. Impiö, and S. Järvelä, "Teachers as learners – a qualitative exploration of pre-service and in-service teachers’ continuous learning community OpenDigi," Journal of Education for Teaching, vol. 47, pp. 495-512, 2021-03-29 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. T. Haşlaman, N. A. Uslu, and F. Mumcu, "Development and in-depth investigation of pre-service teachers' digital competencies based on DigCompEdu: a case study," Quality & Quantity, pp. 1-26, 2023-05-13 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. A. Ngao, G. Sang, and J. Kihwele, "Understanding Teacher Educators’ Perceptions and Practices about ICT Integration in Teacher Education Program," Education Sciences, 2022-08-13 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. W. Xu and K. Zammit, "Applying Thematic Analysis to Education: A Hybrid Approach to Interpreting Data in Practitioner Research," International Journal of Qualitative Methods, vol. 19, 2020-04-10 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. D. Miguel-Revilla, J. M. Martínez-Ferreira, and M. Sánchez-Agustí, "Assessing the digital competence of educators in social studies: An analysis in initial teacher training using the TPACK-21 model," Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 36, pp. 1-12, 2019-09-26 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. C. Sánchez-Cruzado, R. S. Campión, and M. T. S. Compaña, "Teacher Digital Literacy: The Indisputable Challenge After COVID-19," Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1858-1858, 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. F. Nascimbeni, "Rethinking Digital Literacy for Teachers in Open and Participatory Societies," International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1-11, 2018 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. P. A. P. Sudana, M. H. Santosa, N. M. Ratminingsih, N. N. Padmadewi, L. P. S. Adnyani, and L. P. Artini, "Pre-Service Teachers’ Perception of Digital Literacy," Journal of Education Technology, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 677-686, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. A. Ostanina, O. Bazyl, O. Tsviakh, and N. Dovzhuk, "Formation of Digital Competence in Higher Education Students as a Basis for the Transformation of Education of the Future," Futurity Education, pp. 126-135, 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. A. Sadaf, "Exploring Factors That Influence in-Service Teachers' Intentions to Integrate Digital Literacy Into Their Classrooms," 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. X. Wang et al., "Research on Strategies and Methods of Improving Teachers’ Digital Literacy in Classroom Teaching in Higher Vocational Colleges," SHS Web of Conferences, vol. 179, pp. 02016-02016, 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. F. He and L. Wen, "The Relationship Between Digital Resource Allocation and Digital Literacy of Kindergarten Teachers: The Chain Mediating Effect of Self-Efficacy and Learning Motivation," Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 16, 2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. S. Graham, A. A. Collins, and S. Ciullo, "Special and General Education Teachers’ Beliefs About Writing and Writing Instruction," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 163-179, 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. A. O. A. Awofala, O. S. Olabiyi, A. A. Awofala, A. A. Arigbabu, A. O. Fatade, and U. Udeani, "Attitudes Toward Computer, Computer Anxiety and Gender as Determinants of Pre-Service Science, Technology and Mathematics Teachers’ Computer Self-Efficacy," Digital Education Review, no. 36, pp. 51-67, 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. R. Hobbs and S. Tüzel, "Teacher Motivations for Digital and Media Literacy: An Examination of <scp>T</Scp>urkish Educators," Br. J. Educat. Tech., vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 7-22, 2015 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Q. Huifang and H. Jiang, "The Situation and Strategies of Digital Literacy of Rural Music Teachers in China," Advances in Educational Technology and Psychology, vol. 8, no. 1, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. G. Chen, "Construction and Improvement Path of Digital Literacy Evaluation Model for Higher Vocational Teachers Based on Deep Learning and Soft Computing," International Journal of E-Collaboration, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 1-15, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. M. Hakimi, A. K. Shahidzay, A. W. Fazi, and A. Qarizada, "Empirical Assessment of ICT Impact on Teaching and Learning in High Schools: A Study in the Context of Balkh, Afghanistan," Eiki Journal of Effective Teaching Methods, vol. 2, no. 1, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. M. M. L. Moet and A. Kálmán, "Impact of a Professional Learning Community on the Professional Development of Teacher Educators in Myanmar," Opus Et Educatio, vol. 11, no. 2, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. A. H. Mazorodze and P. Mkhize, "Exploring Barriers to Innovation in Higher Education: An Empirical Investigation in Zimbabwe," Sa Journal of Information Management, vol. 26, no. 1, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. E. Dopico, "Pedagogical Debates on Educational Innovation," American Journal of Education and Learning, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 62-71, 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. M. Jacobsen, S. Friesen, and B. Brown, "Teachers' Professional Learning Focused on Designs for Early Learners and Technology," pp. 456-477, 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. G. Kairat and D. Nurmukhanova, "Informal Professional Development of Higher Education Teachers in Kazakhstan," pp. 273-278, 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. S. E. Shadle, A. Marker, and B. Earl, "Faculty Drivers and Barriers: Laying the Groundwork for Undergraduate STEM Education Reform in Academic Departments," International Journal of Stem Education, vol. 4, no. 1, 2017 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. L. H. Affandi, I. Ermiana, and M. Makki, "Effective Professional Learning Community Model for Improving Elementary School Teachers’ Performance," 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. A. Datnow, M. Yoshisato, B. Macdonald, J. Trejos, and B. C. Kennedy, "Bridging Educational Change and Social Justice: A Call to the Field," Educational Researcher, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 29-38, 2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. C. Henderson, A. L. Beach, and N. D. Finkelstein, "Facilitating Change in Undergraduate STEM Instructional Practices: An Analytic Review of the Literature," Journal of Research in Science Teaching, vol. 48, no. 8, pp. 952-984, 2011 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. R. Ata and M. M. Alpaslan, "The Role of Digital Literacy, Epistemological Belief and Reading Motivation and Engagement in Teaching 21st Century Skills," International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 304-317, 2024 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. F. M. Esteve‐Mon, M. Á. Llopis, and J. A. Segura, "Digital Competence and Computational Thinking of Student Teachers," International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (Ijet), vol. 15, no. 02, pp. 29-29, 2020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. M. T. Hidayat, "The Analysis of Teacher’s Belief on Digital Literacy in Forign Language Teaching," English Education and Applied Linguistics Journal (Eeal Journal), vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 36-41, 2019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. M. Özer and A. Kuloğlu, "The Relationship Between Primary School Teachers’ Perceptions of 21st Century Skills and Digital Literacy Level," Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 173-183, 2023 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. A. E. K. Yakubov, "Developing Professional Creative Skills of Future Teachers in the Technology Field of Education," Psychology and Education Journal, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 5021-5028, 2021 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study