A Critical Examination of the Psychosocial Implications of Internal Displacement on Internally Displaced Persons in Nigeria

A Critical Examination of the Psychosocial Implications of Internal Displacement on Internally Displaced Persons in Nigeria

Victoria Oluwayomi, FALUYI

Federal University of Lafia, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8100071

Received: 23 September 2024; Accepted: 04 October 2024; Published: 04 November 2024

ABSTRACT

Internal displacement has been a growing concern worldwide. In Nigeria, internal displacement has been an issue since 1960, with millions of people forced to leave their homes due to violence, natural disasters, and political instability. In 2009, with the prevalence of the Boko-Haram insurgency, more than two million people were stated to be internally displaced. This study examines the physical and social impacts of internal displacement in Nigeria, focusing on the challenges faced by internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the camps. This study reviewed existing literature to highlight the different causes of internal displacement and the psychological, social, and physical impacts on internal displacement and coping mechanisms. In addition, this paper discusses the role of government and non-governmental interventions in providing psychosocial support and addressing the well-being of displaced persons. Finally, this study calls for enhanced policies, improved living conditions, and long-term mental health interventions to ensure a better quality of life for displaced individuals.

Keyword: Internal Displaced Persons (IDPs), Psychosocial implications, internal displacement, Nigeria, coping mechanisms

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 25 million people globally are displaced within their own countries due to various traumatic and unfortunate events. (Ebonyi, 2023). In North-Central and North-West Nigeria, the International Organization for Migration’s (IOM) Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) reported a total of 1,092,196 internally displaced persons as 1,092,196 persons (IDPs) in 2023 (Hembadoon, 2024). The living conditions of these IDPs were significantly below the ideal or expected conditions. When compared with the United Nations Human Rights Declaration of 2012, which states that every individual has the right to a healthy, secure, and clean environment, the conditions in which Nigeria’s IDPs live are dreadful (Akpotor, 2018).

According to the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, IDPs, internally displaced persons comprise individuals who are compelled to leave their homes due to the threats of violence, severe natural or human-made disasters, and violation of human rights. Importantly, these individuals remain within their country and have not crossed their country’s borders to another territory (Deng, 1999; Draper, 2023). Internally displaced persons typically pass through three stages that significantly affect their physical and psychological well-being: pre-displacement incidence, movement, and post-displacement relocation (Ekoh et al., 2022)The pre-displacement stage involves the factors, events, and situations that cause displacement, compelling people to evacuate their homes. The movement stage, or transit, consists of the migration of displaced persons to new accommodation or IDP camps. Finally, the post-displacement relocation involves re-establishing themselves in their previous community or new area.

The Concept of Internal Displacement

Internal displacement is a global phenomenon, although the causes of displacement may vary between countries. In 2020, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) recorded that violence and crises caused the displacement of about 48 million persons worldwide (UNHCR, 2020). According to a global trends report, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Center (IDMC) recorded approximately 16,700 internally displaced persons in 2019, primarily due to various natural disasters such as floods, wildfires, tornados, and earthquakes, which destroyed properties and homes.

Unlike other countries, France has experienced a high rate of internal displacements due to natural disasters rather than crises (IDMC, 2019). IDMC has identified crises and natural disasters as the primary drivers of internal displacements. In countries like Afghanistan, displacement has been driven by a combination of conflict, drought, and other environmental factors. Similarly, the United States has experienced displacement due to wildfires, particularly in California, which has high temperatures and experienced prolonged droughts that have increased fire risks (IDMC, 2021; Oh et al., 2023). In Nigeria, factors such as inadequate education, injustice, insecurity, poor governance, and unemployment have contributed to the displacement of many individuals. These factors are often interconnected, increasing the frustration of the inhabitants, driving them from their homes (Aminu & Ogunjimi, 2019). Africa and Asia have recorded the highest numbers of IDPs globally (Abdulrahman & Muhammad, 2019). This study is aimed to examine the various psychosocial aspects affecting individuals impacted by internal displacement.

CAUSES OF INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT

The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) identifies the major causes of internal displacement as crises and natural disasters (Oh et al., 2023). The increasing prevalence of violent conflict and natural disasters resulting from climate change has significantly escalated the rate of displacement of individuals globally (Hamza et al., 2023). In Nigeria, many individuals are displaced due to natural disasters such as flooding, often triggered by excessive rainfall and the opening of the Cameroon dams, as well as by violent conflicts (Akpotor, 2018).

Koch (2020) categorizes the causes of internal displacement into natural disasters, wars and crises, major construction projects, and increased aggravated crime.  These causes were summarized into the triggers and the drivers in relationship with social, economic, environmental, and political components. The triggers include war and crises, major construction projects, environmental fluctuations, crime, and natural calamities, while the drivers are classified as poverty, system discrimination, disenfranchisement, and marginalization (Koch, 2020).

In Nigeria, the primary causes of internal displacement include lack of adequate education, unemployment, poor governance, inadequate policies and implementation, and insecurity. These factors contribute to poverty exacerbation, disruption of family structure, disturbance of children’s education, instability, crises, and destruction of cultural identity (Surajo et al., 2020). IOM.OIM DTM, (2024) Reported that violence is the primary cause of internal displacement, as shown in Figure 1 (IOM.OIM DTM, 2024).

Akujobi & Awhefeada (2021) further emphasized that the causes of internal displacement are natural and man-made. They highlight that violence, particularly in the form of insurgency and ethnic conflict, is the leading cause of displacement. The Kampala Convention, which encompasses UN’s guiding principles on internal displacement, reinforces this by noting that activities such as suicide attacks, kidnapping, and shootings, especially by groups like Boko Haram, have led to significant displacement and property damage. Additional causes identified include religious and ethnic conflict, such as conflicts between farmers and herdsmen, and environmental disasters like oil spillage. The IDMC recorded in 2019 that natural disasters, including flooding and desertification, are significant contributors to displacement in Nigeria (Akujobi & Awhefeada, 2021).

In Nigeria, the ongoing insurgency by Boko Haram activities has led to the loss of countless lives and displacement of millions; especially in the North-western states like Kano, Sokoto, and Nasarawa, as shown in Figure 1. Natural disasters, terrorism, and religious conflict continue to contribute to internal displacement, particularly in the northeastern regions of Nigeria. These displacements are further increased by inadequate education, unemployment, insecurity, and poor governance (Surajo et al., 2020). Internal displacement results from various natural disasters, including drought, floods, and earthquakes, as well as man-made causes, such as terrorism insurgency, and crisis (Anjorin & Ojebisi, 2022).

Figure 1: Demographic profile of Nigeria showing rates and causes of internal displacement in North-Central and North-Western states (IOM.OIM DTM, 2024).

Social Drivers: Violence, Conflict or War-Driven Internal Displacement

Insecurity, defined as a condition of fear or worry due to insufficient protection, is a significant driver of internal displacement (Akwash & Iliya, 2020). Insurgency, characterized as a revolt or mutiny created by non-combats against established authority, often leads to bloodshed and property loss (Umar et al., 2020a). Globally, about ten thousand people are displaced annually due to war (Ebonyi, 2023; UNHCR, 2020). Boko Haram, a terrorist group established in 2002, has been a primary cause of displacement since the Jihadist group in Northern Nigeria used both locally made and advanced weapons to escalate violence and loss of life (Musa et al., 2021; Umar et al., 2020a).  Over the past decade, Boko Haram’s activities have led to millions of displacements, surpassing the impact of natural disasters and other crises (Ekezie, 2022a).

In 2021, the IDMC recorded that Boko Haram’s insurgency significantly increased the number of IDPs in Nigeria, more so than natural disasters and other crises (Ekoh et al., 2022; Nwabughiogu, 2019; Yusuf & Kubenubu, 2023). Clashes or struggles between the Boko Haram members, herdsmen, farmers, religious and political leaders are the major factors that have increased forceful migration from ancestral lands, homes, and even entire towns in the Northern part of Nigeria to camps available in Central Nigeria (Adesote & Peters, 2015; Yemisi & Tosho, 2021). In Plateau State, religiously motivated violence by herdsmen has led to numerous deaths and displacements. The state has suffered annually from conflicts between herders and farmers (Godfrey & Tafida, 2022). In northeastern Nigeria, Boko Haram’s activities have displaced many people, forcing them into IDP camps (Onyekachi, 2024). Those fleeing from Yobe, Adamawa, and Borno often find refuge in camps such as Area 1 and Drurumi IDP camp in Abuja (Ebonyi, 2023).

In Maiduguri, Borno State, approximately 3.2 million people have been displaced since Boko Haram’s insurgency began in 2009, leading to extensive property destruction and displacement (Ngoshe et al., 2022). The widespread insecurity is partly due to the Nigerian government’s failure to fulfill its responsibilities and promises (Akwash & Iliya, 2020). Boko Haram has inflicted significant physical and psychological pain, particularly on women and girls, through abuse (Amusan & Ejoke, 2017).

Environmental Drivers: Natural Hazard-Related Internal Displacement

Environmental disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, and tsunamis, contribute significantly to disaster-induced displacement. Records indicate that in countries like the United States, natural disasters have displaced more people than wars and crises (Koch, 2020). In Nigeria, about two million persons are forced to migrate due to natural disasters as recorded by the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) (Okon, 2018).

Floods, the most reported natural disaster globally, have caused extensive damage, displacing around 2.8 billion people worldwide over the past 30 years. Flood types include flash floods, urban floods, riverine floods, and coastal floods, each causing enormous damage to property, infrastructure, and businesses while heightening vulnerability to disease. For instance, Lagos State in Nigeria experiences frequent flooding during its rainy season. The effect was further exacerbated by factors such as building on flood plains, inadequate drainage maintenance, unregulated urban growth, improper stormwater drainage, unregulated growth of non-absorbent surfaces, and limited institutional capability. Lagos is ranked 15^th globally in terms of population and risk of coastal flooding (Louw et al., 2019).

Political Drivers: Major Construction and Development Project-Related Internal Displacement

The rate of political instability in Nigeria has led to the inability of the government to maintain law and order and to provide basic amenities. Yabiliyok and Bniyet-Njei (2024) reported that the lack of documentation is a significant issue, as most documentation has been lost during the political handover. This has increased the rate of banditry in the country (Yabiliyok & Baniyet-Njei, 2023). Major construction projects, such as mining operations and railway development, also contribute to internal displacement, particularly in urban areas. Annually, 10 to 15 million people are displaced due to such development projects. These projects are usually being proposed by the government without any consideration for the residents of the areas, often leading to forced relocation, resulting in loss of homes and livelihoods, and contributing to the cycle of poverty and displacement (Koch, 2020).

Economic Drivers:  Crisis and Wars-Driven Displacement

Economic factors, including poverty, unemployment, and economic disparities, drive internal displacement significantly. Terrorism has further weakened the economies of affected regions, particularly in Nigeria’s North-East. Adekola et al. (2022) reported that Boko Haram’s insurgency has devastated the region’s economic activities, including the destruction of farmlands, banks, and markets. This has made life extremely difficult, leading many internally displaced people to prefer remaining in IDP camps rather than returning to their original residences (Adekola et al., 2022). The high rates of poverty have also led to an increase in kidnapping and armed banditry, as shown in Figure 1 (IOM.OIM DTM, 2024; Wajim, 2020).

PSYCHOSOCIAL IMPLICATION

IDPs face severe physical and psychological challenges in various camps. These challenges include health issues such as malnutrition, diarrhea, malaria and mental health problems like PTSD and depression (Lawal et al., 2022). Mental health issues, particularly PTSD, are often linked to the traumatic experiences associated with conflict-driven displacement. This trauma can also lead to substance abuse, such as smoking and drinking, as coping mechanisms (Adimula & Ijere, 2018). In the Walari IDP camp in Maiduguri, psychological problems have been attributed to unemployment, the destruction of family and social structures, and the ongoing threat of violence (Ajiboye et al., 2014; Haruna et al., 2017).

In situations of insecurity and crisis, psychosocial services are crucial for the well-being of affected individuals (Umesi, 2022). In Borno’s IDP camps, various organizations have introduced Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) services, utilizing counselors, social workers, and healthcare professionals. These services often involve group counseling and recreational activities to support mental health (Umesi, 2022).

Social support plays a critical role in improving the emotional, psychological, and physical health of IDPs (Lawrence, 2019). Displacement due to disasters and war often leads to severe psychological and mental disorders, compounded by traumatic life experiences such as lack of access to water, food, shelter, and medical care, as well as exposure to violence, abuse, and the loss of loved ones (Shimelash Yasegnal, 2023). In Benue State, the impacts of displacement include homelessness, poverty, child labor, malnutrition, sexual abuse, and an increase in crime rates (Discourse et al., 2022). Many IDPs face ongoing challenges related to food, health and shelter (Yusuf & Kubenubu, 2023).

Psychological Implication

Psychological support is a crucial intervention for individuals who have faced traumatizing experiences, helping them to recover from the emotional impact of these events (Umesi, 2022). The psychological implications of insurgency and displacement include the breakdown of family structure, experiences of rape or sexual abuse, heightened anxiety, depression, and anger, all of which severely affect the emotional and mental health of individuals. Common symptoms among internally displaced persons (IDPs) include Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression (Magaji et al., 2024). In Nigeria, mental health and psychosocial support (MPHSS), such as those run by the United Nations International Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), have been implemented to address the psychological and social needs of displaced populations. However, these agencies face significant challenges in meeting the complex needs of IDPs (Umesi, 2022).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder PTSD

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a primary mental health condition marked by intrusive memories, nightmares, heightened vigilance, avoidance behaviors and emotional detachment. For many IDPs, these symptoms make it difficult to move on from their traumatic experiences, leading to further complications such as self-destruction, addiction, and self-inflicted harm (Tesfaye et al., 2024). Trauma, often a result of intense psychological stress, emotional strain, or physical harm is a common precursor to PTSD (Adimula & Ijere, 2018). For instance, reports indicate that many parents of the Chibok girls who Boko Haram abducted have suffered trauma, leading to a decline in their health and, in some cases, death (Terwase et al., 2015). PTSD symptoms are typically classified into re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance symptoms and hyper-arousal symptoms (Oteyi, 2020).

Depression

Depression, along with stress and anxiety, is commonly observed among adult IDPs. These conditions often result from poor living conditions, lack of healthcare access, and lack of physical and psychological support. As a result, IDPs experience higher levels of stress, anxiety and depression which negatively impact their daily activities and overall well-being (Keynejad et al., 2018; Ning et al., 2019; Rajapakshe et al., 2019). The ongoing sadness, worry, anxiety, and tension make it challenging for IDPs to maintain regular daily routines and contribute to a cycle of poor mental health (Bhattacharyya et al., 2014). Research carried out by Salihu et al. (2022) reported that people >50 years old are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and stress due to the separation from their partners or friends (Salihu et al., 2022b).

Substance use and dependence: Aluh et al. (2024) reported that over 66.2% of the IDP screened during their research in Borno State were users of substances like bitter kola, anabolic steroids, sleeping pills, and kola nut (Aluh et al., 2024). Elkholy et al. (2023) reported that in order to manage chronic disease and acute emergency treatment, some forcibly displaced people use medications like methadone (or opioids) (Elkholy et al., 2023).

Social withdrawal, isolation, suicidal ideation and self-harm: IDPs often face extreme hardships that can adversely affect their mental health, sometimes giving them the feeling that no one can understand or help them, driving them to withdraw from society. Several research studies have shown that there is a severe rate of suicidal ideation among IDPs aged 18-30, females, illiterate, and unmarried (Tay et al., 2019). Salah et al. (2013) noted that about 9 out of 1876 IDPs are suicidal (Salah et al., 2013).

Developmental and behavioral issues in children: Children in IDP camps are highly vulnerable due to the disruption of their typical environment and the need for unique health and physical needs  (Salami et al., 2020). Owoaje et al. (2016) reported that in Nigeria, the rate of physical health problems among children includes 85% facing major physical health problems such as fever/malaria, 52% experiencing malnutrition and stunted growth, 62% experiencing diarrhea, and 45% acute respiratory infections. He also reported that a range of 42-54% were diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder, and 31-72% were diagnosed with depression (Owoaje et al., 2016).

Physical Implication

In Benue State, internal displacement has resulted in significant physical hardships, including lack of accommodation and increased safety risks as individuals are forced to leave their homes (Discourse et al., 2022). The activities of Boko Haram have increased the level of poverty, disrupted access to clean water supply, and caused an increase in school dropouts, particularly in Wulari camp in Maiduguri (Ebonyi, 2023; Haruna et al., 2017).

Shelter

Shelter conditions in many IDP camps, such as those in Area 1, are described as appalling, with inadequate comfort (Olanrewaju et al., 2019). Many IDPs are forced to seek refuge in host communities without government support. These individuals face numerous challenges, including safety concerns, lack of support, absence of rehabilitation, and poor health services (Ekezie, 2022b; Gwadabe et al., 2018; Oluwasanmi et al., 2017). Moreover, many IDP camps are not officially recognized by the government, leading to a lack of access to relief materials and healthcare support. Formal camps tend to be better supported than non-formal ones, where poor sanitation, inadequate toilet facilities, and other unhealthy conditions expose IDPs to diseases and bacterial infections (Ekezie, 2022b).

Lack of access to education

IDPs in most camps struggle to afford fees and other necessities for their children’s education. The New Kuchingoro IDP camp in Abuja has reported a lack of staff and facilities for their school (Olanrewaju et al., 2019). Occasionally, the government sponsors some children’s education (Ebonyi, 2023).

Social Implication

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) face numerous social challenges, including lack of access to basic amenities, poor healthcare facilities, poverty, job loss, disrupted relationships, inadequate capital for business, improper garbage disposal system, lack of standard education, social isolation, and loss of freedom (Magaji et al., 2024). In Abuja’s IDP camps, these issues are compounded by the absence of social and emotional support, poor living conditions, and pervasive loneliness (Ebonyi, 2023). The scarcity of job opportunities has been a significant challenge affecting IDPs’ financial problems, particularly for low-income families (Jadoo et al., 2019). Many displaced families have struggled to find reliable sources of income, with a significant portion living in rented homes. Approximately 20.6% of mothers had to work to support their households due to loss of the primary breadwinner or increased expenses. The impact of internal displacement extends to household income, access to food, education, and healthcare (Muzemil et al., 2023). Additional social implications include poverty, the destruction of family structure, loss of cultural identity, students’ dropouts, absence of peace, and instability. IDPs also suffer from inadequate food, healthcare services, and financial assistance. Discrimination further exacerbates their vulnerability, leading to additional trauma (Surajo et al., 2020).

The conditions for displaced persons are often harsh, with many suffering from inadequate water, sanitation, and healthcare services (Salihu et al., 2022a). Displacement due to conflict has both mental and physical impacts on individuals, increasing their risk of sexual violence, attacks, and insufficient access to essential resources such as food, healthcare, and accommodation (IDMC, 2021; Onuh, 2022).

Health implication

An examination of the IDP camps in northern Nigeria, including Boron, Abuja, Taraba, Plateau, Nasarawa, and Kano states, reveals that while organizations like the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) have provided health programs such as vaccinations, these efforts are often unpredictable, inadequate, and suffer from a lack of staff and reliability (Ekezie, 2022b). The harsh conditions displaced persons face include inadequate water, sanitation, and healthcare services. Displacement due to conflict has both mental and physical effects on individuals. NGOs in Borno State have primarily focused on addressing sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), HIV/AIDS, vaccination, health screening, epidemiology and surveillance, hygiene, and other health needs of IDPs (Salihu et al., 2022a). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer, and hypertension have been recorded as significant health issues with harmful adaptive mechanisms (Adimula & Ijere, 2018). Adults and children experience stress due to terrorist activities (Oteyi, 2020). Medical facilities not funded by the government are often non-functional (Olanrewaju et al., 2019). Many camps report high rates of illnesses such as diarrhea, typhoid, malaria, eye infections, and attacks from animals like snakes, mosquitoes, and scorpions. Additionally, there have been many deaths due to hunger and starvation (Ekezie, 2022b).

AGE AND GENDER INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT

Women and children constitute the majority of the population in Nigerian IDP camps. NEMA reported that about 209,577 children between 1-5 years old suffered from diseases like vomiting, diarrhea, malaria, and malnutrition (Akpotor, 2018). Vulnerable groups such as women, children, and older people are affected more by insurgency activities, leading to the destruction of homes and resources, which in turn results in widows and orphans. These groups must fend for themselves after being forcefully displaced from their comfortable environments to harsh, unconducive ones (Umar et al., 2020b)According to the IDMC (2024), 18-59 is the most prevalent age among IDPs in northern Nigeria, immediately followed by 12-17, as shown in Figure 2.

In Maiduguri, organizations like the Nigerian Red Cross, UNICEF, and various NGOs have provided services to displaced people, especially orphans, widows, and disabled persons within the camp (Umesi, 2022). To cope with the emotional toll of displacement, women in Adamawa and Abuja have adopted activities like praying, playing games, and participating in group discussions. However, in Lagos IDP camps, women often resort to unhealthy coping mechanisms such as begging, hawking, sex work, and cleaning, which exposes them to more significant harm (Ebonyi, 2023; Oyefara & Alabi, 2016).

Figure 2: Trends in internal displacement persons (IDPs) showing gender and age group analysis from 2013 to 2023 (IDMC, 2024).

Elderly

Elderly individuals, in many cases, have been abandoned by their families due to their dependency on the younger ones (Ekoh et al., 2023; IDMC, 2012). In Lugbe, elderly IDPs recorded persistent financial insecurity, anxiety, and worry, as well as personal health issues (Ekoh et al., 2022). Due to their age and declining activity levels, older IDPs are often alienated from many social activities. They encounter a decline in social connections, support networks, and societal positions and responsibilities (Ekoh et al., 2023).

Adult Female

In most camps, women, who represent the highest population alongside children, face numerous challenges, such as lack of security, restricted mobility, and psychological problems, including trauma and fear (Haruna et al., 2017). These issues often result from the sudden migration and loss of properties and loved ones.  While many displaced families manage to find stable income sources, a significant number of them reside in rented accommodations. Approximately 20.6% of mothers are forced to work to contribute to the household expenses, often due to the absence of the primary breadwinner or rising costs (Jadoo et al., 2019). In northern Nigeria, IDPs account for nearly 50% of the population, with 56% being children and 44% being adult males and females, primarily due to crises. Women and children are more vulnerable to the effect of displacement, with women often suffering from abuse such as rape, human trafficking, and forced prostitution. These abuses can lead to severe psychological problems. Children, on the other hand, may face forced labor, theft, and lack of access to formal education (Akpotor, 2018). Women are also at risk of  poor mental health due to exposure to rape and lack of medical attention (Johnson & Thompson, 2008; Pham et al., 2021; Vinck et al., 2007). Many women have been forced to migrate due to Boko Haram’s activities, leading to both physical and psychological trauma as a result of losing family members and jobs and experiencing painful events. In IDP camps, women are often subjected to sexual harassment, physical abuse, and other forms of violence, including rape, child labor or trafficking, sexually transmitted disease, and unwanted pregnancies (Adimula & Ijere, 2018). In Yobe, women are more prone to poor mental and psychological health than men, who are more exposed to dangerous events. PTSD and depression may develop due to lack of medical treatment, rape, and violence (Musa et al., 2021). Rape victims in Borno state IDP camps suffered from discrimination, stigmatization, and isolation.

Adult Male

Although women report higher levels of psychological stress, men are at greater risk of being exposed to traumatic events (Magaji et al., 2024). Research by Kaiser et al. (2020) indicates that men are more  vulnerable to attacks, making them more at risk than women (Kaiser et al., 2020).

Children and Adolescents

Figure 2 shows that a large amount of IDPs are children from ages 0-11, including a high number of infants (IDMC, 2024). Children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the hardships faced during displacement (Onyekachi, 2024). Teenagers and younger children are the most at risk due to their developmental stage and lack of resources (Veronese et al., 2022). Many children suffer from psychological trauma due to Boko Haram’s activities, which often make it difficult or impossible for their parents to provide for them (Terwase et al., 2015). According to Rushing and Joe, individuals with disabilities, youth, and older people are the three most vulnerable groups among IDPs (Haruna et al., 2017). Children are especially vulnerable because they cannot provide for their daily needs as adults can (Kaiser et al., 2020).

COPING MECHANISM

The neglect of internally displaced persons (IDPs) has forced them to rely on self-help, creating support networks within their communities. This support primarily covers emotional aspects (Ekezie, 2022b). In Abuja, IDPs have adopted coping mechanisms such as joint farming, leading to the creation of IDP farms in Auta-Balefi, Nassarawa State. They are also involved in activities like trading and receive support from the government, NGOs, and charitable organizations, and by utilizing motorcycles for transportation (Ba-Ana-Itenebe, 2021).

Internal displacement is a global phenomenon that forces individuals to leave their homes. Coping mechanisms among IDPs include religious activities and connections, restoring to high-risk survival strategies, and meaning-making strategies. High-risk survival strategies such as exchanging sex for necessities, were more prevalent among females in an unofficial camp. Religious activities provide inner strength, helping IDPs cope with hardship and previous traumatic events. These activities include attending religious events, praying, and singing spiritual songs. Meaning-making strategies involve attributing a sense to their displacement, often framed through religious beliefs, with some IDPs attributing the Boko Haram insurgency to divine reasons. Consequently, it is recommended that humanitarian organizations address basic needs, especially for females, to prevent high-risk survival strategies like exchanging sex for money. Addressing these needs through the provision of relief materials is essential (Onyekachi, 2024). IDPs in Adamawa and Abuja identified prayer and inspirational religious beliefs as crucial coping mechanisms. Economic activities include vocational skills acquisition. A significant challenge faced by IDPs is the lack of education and certification. For example, IDPs in Area 1 engage in knitting to alleviate psychological distress and riding bikes as a source of income (Ebonyi, 2023).

INTERVENTION OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS NGOS, GOVERNMENT, AND CONCERNED BODIES OR INDIVIDUAL

The Kampala Convention or African Union Convention for the Assistance and Protection of IDPs in Africa, was established to protect IDPs but has failed in Nigeria (Yemisi & Tosho, 2021). According to Nwaogwugwu & Ngor (2017), in Northern Nigeria, in collaboration with NGOs, the government has attempted to improve IDP conditions by providing relief materials and establishing camps, a practice not prevalent in southern regions. This discrepancy has led to health problems, insecurity, food and water shortages, sexual abuse, and overcrowding (Nwaogwugwu & Ngor, 2017). Food, medicine, and shelter are among the most pressing needs addressed by Nigerian government and NGOs (Simon, 2021; Yusuf & Kubenubu, 2023). Both the Nigerian government and international bodies consider the problems faced by IDPs as significant (Yemisi & Tosho, 2021).

While NGOs have made efforts to address the needs of IDPs, these efforts have not fully met their requirements. The government must strive to build the trust of IDPs that NGOs alone cannot achieve. The government should work closely with NGOs, even though their activities differ based on specialization. NGOs have often filled the gap left by the government, SEMA (State Emergency Management Agency), and NEMA (National Emergency Management Agency) by providing essential needs for IDPs (Anjorin et al., 2022).

The primary strategies include religious, recreational, cultural, and communal activities, providing basic amenities, educational systems, vocational training centers, financial assistance, and counseling services (Magaji et al., 2024). Although the Nigerian government has not adequately addressed the situation of IDPs, international guiding principles attribute the responsibility of providing for and securing IDPs to the government. Significant challenges in IDP camps include the lack of documentation and legal protection, limited access to education, inadequate security, trauma, and insufficient accommodation. For instance, the New Kuchigoro IDP camp has only one building constructed by a French NGO, with the government providing tents made from cement bags instead of standard accommodation. Other challenges include a lack of employment opportunities. NGOs and churches have helped bridge these gaps by providing skill training and resources for income generation. Some NGOs have donated health facilities, which IDPs cannot access due to financial constraints, leading to many deaths as they cannot afford hospital services (Onuh, 2022). Due to poor governance, policies developed in 2003 based on the United Nations Guiding Principle on Internal Displacement (1982) have not been approved (Olawale & Tosho, 2021).

Government

Despite federal government interventions, the needs of elderly IDPs in Nigeria have not been adequately addressed. No policies have been formed to tackle these issues (Ekoh et al., 2023). Various displacements led to the creation of IDP camps, which are managed by the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) and State Emergency Management Agency (SEMA). These agencies aim to provide psychosocial support for IDPs (Akpotor, 2023). These bodies are governed by the Emergency Management Agency Act, designed to provide resources for people affected by natural and man-made disasters and to establish rehabilitation facilities. However, these standards have not been met, leading to inadequate structures and overcrowding (Yusuf & Kubenubu, 2023)Government funding has been a significant challenge for IDPs in Nigerian camps (Olanrewaju et al., 2019).

When compared to the United Nations Human Rights Declaration of 2012, which states that every individual has the right to enjoy a healthy, secure, and clean environment, the condition of the IDPs in Nigeria is dire. In summary, it is recommended that the government collaborates with charitable NGOs to provide basic needs like food, water, accommodation, healthcare services, sanitation, and safety (Akpotor, 2023).

Although some displaced families have managed to find a stable income, many still reside in rented accommodations. Approximately 20.6% of mothers had to work to contribute to household expenses due to the absence of the leading family provider or rising costs (Jadoo et al., 2019).

Non-Governmental Organization NGOs

In addressing the problems faced by IDPs, NGOs have placed a crucial role in building trust, often surpassing government agencies like NEMA and SEMA (Anjorin et al., 2022). Individual and group interventions and religious organizations have also helped fill the gaps left by the government. The New Kuchingoro IDP camp in Abuja relies heavily on NGOs, particularly faith-based organizations (FBOs), for food supplies. In the Kuje IDP camp, FEMA and NEMA primarily act as relief materials intermediaries (Olanrewaju et al., 2019).

6.3 Other intervention groups include faith-based organizations, religious groups, community-based organizations, charitable individuals and groups, and international organizations.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the psychosocial challenges internally displaced persons face in Abuja, Nigeria, are profound and multifaceted. Displacement not only disrupts the physical lives of individuals but also profoundly affects their emotional and social well-being. IDPs in Abuja camps face a range of issues, including mental health disorders such as PTSD, anxiety, and depression, compounded by inadequate access to essential services like healthcare and sanitation. While the government and NGOs have tried to mitigate these challenges, there is still a significant need for more comprehensive and sustainable interventions. Strengthening psychosocial support systems and improving living conditions in IDP camps are critical steps toward addressing the long-term impacts of displacement. Policymakers, humanitarian organizations, and mental health professionals must collaborate to implement solutions that prioritize the psychosocial health and overall well-being of displaced populations.

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