An Analysis of the Causes, of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

An Analysis of the Causes, of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

Thembani Gaswa, Kelly Mangundu, Parmela Nyungu, Patson Chawuruka

Bachelor of Commerce Degree in Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Women University in Africa

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90400508

Received: 06 April 2025; Accepted: 16 April 2025; Published: 24 May 2025

ABSTRACT

The study focussed on analysing the causes of Traffic congestion in Masvingo city, in Zimbabwe in the 2017 to 2022 period. The study was carried out to address issues of congestion that were experienced from the morning, mid-day to evening in major streets and roads in Masvingo. These forms of traffic had been associated with intermittent traffic jams, long queues, and the suffering of motorists and passengers.  The study adopted a pragmatic research philosophy that applied a cross-sectional survey of 154 survey questionnaires and a case study of 3 in-depth interviews were used to collect data. Quota sampling and judgmental sampling were used for selecting the research participants. The study established that Poor driving practices, unwelcome weather conditions, narrow, rough, and potholed roads, ongoing road works and rehabilitation, road closures, and an increase in the use of small occupancy personal vehicles ranked among the major causes of congestion in Masvingo city. The study also showed that being part of the Harare -Beitbridge highway topped as a reason for the city to experience congestion. The researcher recommends further studies to be carried out on ways of improving operational performance of ZUPCO franchise in Masvingo Urban Commuting System.

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

Traffic congestion in Masvingo City required much attention as there were noticeable negative implications to the various stakeholders, hence demanding detailed research. This Chapter presents the background details leading to the research, research objectives, research questions, research hypothesis, assumptions of the study, significance of the study, delimitation of the study and limitation of the study. This enabled the development of a proper framework of the research problem and highlighting areas requiring more focus.

1.1 Background to the Study

According to a study carried out by World Health Organisation in May 1991, the number of people living in towns and cities the world over continues to rise. Share of the urban population by continent between 1950 and 2020 shows that the number of people living in urban areas has ever been increasing. Continent of Africa is rapidly experiencing urbanisation as evidenced by the growth of its megacities and that of its smaller towns and cities (Maunder 2005).

Fig 1.1 World Population by Continent: U.N Population Division 1991

Population of Africa is ever increasing (The World Bank, 2018). This was evidenced by data on number of people living in sampled countries. In Southern Africa Development Cooperation (SADC) region, proportion of SADC population which was urban by each country classification was 36.5% in 2000, rising to 46.5% in 2020 (Simpson 2003). This is expected to rise by 2030 which implies growth of the urban population of 3.8%.  This rise can be attributed to various reasons which include rural urban migration, influx of people from other town and cities and immigration in search of opportunities. The rise in number of people in any place naturally puts a strain on available resources including land and transport (Maunder, 2005.

In towns and cities, there is a general obsession by residents to travel to City centres to access goods and services (Banister 2007). With better transport and land use planning strategies, goods and services can be accessed within people’s neighbourhood thereby putting paid need to travel (Bvepfepfe, 2016). The perception that leads to exodus of people to the city centre on a daily basis in search of goods and services puts a strain on transport demand leading to congestion. There is great mobility of people for various reasons. The city of Masvingo is currently experiencing traffic congestion. Table 1.1 depict average urban population of Masvingo and most residents are cars owners and users.

Table 1.1 Showing Population Growth in past 10 Year in City of Masvingo

Source: Population Services Zimbabwe: 2022

In all towns and cities of the world including Zimbabwe, people find their way to city or town centre through use of   motorised forms of transport. Motorised transport is comprised of private small occupancy vehicles, buses, commuter trains, taxis and midi busses (Faulks, 2009). It would appear there is a mismatch between the country’s vehicle, public and private population, infrastructure and the people. Just like all towns and cities world over, Masvingo city is currently experiencing an unprecedented demand of transport leading to unsustainable levels of congestions. A smaller percentage of the people use non-motorised forms of transport. It is these motorised forms of transport that cause congestion.

Figure 1.2 Areal View of Masvingo City: Source: masvingocity.org.zw

Masvingo city is located in the southern province of the country called Masvingo Province and it is the province’s capital City with a population of estimated at +/- 100 000 residents (Census, 2012). It is almost centrally located, as it is equidistant to six major urban settlements in the country namely Harare, Bulawayo, Beitbridge, Gweru, Kwekwe, and Mutare. The city has the following low- and high-density suburb, namely Mucheke, Rujeko, Runyararo West, Eastvale and Target Kopje, Morning side, Clipsharm Park, and Rhodene and Bradfield. There is one central hub which is centre of commercial activity in the city and this is the   central business district ( CBD).

Figure 1.3 Traffic Congestion in Masvingo stretching from Masvingo Poly to J.Tongogara Street: Source: Masvingo Mirror

Unlike other cities in Zimbabwe like Harare which has regional centres like Westgate, Semi Levi, High Glen and Highlands, Masvingo city does not have these functional regional centres. Absence of the regional centres sees working population in the town driving to town every morning and back home in the evening. This puts pressure on all major roads leading into town in terms of travel demand. There is substantial demand for transport in all towns and cities Masvingo included. High volume of traffic in Masvingo is characterised by high usage of small occupancy vehicles (SOVs) and it is also being part of a major passage way linking Beitbridge and Chirundu.

A wide number of different approaches to managing the demand for transport have been in use. These include physical restrictions on car use, measures to enable/encourage the use of public transport, use of bus lanes and other priority measures for buses, measures to encourage walking/cycling, use of cycle lanes and user charges. There are also general conventional traffic management measures which include one-way streets, redesign of junctions, banned u-turns and right/left turns, controls and charging for on-street parking/off street parking (Gubbins 2003). These measures have been shown to have beneficial impacts on travel time and on accidents, and typically to repay the costs of implementation. However, it must be observed that some of these measures are the ones in use in the city of Masvingo but they have not been able to offer sustainable solutions to issue of congestion. This makes research on congestion in city of Masvingo imperative.

It would appear that the Masvingo City Council does not seem to have sustainable, measures to address the madness in demand for transport in the city presently. What is needed are not direct ways to address this. There appears to be an obsession by authorities to address symptoms of congestion instead of causes. The underlying things in addressing congestion are land- use measures where people and communities can be persuaded to know and appreciate that they can access goods and services within their local space than far afield (Farahani 2011). There seems to be one node in Masvingo and this is the central business district. Deep and underlying issue is about land use strategies and how to persuade communities not to travel through transport planning. Emphasis of City authorities has been on other direct transport demand management measures as opposed to land use strategies that are sustainable.

With better land use planning, goods and services can be accessed within people’s locality. Most research in area of congestion management has centred on direct demand management measures (Chirisa, 2021). A gap exists in terms of sustainable measures that can be utilised to keeps cities and town centres congestion free of vehicle and human traffic. Congested roads in the morning rush hours to city centre bear testimony to this. Roads are no longer trafficable. Present land use planning tends to promote movement of people towards city centre where most services and amenities are found.

According to ZIMSTATS 2021, Masvingo city has an average population of approximately 100,000 people most of who pass through city centre every day for various reasons. The population of Masvingo has been growing by an average of 1.5% every year. The thrust of land use planning   in the City of Masvingo has not been vigorous enough as to see huge development of regional centres where people can access goods and services (Kanyepe,2021). For this reason, people continue to shun regional centres because either they do not exist or those that exist fail to offer meaningful services and amenities that people seek. For example, Nemamwa Growth Point is a typical example of a regional centre. However, it has not been fully developed and this naturally leaves people with no options except to travel all the way to, Masvingo city.

In Masvingo for example, there are no shops that sell furniture at Nemamwa Growth Point and other nearby regional centres like Mashava. This motivates people living in and around these places to travel to Masvingo city in search of certain products, services and amenities thereby increasing travel demand leading to congestion in the city.

Transport is central to upliftment of living standards of people in any country. Transport also has a critical role in the movement of goods and services along the supply chain. However, as traffic continues to grow, the environmental threats that it poses will gradually outweigh these benefits if left unchecked, hence, the need for a sustainable transport system in the Cities (Mbara, 2015). This means that transport should not consume more resources, including land, than can be seen to be available for the foreseeable future. It is against this background that this study is being carried out to analyse the cause of traffic congestion in the city of Masvingo.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The city of Masvingo is experiencing unprecedented and unsustainable levels of vehicle and human traffic congestion (City of Masvingo Strategic Plan 2012). While in the past congestion in the city could be experienced particularly during morning, afternoon and evening peak hours, it is pertinent to say that congestion is now being experienced throughout the day in Masvingo. The congestion is evidenced by long queues of slow-moving vehicles lining up the roads from residential areas to city centre. The queues will be characterised by stop start movements of vehicles. Traffic jams at intersections are now very common. Officers from Zimbabwe Republic Police are often seen at intersections assisting traffic to have smooth passage.  The level of congestion has negatively affected inbound and outbound logistics in the city. It now takes a lot of time to reach places like markets, work places, and medical services, educational and other desired destinations. There appears to be no clear cut measures to address congestion in the city apart from a few like levying of parking fees. Current measures are not deterring people from using their private vehicles to the city centre and taming of congestion remains very elusive. If congestion is not addressed, general smooth functioning of supply chain operations will be adversely affected as they rely on an efficient transport system. All supply chain activities of sourcing, procurement, and warehousing, logistics, distribution and manufacturing and inventory management will be greatly affected.

It is against this background that this study is being carried out in an effort to investigate the causes of  traffic congestion in the city of Masvingo

1.3 Research Objectives

The study seeks to address the following main and specific objectives

1.3.1 Main objective

Establish underlying causes of traffic congestion in the City of Masvingo

1.3.2 Specific objective

1.3.2.1 Find out the impact of congestion on supply chain operations in city of Masvingo.

1.3.2.2. Establish measures that can be employed to reduce congestion in the City of Masvingo

1.4 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following questions:

• What are the possible underlying causes of traffic congestion in the City of Masvingo?
• What is the impact of traffic congestion in the city of Masvingo?
• What measures can be employed in reducing congestion in city of Masvingo?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

H₀:  There is a significant relationship between basic issues of traffic congestion and the measures for addressing traffic congestion in Masvingo City.

H₁: There is no significant relationship between basic issues of traffic congestion and the measures for addressing traffic congestion in Masvingo City.

1.6 Assumptions of The Study

The assumptions of the study are that:

1.5.1 The research subjects have knowledge on causes, effects and possible solutions to traffic congestion.

1.5.2 The urban traffic flow remains the same during the study period.

• Managing traffic congestion is critical in a city like Masvingo

1.7 Significance of the Study

Congestion is a development that is fast affecting all towns and cities in Zimbabwe. Masvingo city is no exception. The rationale of this study is to find not only practical but sustainable measures for City of Masvingo authorities to address congestion. The benefits of this study have spill over effects to other towns and cities in efforts to address same challenges.  Congestion has far reaching consequences especially in slowing down performance of the economy of any country. Supply chains efficiency relies on efficient transport systems. An efficient transport system is one that is free of congestion and accidents, there is no way this will be achieved if issue of congestion is not resolved.

The study is significant in that it will assist evaluate adequacy of current transport demand management measures in the city and present Masvingo Council with an opportunity to deal with same.

1.7.1 The Researcher

The researcher will benefit from the study as he will be exploring and expanding knowledge on variables surrounding provision of congestion management. The researcher will as well acquire knowledge in conducting research studies. Research project is also a requirement towards fulfilment of the Degree in Logistics and Supply Chain Management at Reformed Church University.

1.7.2 Body of Knowledge

The study contributes knowledge to existing body of knowledge with regards to sustainable transport provision in Zimbabwe and world over. It will enhance thrust of local authorities and other stakeholders of industry to focus on proper and sustainable land use measures that will contribute to sustainable mobility. It will assist stakeholders to direct their effort accordingly by focusing on demand congestion management measures that are sustainable.

1.7.3 Masvingo City Council

The City of Masvingo is battling in taming traffic jungle due to unsustainable levels of congestion. Congestion comes with its own attended problems in terms of spill over effects of accidents, emissions, noise and delays. The Council will therefore benefit by way of getting technical solutions on how to resolve congestion in the city centre. A congestion-free city is capable of attracting investment.

1.7.4 The Economy

Efficient transport system is the backbone of every economy (Gubbins 2003). Masvingo is very strategic to the economy of Zimbabwe by providing a direct link with Port of  Beitbridge. The economy of Zimbabwe will be set to benefit from a congestion-free environment as goods and services will flow without hindrance. Supply chains depend on smooth and efficient transport systems. The city of Masvingo is regarded as a strategic gateway for inbound and outbound logistics.

1.7.5 Commuting Public

The commuting public is the worst-hit constituency by congestion. Travel burden is borne by travellers. The study will culminate in ways to develop an efficient transport system in the country which will guarantee people ease of mobility and accessibility.

1.7.6 Environment

This study will lead to the provision of a more sustainable transport system in the oldest city of Zimbabwe Masvingo city. A sustainable transport system will reduce accidents, emissions, pollution and noise. This is very significant as it promotes green logistics and is well-aligned with the global thrust on environmentalism.

1.7.7 Supply Chain Operations.

The provision of goods and services is a function of various supply chain systems and networks working together. Such networks can only function smoothly if there is a good transport system. All supply chain activities of sourcing procurement, warehousing, distribution, inventory management, logistics and manufacturing are underpinned by good and efficient transport systems. This study is significant as it will provide solutions to smooth movement of goods and services to the City and country at large.

1.7.8 Community Development

The study is expected to influence the development of regional centres in the city of Masvingo. Regional centres will assist bring goods and services to people’s neighbourhoods. This will naturally persuade people not to travel since what they required in the City centre would be now obtainable within reach.  The study has great potential to influence policy formulation at local and central Government levels.

Urban mass transportation is one of the key priority areas for urban planners because transportation is a very important input for the distribution of goods and services in urban areas. In addition, transportation facilitates the development of every society and is crucial to sustainable development, especially if investments in the sector are well-targeted and planned. On that note, this study will add value in that it highlights the significant factors that affect the supply of urban transport and help in the planning purpose for both the policymakers and the private investors. An increase in the supply of urban transport services provides the platform for urban transport services in most cities. Indeed, transport plays an instrumental, catalytic and lubrication role in development. Provided transport is good, areas become easily accessible and people become mobile.

1.8 Limitations

There appears to be limited research that has been undertaken to establish critical factors that are contributing to the high levels of congestion currently experienced in Masvingo. While similar studies have been carried out elsewhere but none has been carried out specifically on Masvingo City and views of other studies on the same subject remain largely unknown. The study will address this and other gaps by making wider consultations in terms of data collection, analysis and discussion.

Another limitation of this study was that it was confined to only one geographical area. This had an implication for the generalisation of results. Problems obtained in Masvingo may not be representative of problems in other areas. The findings could have been enriched had the scope of the study been wider by covering at least two cities in Zimbabwe

1.9 Delimitations

The study focussed on analysing the relationship between land use and transport integration as a model for combating traffic congestion in Masvingo. Key concepts covered on causes, effects and solutions to traffic congestion. The study was geographically based in Masvingo City taking residents and officials of traffic management related institutions as key respondents. Time period covered in the study ranged from 2017 to 2022.

1.10 Definition of Terms

Traffic Congestion refers to an excess of vehicles on a portion of roadway at a particular time resulting in speeds that are slower—sometimes much slower—than normal or “free flow” speeds.

Demand Management Measures (TDM) is the application of strategies and policies to reduce travel demand, or to redistribute this demand in space or in time.

Land Use Strategies refer to policies that promote compact, mixed-use development and the efficient use of land. Such policies improve bike, pedestrian, and transit access and can reduce trip lengths and vehicle miles travelled.

Derived Demand of Transport is a term used to refer to the fact that transport is not required for its own sake but in order to fulfil other outcomes. It is not an end in itself but a means to an end.

Single Occupancy Vehicles (SOVs) is a privately operated vehicle whose only occupant is the driver. The drivers of SOVs use their vehicles primarily for personal travel, daily commuting and for running errands.

1.11 Chapter Summary

The Chapter presented the background details leading to the research, research objectives, research questions, research hypothesis, assumptions of the study, significance of the study, delimitation of the study and limitations of the study. This enabled the development of a proper framework of the research problem and highlighting areas requiring more focus. The next Chapter provides literature review on the causes of traffic congestion in cities.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on reviewing literature on Traffic congestion in the city of Masvingo, its impacts as well as measures to resolve congestion starting at global, international and national narrowing down to cities particularly Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework covered the key concepts, features and applications of the systems theory and the network theory as related to traffic congestion.

2.2.1 System Theory and Traffic Congestion

This research study is underpinned by systems theory. The system theory looks at an   organization as a social system made up of integrated parts.  A system is a unit with series of interacted and parts that depend on each other such that the interplay of any part affects the whole (Nwankwo, 2003). It is a way of elaborating increasingly complex systems by means of a continuum that encompasses the person in the environment. This enables the understanding of components and dynamics of client systems in order to interpret problems and develop balanced intervention strategies. The goal is to enhance the goodness of fit between individuals and their environments (Friedman and Allen ,2010). It is a structure with interdependent parts.  A local authority (Masvingo City Council) in this manner is a social system that has structures and processes. The administration of Tertiary Institutions as a system involves management of such areas as curriculum, staff personnel, student affairs, funds, and school community relations.

Providing student housing to students by institution management is a very important aspect of student affairs and therefore a very vital area of institution administration. The systems theory is related to this study because the students in the tertiary institutions form part and parcel of that institution as a system (Nwankwo, 2003).  So, this means that any aching part of the system will jeopardize the efficient working of the whole system. This entails that if the issue of traffic congestion is not given smooth functioning of supply chain operations and economy at large (Friedman et al, 2010). The provision of efficient transport management therefore forms part of the system because if transport does not flow smoothly, supply chain operations will be affected. The System theory is significant to the present study in a sense that provision of efficient transport system is an integral part of supply chain operations.

2.2.2 Network Theory and Traffic Congestion

Traffic congestion is a global and crucial problem due to increase in demand and limited network transportation structure. Complex traffic structure, imbalanced traffic flow, and uncertain event like road accident are among identified factors that may cause traffic congestion (Gao, 2016). A number of models are used to resolve traffic congestion and network theory is one of them. Traffic congestion problem causes delay in travelling, increase in travelling cost and accident rate and may affect air pollution. Numerous approaches have been developed and proposed in solving these problems. Among them are traffic signal controls, congestion pricing, turning restrictions and traffic routing. Various methods have been employed include mathematical model, heuristic and meta-heuristics. There are a number of approaches that have been proposed for traffic congestion problem and methods used for implementation (Bergsten, 2013).

An urban system is a complex system composed of many subsystems. Land-use, transportation, and population are the most important subsystems, especially when considering the urban growth process, as they develop, prosper, and influence one another. A wide range of approaches to model urban land-use and transportation have evolved. (Bergsten, 2013).  Many studies keenly approach the relationship between urban land development and transportation [Network theory and Saaty’s analytic heirarchy process (AHP) are considered to be effective methods for estimating a city’s traffic pattern during the emergency period of an earthquake, and for evaluating the urban transportation network of that city. A graph is created in which the nodes are land uses (or a group of land uses), crossroads or junctions represent the city, and the arcs are the streets. AHP is used to determine the priority of trips, and shortest path techniques identify the fastest routes for daily trips, and the safest ones during earthquakes. A pareto diagram then shows those streets that play an important role in satisfying both criteria. On the basis of the trip patterns obtained, the accessibility of a city may be estimated.

2.2.3 Conceptual Framework

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework on Causes and Effects of congestion

From literature accessed and other publications related to traffic congestion, a number of variables have been observed to cause traffic congestion and these are use of single occupancy cars, poor driving practices, narrow rough roads, human traffic congestion, weather conditions and the city of Masvingo being located on a major highway. On impacts of traffic congestion, it could be determined that the major variables were damage to road infrastructure, delays to goods and passengers, pollution and lost opportunities.

2.3 Sub Themes Related to Research Questions

2.3.1 Derived Demand for Transport

Mobility is fundamental to all human activities. The economy and for people to enjoy lifestyle is dependent on smooth running and efficient transport systems. Demand for personal travel and the movement of goods have to be balanced with the inevitable limitations of land space and environmental considerations of people both as travellers and inhabitants. Transport and mobility are rarely provided or used for their own sake and therefore are regarded as ‘derived demand”. They are means to achieving objectives associated with everyday life such as moving from home to school or work or transport freight from the place of manufacture to the consumer. According to Polkinghorne (2011), people can travel by car and or public transport but they are also able to cycle or walk. For some movements the car is the ideal, for others the bus, train or other form of mass transit is preferable if available and affordable. Historically, travel was only occasionally taken to places of the immediate community for special events such as visiting relatives and or the weekend holiday.

The principle of derived demand means that the needs of individual travellers or companies will have an influence on their travel, logistics and transportation requirements and therefore their travel choices (White 2010). This causes the demand for transport to vary according to these influences. The prime incentives for travelling are to exploit cheaper land and labour prices or to gain a market advantage. The requirement to travel is centred in pursuit for raw materials, completed goods and the workforce. The out flow of people from city centres to peripheral housing estates means that patterns of mobility are now more diverse. Fewer individual journeys now start and finish at central points. This is because of the location of residential and industrial areas. Also changes in people’s wealth and priorities has led people to reside further from their work places the emergence of global and geographical spread of commodity market has been another drive for transport. Many organisations worldwide have adjusted to working 24hrs in order to gain more global opportunities and ensure worldwide contact with customers because of different time zones.

2.3.2 Why do People Travel

Land use patterns and chance to pursue socio-economic activities continuously influence the usage of public transportation, continuous utilisation of public transport is mainly based on affordability, accessibility and acceptability (Murray 2003). On a broad scale, by exploring the factors mentioned above, usage patterns of transport are established. The need to connect to services ranging from social functions to economic participation causes many people to travel (Murray 2003).

People might not need to travel but inescapable to pursue essential activities of life such as work, education and health care can force people to travel. Mobility means having transport services going where and when one wants to travel (Mitchell and Suen 2000). Even though many travellers have mobility limitations or handicaps due to physical, sensory or cognitive impairment or language barriers they continue to travel despite all because mobility is a key condition of access to employment, housing, education, culture and leisure and family (Banister 2002). Even disabled people and other physically challenges people have their mobility and accessibility needs as well (White 2010).

Figure 2.2 Disabled Person Boarding Bus: Source: Maunder (2010)

In recent years there has been an increasing recognition that inadequate public transport and poor location of services and facilities can make social exclusion worse by restricting access to jobs, learning and training opportunities (White, 2010).

People travel to achieve secondary outcomes therefore transport is used to deliver other objectives such as access to employment or other essential services or the need to move raw materials or finished products (Polkinghorne 2010). Transport is required in response to the demand for education, medication, foods and vegetables from the market and to attend the cinema or other major events.

2.3 Factors Influencing Choice of Mode of Transport

The growth of transport industry has caused a lot of environmental effects such as noise and air pollution due to emissions. Physical interruption, barrier effects and congestion are some of the examples of the effects of these changes. Measures to shift car trips to other modes of transport such as public transport and bicycles have been studied in many cities. Choice of a mode of transport is influenced by many factors.

2.3.1 Availability of Infrastructure

The availability of infrastructure also contributes to the choice of mode of transport. from the Figure above a ship or sea transport may have all the favourable conditions and advantages but cannot be used in landlocked countries like Zimbabwe. The geographical location of a nation naturally provide options to travellers in terms of the choice of mode. Passengers are forced to choose from the available mode and embark on their journeys. The choice of mode is largely determined by the availability of information relating to each option. We can only make choices from options we are aware of and this is where the availability of comprehensive information becomes a key factor in influencing travel behaviour (White, 2010)

2.3.2 Price

According to Mbara (2010), the price of the mode is one factor that influence the choice. People tend to use private vehicles because as soon as car has been obtained it is there and the owner does not consider what it really cost and how the number of trips that needs to be made.as the car is there people choose the car for all trips without considering other alternatives every time. The convenience and comfortability of the car whereby the driver can travel undisturbed and feel secure and can travel at his or her own time makes the car a favourable choice of many. Habits and characters can sometimes cause individuals and companies to retain the same mode of transport for a long period of time

People often relate to private cars than they do to public buses or bicycles. Which has caused many people to avoid other mode of transport to their personal vehicles. The capacity of the mode also influences mode of transport for example a bicycle is an individual mode of transport and cannot be used for family trips or where mass transit is required.

2.3.3. Other Factors

Travellers usually choose their mode of travel depending on how great they perceive the benefit for travelling to be, how they value the travel modes and their supply. According Creswell (2010), the mode travel with the smallest sacrifice is chosen most frequently and by most people.it is assumed by many economists that people choose mode of transport basing on the greatest possible benefit. The majority of journeys is influenced by travelling time, the fare, the level of comfort and the quality of the services offered in connection with making the journey. The choice of mode of transport is viewed as an individual choice and rational choice from a number of substitutes. People often weigh the benefits derived from the alternatives of the characteristics against one another. Difference in standards of living is perceived to be another cause of reasons behind the use of a certain mode. Banister (2002). said that there are linkages between lifestyle and travel mode choice, access to a car and attitudes. Life style quality values also affect the individual’s choice of a travel mode (Mbara 2010) he goes to say that people who prioritise individual life quality factors such as success, enjoyment and change also prioritise consequences in the form of cost, travelling time, flexibility and convenience. Transport economic models usually accepts that people are balanced beings and they tend to choose the mode of transport that gives the greatest benefit. The basic guess has come in for some criticism, choices between   travel modes are not made only on the basis of balanced economic decisions as to what is best.

2.3.4 Security Factors

Security factors are mostly considered by women on the choice of travel. Women, according to Warsen, (2000), women feel insecure on public transport to a greater extent than men. Almost a third of public transport users say they are afraid of being threatened or attacked on their journey and many simply avoid travelling. A traveller may feel unsafe at a bus stop and opt to walk or cycle. Insecurity when travelling on the ground comes both from being afraid of other passengers and from worrying that the train will break down or be stopped in a tunnel (Olsson and Headicar 2009),. The economic hardships in Zimbabwe has left many travellers with limited choices as they only resort to what is available at the time and in most cases the fares are the most contributory factor in the choice of a mode. Public transport users in Zimbabwe has risked their health and lives by using available modes of transport. The only aim is to reach their destination.

2.4 Causes of Traffic Congestion in Cities

2.4.1 Congestion in Developing Economies

The situation of traffic congestion has worsened for developing countries due to unplanned cities, poor discipline, alternate traffic means, archaic management, and improper lane management (Mbara,2015). Unplanned cities: roads are narrow and poorly built. As cities grow in an ad hoc manner, no provision is made towards scaling road capacities, eventually resulting in several bottleneck roads, which remain congested for extended periods of time. Furthermore, many developing countries have seen a tense growth in their vehicular population resulting in a failure of conventional traffic management strategies. Poor discipline: drivers often are not trained enough to follow lane discipline. The impact of poor lane discipline, especially at traffic junctions, deteriorates the already overcrowded junction situation. Furthermore, drivers frequently jump red lights and block the intersection, causing further traffic congestion and more than 50% of traffic lights in Masvingo are not working which causes traffic jams especially during peak hours. These problems are compounded by the fact that traffic law enforcement is poor, thereby providing no incentive for drivers to follow the rules.

2.4.2 Poor Public Passenger Transport

Fast-growing economies have witnessed a surge in the number of vehicles across major cities (Shamsher and Abdullah (2015). These cities seldom have efficient mass transit systems, forcing people to operate private vehicles. This problem is compounded by the social stigma, where people view operating a private vehicle as a sign of prosperity, while public transport is viewed as being used by the lower classes of society. Traffic junctions are oftenly uncontrolled and are allowing drivers to drive in a disordered manner (Mbara 2018). He further added that even if a junction is controlled by a police officer or a traffic light, the traffic junctions are largely independent of any traffic management strategy, only optimizing the respective junction traffic flow, in the direction of maximum traffic build up. Furthermore, these approaches enhance traffic mismanagement in already congested roads, accelerating congestion. Lane management is an important fact in managing the traffic. Many types of vehicles try to overtake other vehicles even in the single undivided road (Maunder 2018). He further argued that, this is the main reason that the city roads are unequipped with the lane dividers, which divide the lane into incoming and outgoing traffic. The poor lane management which is usually done by illegal combis and private taxis whereby they drive against oncoming traffic is contributing enormously to traffic jams in Masvingo.

The causes of traffic congestion can best be grouped into four categories called horizontal factors, vertical factors, traffic control devices, and loading and dropping of passengers along the road (Mensah (2014). The Horizontal causes of urban traffic congestion are those factors that include poor road network. Transportation engineers have long studied and addressed the physical capacity of roadways, the maximum amount of traffic capable of being handled by a given highway section. Capacity is determined by a number of factors, the number and width of lanes and shoulders of roads, merge areas at interchanges; and roadway alignment (grades and curves). Bad roads cause congestion that results into accidents, roads conditions are to blame in some of the accidents that occur which means that not all accidents are a result of driver’s errors (Zhang, 2011). Pavement edge drop-offs, bad curves, potholes, poor slope construction, extra cause serious injuries and even death.  Pavement edge drop-offs seem to cause serious accidents.  When a car’s tire drops off one of these edges, a bounce can occur, causing the driver to over-correct and oftentimes lose control. Pedestrian obstruction where the missing crosswalks sometimes forces pedestrians to cross the roads at many different parts which eventually leads to congestions in different parts of the same road. The massive flow of population in the CBD results in too many pedestrians trespassing into the vehicle way especially in the down town of the city.

2 .4.1 Government Policies

The Government of Zimbabwe has been the major contributor to transport challenges due to continued effecting of poor policies in the transport sector (Mbara 2015). This is also evidenced by the 2019 government promulgated Statutory Instrument (SI) 99 of 2020: Covid 19 Prevention, Containment and Treatment under the National Lockdown Amendment order no.5, 2020 which stipulates that public buses are the only mode of public transport allowed to operate while omnibus like kombis and smaller taxis are disallowed. Although a welcome development particularly for social distancing measure aimed at reducing person to person infections, this move also presents challenges to the commuting public as ZUPCO buses are proving to be inadequate. The move also created a lot of chaos in the transport sector and the results are congested roads as personal cars and illegal private taxis are filling the gap that is being left by ZUPCO and since these vehicles are not economic users of space.

2.4.2 Other Special Circumstances

There are a number of specific circumstances that lead to traffic congestion. These  range  from rapid increase in urban population, economic growth, increase employment opportunities, increase in number of cars and number of people using cars, low capacity of transport infrastructure, road layout, underinvestment in road infrastructure, poor traffic management, shortage of street parking, signal and equipment failure, non-adherence to traffic regulations, poor urban planning or poor urban development control, the rapid expansion of city boundaries, poor public transport, increased use of private cars, car accidents, special events gatherings, road works, and bad weather (Andoh 2014). Poor infrastructure planning inn cities also lead to traffic congestion. The European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) (2007) alluded that traffic congestion is caused by a number of factors such as poor pavements, too many vehicles and motorcycle, land use patterns, employment patterns, income levels, car ownership trend, infrastructure investment, regional economic dynamics, tourism, poor land use integration among other factors which causes of traffic congestion in developing countries

Vertical causes of road congestion are events that disrupt the normal flow of traffic, usually by physical impedance in the travel lanes. In addition to blocking travel lanes physically, events that occur on the shoulder or roadside can also influence traffic flow by distracting drivers, leading to changes in driver behaviour and ultimately degrading the quality of traffic flow. Influx of vendors along several roads in CBD has a considerable contribution towards traffic congestion as these traders eat a lot of parking and roadway space. Also these vendors are often in a cat and mouse hunt with the municipal police who will be trying to chase them away from blocking the traffic way, during this chase process most of these vendors flock into the middle of the roads with their goodies as they flee from police and further obstructing the movement of traffic, (Mbara, 2015). Construction of roads with narrow lanes several years ago is now causing serious congestions in the city. Mbara (2015) noted that reserved parking lot was observed from most of these arterial roads that the various shops, offices, and churches along it had either no or inadequate parking spaces. As results of this, a lot their customers tend to park their cars along the shoulders of the road. Lack of pull-outs or designated stopping points for delivery vehicles within the CBD results in numerous interruptions to flow of the vehicles, even within non-conflicting streams of traffic, which seriously contribute to the road congestion. Traffic control devices traffic control congestion. Irregular disruption of traffic flow by control devices such as traffic lights not working railroad grade crossings and poorly timed signals also contribute to congestion and travel time variability.

2.4.3 Land Use Patterns

Congestion can be derived by such factors as land use patterns of a city or town, employment patterns, car ownership trends, infrastructure investment, regional economic dynamics and many others (Mbara,2012). He goes further and said that one of the major drivers of congestion and its delays is the concentration of economic activity in and around major cities. Mobility in major cities is increased by economic growth and social development which also promote the use of private cars. The growth and the size of the city also generates a greater amount of traffic the activity patterns which are determined by demographic, social and economic factors have an impact on the travel behaviour of individuals, households and businesses.travel behaviour causes a rise to a level of travel demand which is spread out in time and space. The travel demand leads to a general level of the traffic flow and to specific mixes of vehicles and drivers on the road network.

2.4.4 Use of Private Car

High levels of car ownership and private car contribute much in causing traffic congestion and also to mobili4.4accessibility, health and livelihood in cities and towns. In Masvingo the use of private cars has risen enormously during the past few years hence the factors that drive the high car ownership and usage over public transport need to be investigated. The rise in private car use is said to have been caused by the poor service delivery of public transport, which is as a result of ZUPCO monopoly in the public passenger transport provision. ZUPCO is incapacitated to serve the commuting population in most towns  and  cities  in  Zimbabwe thereby causing transport constraints in the movement of people and does not provide a travel alternative that is considered to be a reasonable alternative to the car. The National Railways of Zimbabwe has also not been able to provide public passenger transport and this leaves the people with no option and resort to private car use despite the costs, Masvingo town has no capacity for commuter trains and this leaves passengers with no other option except road. According to Mbara (2020), although there are differences in the valuation of public and alternative modes of transport, based on demographic elements, familiarity with car usage and psychosocial factors, most people intend to own a car as a best means of travel with little seeming to moderate the decision. He goes on and argues that the poor valuation of public and alternative transport suggests however that , whilst other measures to curb car use and promote public transport may have value, only significant level improvements in public transport is likely to drive real behaviour change.

According to Banister (2003), high levels of car ownership are undesirable in urban areas. Although car ownership is commonly associated with higher levels of mobility, more frequently it results in high levels of congestion urban sprawl, additional time spent in traffic increasing pollution levels high transport costs and resultantly lower levels of mobility and  accessibility as well as decreases in liveability of cities.it is therefore important from a policy and planning perspective to determine the factors that drive car ownership intentions so that interventions can be designed to mitigate  against rising ownership levels. In Masvingo the rise of car ownership has been as a result of an influx in ex Japanese imported cars. According to Tomtom (2016), departments of transport in any country must prioritise public over private transport so as to reduce car ownership levels.

Existing research investigating car ownership intentions reveals that these differ considerably from country to country. Literature from some developed countries generally tends to indicate a decline in car ownership that from developing countries appears to reflect a growing desire to own a car. A study by Zhang (2011) reveals that developed countries like Germany and Netherlands, car use among young adults has decreases in recent decades. He further asserted that the primary reason for the decrease has been the use of alternative modes of transport such as rail transport and cycling. Also in developed countries like Dublin where car ownership has slowed but is still increasing, McCordick and Caulfield (2015) found that the availability of public transport impacted car ownership levels.

According to Clark (2009), location often impacts car ownership, he went on to say that regardless of whether ownership is decreasing or increasing, car ownership intentions are largely influenced by location of household, for example urban population usually have better access to public transport and alternatives are available. High and efficient public transport systems are key to reduce car ownership. Aligula and Salon (2012) however argues that high car ownership intentions are not only related to the relative lack of public transport services but are also related to the quality of the public transport service offering. Salon and Aligula gave reference to one of the few publications that discusses car ownership in Africa and considered urban travel patterns in Nairobi, Kenya and reported growing car ownership. Their study reveals that without policies to improve public transport service, car use would increase as residents becomes wealthier.

A different study by Wu, Zhao and Zhang (2016), reveals that the larger the city, the higher levels of car ownership unless the city has controlled this through aspects such as the provision of excellent public transport. They further indicated that in metropolises, an increase in the comfort levels of public transport was associated with a decrease in car ownership. Zhu (2012) studied and indicated that Chinese students valued aspects of car ownership such as comfort, transporting goods and saving time. In India, car use was growing exponentially and this is so due to lack of good public transport (Verma,2015). He further highlighted that there are other quality aspects which are as important as determinants for example the flexibility provided by cars, the lack of good transport and shorter times associated with car trips. A study of car ownership in Canada done by Anowar,Eluru and Miranda (2015), shows that improvements in public transport services can reduce car ownership levels. Their findings were supported by Kuhnimhof (2012) who showed that driving in urban areas has been actively discouraged by improvements in public transport. However findings from a study by McGoldrick and Caulfield (2015) suggests that the mere provision of public transport is insufficient to impact car ownership intentions but that service levels should be of such a nature that public transport is considered as a viable alternative to the car. They further highlighted that aspects such as comfort, coverage, the ability to travel further and carry more items, safety, trip times, frequencies and the hours of service are important aspects that are put into consideration by travellers. Their findings seem to indicate that these aspects have largely been recognised in some developed countries where better public transport service levels have resulted in decreases in car ownership. Some of the developing countries seem to recognise this factor as said by Zhu (2012), most of those reviewed have not provided sufficiently high levels of public transport to reduce car ownership intentions. A study by Zhu (2012) shows that cities has not developed higher levels of public transport services in developing countries but rather has provided private car centric infrastructure which is unfavourable to public transport users. This was further emphasized by Salon and Aligula (2012 who said city structures impact car ownership levels in as much as they affect the ability to provide public transport. According to Clark (2009) the primary barrier to car ownership is income and as it income increases so is car the increase of car ownership.

Policies in the transport system largely influence the car ownership intentions (Anowar ,2015) changes in the transport system are not only price related but driving in urban areas can be actively discouraged by transport policies.  Anowar goes on further and highlighted that in many Germany municipalities’ measures that promote cycling and walking have been implemented and this has helped to reduce car ownership intentions. He argues that unless the city controls an increase in car ownership through aspects such as licencing restrictions or the provision of excellent public transport congestion is likely to happen in city roads.

The dominant feature in most studies appears to be that the provision of an excellent public transport system is critical to the reduction of car ownership intentions and where public transport is poor, many studies suggest that income levels are then the primary predictors of the decision. These approaches tend however to disregard the aspirational aspect of car ownership mostly in developing countries where owning a car is a necessity. The scholars reveals that there is vast differences in developing and developed countries perspectives.in most African countries, public transport is generally regarded as being of a poor quality as most people has experienced transport problems and the majority of the problems were issues that relate to services of the public transport system.

2.3.8 Congestion in the First World

The development of urban areas and migration demands for more challenges for the provision of transport services to the growing population. The absorption of the economic potential and population in metropolitan areas results in the occurrence of large transport needs and when these needs are met at the same time, the occurrence of congestion happens. Traffic congestion has become a serious problem in many cities around the world and it is a challenge that is not easy to manage. More than 50 years ago, Reynolds wrote that, ‘congestion has become an almost universal phenomenon in the cities of advanced world and few cities have escaped the problem and even fewer, if any have yet solved it” congestion is a common and major problem for human mobility.

According to Goodwin (2004), congestion is also a major problem in the first world. According to traffic surveys conducted in different cities of Poland, it is revealed that congestion is a cause of concern. The level of congestion in polish cities is mainly influenced by similar cases as is the case of other countries. The studies reveals that in metropolises with the largest concentration of people and businesses, there is an accumulation of transport needs which is mainly met by the road transport which has caused congestion in cities like Warsaw, Krakow and Lublin. The people of Poland who resides in cities commonly use passenger cars in their daily trips. The settlement patterns in most polish cities is connected with longer distances to be covered and this increase mobility and this has caused congestion. In polish cities congestion is still a major significant problem and still unsolved and even the government has invested so much in ways to try and solve this problem by development and modernisation of the road transport infrastructure (Levinson, 2015). The construction of a new road infrastructure or equipping it with new engineering facilities may prove to be necessary but not very effective as each capacity reserve obtained in this way is utilised very rapidly. It therefore important to look other solutions that would allow better use of existing infrastructure by the use of technologically advanced traffic control systems. Poland has implemented these them recently and relatively slowly. Traffic Management Systems (TMS) are considered one of the most effective tools to control congestion in urban areas (Falcocchio, 2015)

Mexico City has the most raised traffic congestion in the whole world. According to a survey by TomTom navigation (2020), Mexico City is the most traffic congested city. The results reveals that a driver in Mexico City could spend up to 59% extra time trapped in traffic during a normal day. The rapid growth of Mexico City has made it one of the most crowded city in the world with a population close to 20 million people and as a result the metropolitan area is inconstant expansion forcing thousands of people to use their private vehicles daily. the use of smart devices with GPS has helped to promote the development different social navigation networks such as Waze,google maps and Intrix Traffic and the most popular network is Waze in Mexico City which collects data from user devices and allow them to report events and traffic levels and generating a real time snapshot of the traffic situation. The zonification is fundamental for urban planning and transportation management and helps to develop accurate prediction models for heavy traffic. According to Miller (2012), Mexico City government operate the second busiest publicly owned transit system in North America after New York City, the survey indicates that the Mexico City passenger transport system handles about twice the passengers of the New York MTA. He further reveals that even thou Mexico City has an efficient public passenger which include mass transit buses but this has not helped to solve the issue of congestion. The public passenger transport involves Mexico City Metro, Mexico City Bus Network, Mexico City Metro bus, Xochimilco Light Rail, Mexico City trolleybus network, Peseros, TrenSuburbano, Taxis licenced to individuals by the government and also there are many illegal taxis as which are not licensed and all these serve the commuting population of Mexico city. The government has also made efforts to promote cycling by developing cycle tracks, this has improved life in the city but did little contribution in solving congestion.

Fig 2.3: Congestion in Mexico City

Source TomTom Survey (2020)

Bangkok is the second most congested city in the world according to TomTom (2020) survey. It is said that traffic in Bangkok is so bad that people trying to get home or go out in the evening can expect to face drive time that is more than one hundred eighteen percent longer than necessary. Jakarta which Indonesia’s capital city is ranked third most congested city in the world according to a study by TomTom (2020).Indonesia’s capital is home to nearly 10 million people and more than 26000 miles of road and unfortunately it takes nearly as twice as long as it should to get from one place to another in the city. The city is so congested that people needs an extra 48minutes daily stuck in traffic. The Chinese city of Chongqing is on fourth position. According to Helbing (1995), the capital city of Romania which is Bucharest is home to 1.8 million people, with an area of about 228km².the urban density of Bucharest is about 8000 people per km²making it quite a dense European capital.  The city is crossed by a road network with a total length of about 1.829km occupying 8.5% of the city’s urban area and aside this, the city is also served by an underground public transportation system that preserves the topological characteristics of the surface network-concentric network configuration a network of 69.25km spread over four lines. This extensive network offers a good background to an extensive analysis in terms of urban road performance.it is a well-known fact that Bucharest has a low car ownership compared to other European countries. The city has employed a sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) in order to continually improve transport and mobility and to make it more sustainable.

Fig 2.4 Congestion in Jakarta Indonesia www.safenet.pub.ro

Source TomTom (2020)

Recently public policies that addressed mobility issues in the developed world have changed. More and more policies have been implemented that focus on accessibility to goods and people and not on those motorists. Gondora (2012) says, in 1994 the United Kingdom changed policies to discourage car use and in 2003 London implemented a congestion charge to reduce vehicular traffic in the city centre and encourage the use of public transport and non-motorised vehicles and these measures managed to get 20000 automobiles to refrain from travelling in the city of London. Stockholm, Sweden and Singapore have also instituted congestion charges and have obtained similar results.

A different study by Barter (2011) shows that the car ownership costs are transferred directly to the owner in large cities in japan .in Tokyo which is one of the most economically competitive cities in the world, parking in public roads is forbidden and cars cannot be bought unless the owners prove that there is a parking space readily available for it. Even though Tokyo has one of the largest car ownerships in the world, this policy has enforced moderate automobile use and managed to maintain an efficient mobility system and this has contributed to Tokyo being one of the most economically competitive cities in the world (Sassen, 2001). A study by Kodransky and Hemann (2011) shows that pairs and Copenhagen have similar cases where each city has systematically reduced the quantity of parking spaces without negatively affecting their competitiveness. Based on the aforementioned international experiences, implementing a strategy of integrated mobility management is necessary in cities. This system would focus on avoiding and reducing car trips, shift public and non-motorised transport for example walking or cycling and improve the performance and energy efficiency of motorised transport. The mobility management strategy must include in its principal objectives, the reduction of kilometres travelled in cars. This objective which is viable, possible and desirable will allow for the creation of cities that are sustainable and competitive and that offer better living conditions throughout Mexico and other cities in the world.

2.5 Effects of Traffic Congestion

Effects of traffic congestion can be categorized into four main groups of environmental, economic, health and social (Mahmud 2012). The nature, extent, and severity of the effects differ from one city to another depending among other things the city size, road capacity and road layout, spatial distribution of land use, modes of public and private transport systems and travel patterns (Kiunsi, 2013). Mahmud, 2012 further expounded that traffic congestion increases travel costs. He mentioned various costs caused by traffic congestion, traffic slows down speed which is a visible cost and when people forgo their trips because of fear for congestion then it becomes a hidden cost of congestion and when traffic congestion make people not to believe in their cities they miss finding better jobs, and sharing better amenities. Despite the growing number of hybrid vehicles on the road, cars stopped in traffic still produce a large volume of harmful carbon emissions. Besides contributing to global warming, these emissions can cause more short-term and localized problems, such as smog and increased respiratory problems in a community due to poor air quality. Commuters who are exposed to air pollution, like those riding in non-air conditioned vehicles, double their health risk (Mahmud, 2012). Aside from stress, they are also exposed to pollutants that can affect the lungs. The economic impacts are increasing in fuel consumption, which leads to higher transportation costs, wastage of working time and delay in service delivery which mainly reduces overall urban productivity. The Herald of 8 June 2018 reported that, South Africa loses R1.5 billion annually as a result of urban traffic congestion while Egypt’s capital Cairo loses $8billion annually which is about 4 % of that country’s Gross Domestic Product. The impact on Zimbabwe is obviously colossal if thriving economies such as South Africa and Egypt can feel it to such levels. Health impacts, which primarily occur due to extended exposure to polluted air and unnecessarily long periods spent on roads, are mental stress, tiredness, and headache. Social impacts include a reduction in quality of life as reflected by a reduction in personal incomes due to increased transportation costs and less productivity, loss of time that could have otherwise been spent on social activities (Mbara, 2015). Drivers who become impatient may be more likely to drive aggressively or dangerously. This contributes to poor health for those affected by the stress and puts other drivers in danger. Road rage also increases the danger posed to pedestrians on the roads, vendors and fellow motorists.

2.6 Measures to Counter Congestion

Traffic congestion is one of the worldwide urban problems, which can lengthen journey time, increase energy consumption, reduce industrial and commercial productivity, aggravate environmental pollution and result in traffic accident, (Currie and Walker, 2011). Urban Traffic congestion has been a problem especially for most big cities in both the developed and developing world and scholars has a prediction that it will get worse in the future (Kiunsi, 2013). According to (Texas Transportation Institute, 2011), traffic congestion in the US has increased substantially over the last 25 years. Sao Paulo the city in Brazil is said to have experienced the world’s worst traffic jams, where people are stuck for two to three hours every day in traffic jams (Mahendra, 2009). Such situation has obvious consequence on productivity and the socio-economic development at large resulting in delays, fuel wastage and money loss (Texas Transportation Institute, 2011 Mobility report). Notwithstanding the adverse economic environment, the people have found a reasonably cheap source of motor vehicles from Japan and the United Kingdom, through urban productivity.

2.6.1 Mass Transit System

Traffic congestion in urban areas cannot be completely eliminated but can only be minimized to an acceptable level and its approach is multi-faceted. Rodrigue, Comtois, and Slack (2009) outline some measures that could help deal with the congestion menace-traffic signal synchronization, incident management, congestion pricing and the use of public transit as possible effective strategies available in dealing with congestion situation, although not without their associated challenges. The mass transport system is a reasonable suggestion because the present public transport system is characterised by small vehicles and the operations are fragmented and inefficient as they are run by individuals. Mass transit vehicles carry a far higher number of passengers, making them an efficient user of road space, ultimately decongesting the city.

Thirdly, due to their sizes and ability to carry people in mass, the cost per passenger kilometre is lower, making them affordable to users. Fourthly, as mass transit systems carry more efficient engines, they can save fuel better than small vehicles. Finally, their impact (negative effects) on the external environment is lower compared to small vehicles. Mass transit vehicles therefore provides solutions to the economic, social, energy and environmental challenges in the city. The legislative framework for mass transport system in Zimbabwe is already in place, but what is required is a commitment by stakeholders to implement the policy. According to Muchenje (2020), three possible options are there for the implementation of that policy. Minibus operators forming an association to acquire conventional buses or empowering the current operators to acquire bigger buses, franchising high-demand corridor routes, and Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) Masvingo City Council is facing grave challenges which, inter alia, include an increase in population and the number of motor vehicles, a deteriorating transport infrastructure, an inefficient public transport (if ever there is any) and a high rate of accidents.

All these problems have implications on achieving a sustainable transport and hence the need to raise the question on the requirements of achieving sustainable transport for the city. If there shall be no consensus on the form of public transport that the City of Masvingo should adopt, there is, however, a strong view on a mass transport system as the backbone of public transport, (Mbara, 2015). Other measures proffered to address traffic congestion are Strict lane management whereby different lanes for different types of vehicles should be marked on the roads and law and financial penalty should be imposed to make the drivers maintain the lane discipline. Deterrent measures whereby the government can take such strict steps as imposing a financial penalty on offending drivers, pedestrian and traders. They should be made to dissuade the drivers from certain congestion causing habit such as wrong overtaking, one-way driving. Truck drivers should be fined for disobeying traffic law and driving unfit truck. This kind of implication of law can mitigate the traffic jam in short run, but in long run, all the people should be involved to create awareness and responsibility to the society. Road capacity

2.6.2 Increasing Road Capacity

Congestion can be reduced by either increasing road capacity (supply) or by reducing traffic (demand). Road capacity can be increased in a number of ways such as adding more capacity over the whole of a route, creating new routes, and improvements in traffic management. Reduction of demand can include, parking restriction, park,and ride, congestion pricing, road space rationing, incentives to use public transport and introduction of carpooling (Zhang, 2011). Dedicated lanes for pedestrians and cyclists which means that there should be dedicated lanes for pedestrians and cyclist.  Provision of car parks Car parks should be created in market centres for private cars who wish to shop to use instead of parking by the roadside. There should be dedicated bus stops for public transport and taxis for picking up passengers.

2.6.3 Use of Non Motorised Transport

Non motorised forms of transport comprise of walking, cycling, jogging among others (Faulks 2019). The use of non-motorised transport can also help to reduce congestion. Non-motorised transport (NMT) which is also called active transport and human powered transport refers to walking, cycling and variant such wheelchair, scooter and handcart use (Litman 2012). NMT plays an important and unique role in efficient transport system. It provides basic mobility and affordable transport, access to motorised modes, physical fitness and enjoyment. He goes on and says that NMT has a lot of benefits among them user gains, infrastructure improvements and the reduction of negative environmental impacts.in medium sized cities of japan Germany and the Netherlands, 40% to 60% of all trips are made by walking and cycling.

2.6.4 Demand Management Measures

According to The New York Times (2011), in Indonesia the strategy to increase the use of public transport, extending the modal part has worked to reduce congestion. The development of a bus based public transport is one of the main actions that the Indonesian government has implemented. six cities combined in building a railway network. The importance of integrating transport infrastructures within the urban environment was also emphasized, creation and optimisation of intermodal nodes are thus a priority in the strategy of the Indonesian government.

To accelerate the development of urban transport, the government of Indonesia gives attention to five particular issues tackled by the following strategies.

• Transportation and land use strategic which aims at enhancing the role of the transportation to support the development of land use through Park and Ride facilities, Transit Oriented Development, Transportation Impact Control as well as improving last mile connectivity in urban areas.
• Urban mobility improvement strategy which aims at optimising the role of public transport through the improvement of urban infrastructure (roads and multimodal infrastructures), improvement of urban public transport and freight services.
• Urban congestion reduction strategy which is intended to reduce the burden of congestion in urban areas by strengthening transportation demand management with electronic road pricing, parking systems and improving traffic supply management with the development of intelligent transport systems for capacity and priority management.
• City air pollution reduction strategy which is intended to reduce the urban pollution load by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, air and noise pollution.
• Safety improvement strategy which is intended to improve the safety of road transport by increasing the level of consciousness of all citizens and continuing to repair and construct facilities and infrastructures that support the safety of road transport in accordance with the general plan and the decade of action for road safety.
• On the local level, major cities in Indonesia have launched their own master plan adapting the national strategies to meet local challenges.

The mayor of Bandung has identified several urban mobility projects to make the city more friendly and liveable. Only 20% of the inhabitants of Greater Bandung presently use public transport facilities meaning that the major part of the population still contributes to the increase of congestion, pollution and noise by using private vehicles.

Bordeaux, a city in France of nearly a million inhabitants can be considered as an important intersection at different scales. the train station has been successfully upgraded to a multimodal node progressively integrating city bus stations, intercity bus station, airport shuttle service, a tramway station, city’s self-service bike rental system etc. Now the site is equipped with a whole range of transport services, serving all kind of mobility need. Accessibility is also facilitated for private transportation by providing parking facilities, taxis stands, and drop off points. However, public transportation remains in the heart of the system. The intermodal station is equipped with information screens providing time schedules

A study by Mbara (2011) of the city of Addis Ababa Ethiopia mobility habit enabled a forecasting of a possible modal split evolution. Such study constitutes a base for a long term strategy for urban transportation. A holistic approach is consistent with the objectives of intermodality. Multi modal stations which facilitate intermodality have to be integrated within a larger project. Bandung Central Station which has been identified as one of the multimodal sites of agglomeration should support the articulation of a larger urban project for the railway station and its surroundings. Multi modal hubs are essential to ensure the efficiency of a transport network. Inside the multi modal station, areas dedicated to travellers are designed to facilitate transition from one mode to another. Multiple services are included such as information desks, seating, commercial activities etc. Information to the different modes are displayed in the station.

Multimodal idea can best help reduce delays as well as reduce congestion .To be more efficient multi modal networks need to physically integrate the diverse modes of transport inside the hub .Time schedules of trains and buses can be adjusted to minimise the total journey duration .Multimodality can promote mass transit system instead of individual vehicles .in trying to in cooperate the idea of multi modalism and also to curb fleet shortages Ticketing innovation multi modal approach can be a good measure to reduce delays in public transportation .Integrated ticketing systems are rising innovations in the field of public transportation. This technology allows the user to purchase only one ticket compatible with several modes of transports. this is the case for the Paris region France, where the public transport network is equipped with a smart card system that can be used for any mode of transport.

Upgrading of railway lines and trains can help ease transport shortages trains permits to reach higher capacities and a higher commercial speed. A good illustration is the urban railway development in Indonesia which will occur in six metropolis and three large cities innovation in transport networks consists in designing the rolling stock to respond to demand in terms of capacity but also rapidity, comfort and safety improvement of headway regularity, improvement of safety, improvement of socio economical balance etc. are as much features searched to improve the overall efficiency of a transport network.

Passenger information is essential to the efficiency of a system. Real time information is now a low technology easily applicable to any type of transport system. The system has to include a performant Control centre to collect and deliver in real time data coming from the whole network. information desks or screens should be located in each station, whether it is a bus stop, a metro station or an intermodal node. this kind of technology can also help to readjust traffic when service disrupted. users can sometimes be informed instantaneously on smartphones via internet networks. each one is thus aware of the average time before traffic becomes regular again

Innovation in public transportation consists in new personal services. they can be specific smartphones apps which indicate the best way to avoid too many changes during the journey or the best transport option to go faster from point A to point B.  They can be personal ticketing services when tickets can be purchased outside the station to avoid queuing and save a few minutes. According to Maunder (2010), compact cities overall densification and concentration of activities and facilities in a limited can reduce travel distance and if they are sufficiently reduced then cycling and or walking becomes feasible alternatives to the car and help reduce delays and congestion. Also mixed use development can enable travel distance to be reduced that is the journey to work and support public transport for longer periods of the day. if people live far away from their work and commuting will be a must.

Further more locating of homes near facilities and vice versa where by facilities will be located in residential areas will help solve urban public transport challenges. This will help to minimise travel. Also the introduction or the encouragement to use bicycles and to walk. The government can develop walk and cycle friendly environments. The upgrading of cycle tracks and passages will discourage people to use public transport. Promoting walking and pedestrianisation can reduce motorised travel .road capacity reduction, road closures can reduce demand for travel and encourage switch away from private cars and this will shift transport problems somewhere where it can be best dealt with .more recent studies conducted in this area shows that increased parking charges and reducing parking capacity can reduce demand for personal car travel .this will result in more trips of short duration or lengthen trips.

Other cities like Harare has in last few years introduced more one way streets in order to improve vehicle movement. Despite this exercise having been implemented successfully it has not yielded much results because of rapid increase in the number of vehicles being imported daily into the country, Masvingo does not have one way streets as a way of managing congestion, Management of urban transport requires proper planning of which City of Masvingo lacks such as they only focus short term plans which does not solve the challenges completely. Managing of existing infrastructure can be a solution to urban public passenger transport challenges, this measure requires less capital and easy to implement. These are measures which make more effective use of the existing infrastructure or the services that use the infrastructure without the construction of additional capacity (Maunder.2010). For example, parking charges can be used as a way of controlling traffic in the Central Business District. They can be charged according to vehicle size or type or by engine standard depending on the objective. The combination of high parking charges and road user charging can have a significant effect on journey or modal choice (Maunder, 2010). Parking charges is an unpopular demand management tool but can be very effective people switching from small occupancy vehicles to mass transit.

2.6.5 Other Measures to Address Congestion in Masvingo

There are also other measures which city authorities can use to tame traffic to was and cities jungle in Masvingo as depicted on land use strategies matrix given below:

Table 2.2 Land Use Measures that Can Contribute to Sustainable Transport

Source: Layard A, Davoudl S & Batty S ed (2001) Planning for a Sustainable Future)

2.7 Chapter Summary

This chapter showed various literature reviews of various authors concerning Traffic Congestion in Masvingo. Rapid Policy and Technical Appraisal. Within the last decade, most academic studies have focused on transport systems and policies and regulations in urban public passenger transport. Furthermore, the focus in any case has been on ways promote public transport and it has all been before the deregulation of the transport system done by the government of Zimbabwe in 2019. The literature has not given much emphasis on land use and transport integration model for combating traffic congestion in Masvingo.Most of the literature is from developed countries whose strategy approach is different from that of Zimbabwe. Thus there is a dire need of literature focusing on traffic congestion in Masvingo. The following chapter will present the methodology, the research design, target population, sample size and sampling procedures, data collection instruments etc.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Research methodology are procedures followed by researcher in obtaining data to answers (Horn, 2012 and Glatthorn, 2005). This chapter outlines the research methodology that was utilised for this research. It outlines how the collection measure and analysis of data were conducted. It contains a discussion of various components of the research methodology as applied in the study. It is an overall scheme, plan or structure conceived to aid in answering the research questions. The methodology, tools and instruments must therefore be systematic, valid, reliable, neutral and objective. The choice of research method constitutes the foundation on which the entire research is conducted. The procedures and techniques that were used in the collection, processing and analysis of data are set out. Specifically, the followings sections have been included, research design, target population, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, validity and reliability, and finally data analysis, presentation and discussion. A summary of the contents of this chapter is provided at the end of the chapter.

3.2 Research Design

Research design has been defined as a description of the format and theoretical structure under which the study will be carried out (Muchengetwa, 2005). It is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions formulated for the study and for handling various challenges to the worth of study evidence (Crotte, 2004). A research by Churchill (2002) reveals that, research design can be defined as a framework or work plan for the study used as a guideline in the collection and analysis of data. Another similar study by Kotler (2010) established that, research design is a conceptual structure within which research will likely be done or carried out. It comprises of the blue prints for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. Decisions regarding what, where when, how and by what means with regards to an inquiry or a research design were taken. The importance of a research design stems from its role as a critical link between theory and argument that informed the research and the empirical data collected (Nachmias, 2008). Application of qualitative research was done when researcher gathered information about urban land use and traffic congestion models for combating traffic congestion in Masvingo. Interviews allows the participants to an opportunity to present detailed information, satisfied the qualitative dimension. Saunders (2009) said, qualitative research takes into account that it is very difficult for researchers to stand back and be objective, for they are part of the research process.The  research design applied much of triangulation in implementing the research plan. Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomenon (Patton, 1999). Triangulation is also a qualitative research strategy to test validity through the convergence or divergence of information from different sources.

3.2 Research Methods

The research methods covers issues on research philosophy and research approaches.

3.2.1 Research Philosophy

A research philosophy is a set of beliefs and assumptions that guide an inquiry (Guba and Lincoln, 2005). These assumptions can also be called worldwide and paradigms. This study adopted as the guiding philosophy. Pragmatism is a position that argues that the most important determinant of the research philosophy adopted is that research question, arguing that it is possible to operate within the framework of both positivist and interpretivist positions (Saunders, 2009). Pragmatism is a deconstructive paradigm that advocates the use of mixed methods in research, “side steps the contentious issues of truth and reality (Felizer,2010). Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality. It applies the mixed methods research in inquires draw liberally from both quantitative and qualitative assumptions when they engage in their research (Creswell,2007). With this paradigm, it opens the door to multiple methods, different worldviews and different assumptions as well as different forms of data collection and analysis. Pragmatism is advantageous because it is a practical way of collecting, analysing, presenting and discussing data (Saunders, 2009). It applies methods that fit the situation. It is not an extreme. Its aim is to take advantage of qualitative and quantitative research methods (Jogulu and Pansiri, 2011). For the purpose of this study, it brings out reality of the urban land use and traffic transport congestion model for combating traffic congestion in Masvingo.

3.3.2 Research Approach

The approach used in this study was mixed research method. It incorporates both qualitative and quantitative approaches that their combined effect is greater than either approach alone (Saunders, 2009). Synergistic approach provides an effective combination of structure and flexibility that help consider how epistemology, theory, methods and analysis can work together within a mixed methods design. Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks (Creswell, 2007).

The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative data yields additional insight beyond the information provided by either the qualitative or quantitative data alone. Mixed method research has been chosen for a variety of reasons. It employs both approaches iteratively or simultaneously to create a research outcome stronger than either method individually (Salomon, 1991). Overall, combined quantitative and qualitative methods enable exploring more complex aspects and relations of the human and social world. Some aspects in research may best be analysed quantitatively and qualitatively. In both quantitative and qualitative methods, concepts can be imprecise and open to interpretation. Salomon (1991) further argues that the issue is not quantitative versus qualitative methods at all but whether one is taking an analytic approach to understanding a few controlled variables or a systemic approach to understanding the interaction of variables in complex environment. Firestone (1987) suggests that quantitative studies persuade the reader through de-emphasizing individual judgement and stressing the use of established procedures, leading to results that are generalizable to populations. Qualitative research typically answers research questions that address “how” and “why” whereas quantitative research typically addresses “how often” and “how many”. The above reflections give reason to suggest that a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods can be fruitful for obtaining profoundly new empirical insights. A major advantage of blending research methods is that it enables the researcher to simultaneously answer confirmatory and exploratory questions and therefore verify and generate theory in the same study (Teddlie, 2003)

3.4 Population Study

A population has been defined as the entire group of people or a set of objects and events that the researcher wants to study (Muchengetwa, 2005). It is the totality of items or things under consideration from which a sample was taken. A study by Lavrakas (2008) defined the target population as the entire set of subjects for which the survey data are to be used to make inferences. Similarly, Saunders (2009) described population as the group of interest to the researcher, he attested that it is upon this that the researcher would generalise the results of the study. In the words of Kotler (2010), population can be explained as a comprehensive group of individuals, institutions and objects with common characteristics which are of interest to the researcher, statistics also speak of a population of objects events, procedures or observations.  He therefore asserts that a population is thus an aggregate of creatures, things cases and so on.  Studying the whole population would be both laborious and time consuming. The population involves all individuals whom the researcher is interested in obtaining the information and making inferences on.  Thus, the target population defines those subjects for which the findings of the survey are meant to generalise. Lavrakas (2008) goes on to state that the target populations must be specifically defined as their definition determines whether samples are eligible or not for the survey. Jager (2012) defines population as participants randomly selected by the researcher to provide information on the research under study. Cooper and Schindler (2014) defines population as the total collection of elements about which we wish to make inferences on. The target of the population are urban public passengers and motorists in Masvingo. The choice of transport providers and passengers was mainly because they are the ones who experience the impact of   a sustainable or unsustainable transport system. The target population of transport stakeholders were estimated to be 100 000. These included residents in both peri-urban and urban Masvingo. The stakeholders were mainly motorists and passengers who visited Masvingo town during the research period.

3.5 Sampling Techniques.

Qualitative research samples were achieved through purposive sampling technique.  Such participants were selected by virtue of their capacity to provide richly textured information relevant to the phenomenon under investigation. The researcher is going to use purposive sampling. Marshall (1996) concurred with Luborsky (1995) that unlike probability sampling methods, non-probability sampling techniques such as quota purposive and judgemental allows the gathering of rich data. Patton (1990) confirms that indeed there is greater efficiency in purposive sampling compared to random sampling.

Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method. Elements selected for sample are chosen by the judgement of the researcher. Researchers often believe that they can obtain a representative sample by using a sound judgement which will result in saving time and money. Purposive sampling technique is widely used in qualitative research for the identification and selection of information rich cases for the most effective use of limited resources (Patton, 2002). According to Creswell and Clark (2011), purposive sampling involves identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals that are knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest.

There are challenges in identifying and applying the appropriate purposeful sampling strategy for example a study reveals that, the range of variation in a sample from which purposive sample is to be taken is often not really known at the outset of a study. The sampling information rich informants that cover the range of variation assumes one knows that range of variation. An iterative approach of sampling and resampling to draw an appropriate sample is required to make certain the theoretical saturation (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Purposive sampling is vulnerable to errors in judgement by researcher, it possesses low level of reliability and high levels of bias and also it is difficult to generalise the research findings.

3.6 Sampling Size

A sample is defined as a subset of the population under investigation (Wegner, 1999). Sampling means selecting a given number of persons from a defined population as representative of that population. It involves the selection of part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgement of inference about the aggregate or totality is made. According to Cooper (2014),  sampling is the process of choosing subjects that fully represent the target population in order to understand the population representatives, he goes further and added that there are some compelling reasons for sampling which includes lower cost, greater accuracy of results, greater speed of data collection and availability of population elements .Similarly Haque (2008) defines sampling as the selection of some part of aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. According to Saunders (2009), a sample is a subset of the target population from which data is gathered to estimate something about the population. He goes further to say, the main reason behind sampling is to obtain a representative that is similar to the population within an acceptable margin of error. In his definition Saunders (2009) was in agreement to Greener (2008) who said, sampling means selecting a given number of persons from defined population as representative of that population. It is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population. Greener (2008) said the methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed. A sample should represents the whole population and not reflect bias towards a specific attribute. He further argues that, the methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed. Samples are used in statistical testing when population sizes are too large for the test. To include all possible members, a sample should represent the whole population and not reflect bias towards a specific attribute. Sampling is the process of choosing subjects that fully represent the target population in order to understand the population representatives. Cooper and Schindler (2014) suggests that there are some compelling reasons for sampling which includes lower costs, greater accuracy of results greater speed of data collection and availability of population elements. From a population of about 100 000 public transport users a sample of 154 respondents was used. The sample size was chosen using the online Rao soft Sample Calculator.The following sample structure was achieved and used in the study:

Table 3.1: Sample Structure

Source: Survey Results 2022

The sample size of 154 for the survey and 3 for the case study were used in the study as shown by Table 3.1 above.  Any number above 30 units is considered a large sample (Crashaw and Chambers, 2013). The KMO measure of sampling adequacy was found to be 0. 73 under factor analysis.

The sample was drawn from two Strata that is both from direct public transport users and the stakeholders in public transport provision and private car owners. This enabled the study to draw precise and accurate conclusion that was representative of the larger population. A quota sample 91 males and 63 females comprising of 26 students, 89 informally employed residents and 39 formally employed residents participated in this study.

This gave a total of 154 respondents who filled the survey questionnaire. These were the most relevant groups because they have had both an experience in both public transport and private cars as using either of the two they experienced traffic congestion. Age groups from 45-55 years were also used because of their long experience in travelling. They have the knowledge of what might not work and what will actually work since they have experienced many eras in the transport sector.

Stratified sampling and simple random sampling techniques were used to obtain a sample for public transport passengers. Wagner (2012) stated that stratified random sampling is used when the population is assumed to be heterogeneous with respect to the random variable under study. Random samples were drawn with regards to young urban public transport users. This is called proportional stratified random sampling. The advantage of this sampling method is that it generally ensures greater representativeness across the entire population. It also results in sampling error, thereby giving greater precision in estimation. A disadvantage of this technique is that larger samples are required than in simple random sampling to ensure adequate representation of each strata. This may increase costs of data collection.

For focus group discussion convenience sampling technique was used for respondents who are stakeholders in the transport sector. Convenience sampling was defined as a non-probability process by which a researcher gathers statistical data from the population (Muchengetwa, 2004). This form of selection is done based on the ease of gaining the statistical data. Rather than gathering a more accurate array of data from population, the researcher simply gathers data from frequent public transport users. The advantages of this techniques is to get data from a cross section of people. Convenience sampling is easy to apply with few rules governing how the sample should be collected. The relative cost and time required to carry out a convenience sample are also small. This enables achievement of the sample size required in relatively fast and inexpensive way.

For face to face in depth interview, judgemental sampling technique was used. It is a non-probability sampling technique. when researchers use their judgement alone to select the best sampling units to include in a sample, this is called judgemental sampling (Saunders,2009).it is a method where sample members are not selected randomly but choice is based on respondents expertise in area under investigation. Face to face interviews were done with 3 senior officials selected from Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) Traffic, Traffic Safety Council and City of Masvingo. This has advantage of involving a smaller amount of subjects which in turn reduces investment in time and money. The officials were also considered very experienced in the area under study. This would contribute to validity and reliability of their study.

3.7 Research Instrumentation

Saunders (2005) defines research instruments as tools that are used to collect data to be used in the research project. They are data collection techniques which are used by the researcher in order to gather primary data from the field of study. Wilson (2006) defines research instruments as devices for obtaining data relevant to researchers study. Survey questionnaires and interview guides were used as the prime data collection instruments in this research. A questionnaire has been identified as a predefined set of questions assembled in a pre-determined order wherein respondents are asked to answer questions thus providing the researcher with data that can be analysed and interpreted (Oates, 2006). This instrument has been chosen mainly because it allows the researcher to gather as much data as possible from many respondents and minimise the risk of interviewer bias and subjectivity. Questionnaires provided for great assurance of anonymity on the part of the respondents. They give respondents an opportunity to respond candidly to questions of a sensitive nature. An interview guide was used for generating responses from participants drawn from stakeholders in the transport industry, namely; Zimbabwe Republic Police Traffic, Traffic Safety Council and City of Masvingo.

3.7.1 In depth interview guide

Levin and Rubin (1994) defined interview guide as an instrument with set of questions that an interviewer will use to extract information from interviewees. The questions on an interview guide seek to answer research objectives according to Boyce and Neale (2006), the key characteristics of in depth interviews are use of open ended questions. Questions need to be worded so that respondents expound on the topic not just answer “yes” or “no”. This had the advantage of giving respondents freedom to answer the questions using their own words. The questions are few as there is scope to ask follow up questions during the interview process.

According to Muchengetwa (2005), an interview guide directs interviewer’s effort and keeps him or her from digressing from the objective of the interview. It saves time as questions are predetermined. There is chronology in order of questions to be asked. however interview may require extra resources to reach out to respondents. interviews can further clarify difficult questions.

An in-depth interviews guide was used where formal set of questions were posed to each interviewee and recorded using a standardised procedure. The interviewer had a leeway to modify the sequence and wording of questions. There was also room for further probing. Observation checklist will also be used. The researcher can thus be able to observe and record what is going on. In depth interviews are expensive and time consuming. They require well qualified and highly trained interviewers. The interviewee may distort information through recall error, selective perceptions or by the desire to please the interviewer flexibility can result in inconsistencies across interviews, the volume of information can be too large as a result data may be difficult to transcribe.

Face to face interviews will be used as they give higher response rate and the interviewer has opportunity to clarify questions. In his words, Kotler (2009) described interviews as a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked and answers are given. A standardised and structured interview was administered where specific questions to answer the research problem was asked. A face to face interview was used due to many reasons such as accurate screening. The respondents being interviewed is unable to provide false information for example gender of respondent. Face to face interview also capture verbal and nonverbal ques including body language which may indicate a level of discomfort with the questions. Marczyl (2005) propounded that face to face interviews keeps focus as the interviewer has the control over the interview and can keep the interviewee focused on the track. Rosony (2011) asserts that interviews are most operational tool for research due to the ability of probing the respondent to make issues vividly.

This is the method of data collection where the interviewer obtains responses from their subjects through direct questioning. Which means the researcher will have a personal interaction with the respondents .Cooper and Schindler (2014) asserts that interview is the primary data collection technique which vary based on the number of people involved It requires skills which includes making respondents comfortable , probing for detail without intimidating the respondents , remaining neutral while encouraging the participants to talk freely and openly , it also requires good listening skills where the researcher will be listening  carefully to the respondents and following a participant train of thought .

3.7.2 Survey Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents (Wagner, 1993).Following Ritchie and Lewis, (2003), questioners refers to a series of questions administered to the respondents in order to obtain and solicit statistical information available on a given research topic .Questionnaires are in this study because it is a valuable way of collecting data from many respondents. Similarly, Collins (2000) defines questionnaires as a document with present questions sent to respondents to solicit appropriate responses about the given phenomenon in the words of Coolman ,(2007) a questionnaire is a predefined set of questions assembled in a predetermined order wherein respondents are asked to answer questions thus providing the researcher with data that  can be analysed and interpreted .With reference to Kyalo (2015) ,self-administered  questionnaires is a type of questionnaire designed specifically to be completed without intervention of the researcher .There are a set of questions drafted in order to get the perspective of the respondent in relation to the research under study . Bishop (2015) states that Likert type questions are best used when the researcher seeks to quantify the opinions of participants on issues that are different.

A list of versatile questions were given up by respondents allowing collection of objective and subjective data through the use of open and closed questions. Questionnaires were derived from the research objective therefore it was structured in a manner to address the objectives of the research. The researcher use questionnaires because they are practical, they can be targeted groups of choice and managed in various ways. Its ability of comparability drives the researcher to use them. When data has been quantified it can be used to compare and contrast other research. Also questionnaires offers actionable data, the more data gathered the clear painting becomes and this gives capability to create new strategies and to follow trends of the respondents (Saunders, 2009). The researcher will use structured questioners. This is because they give the respondents time to consider questions carefully and there is pledge of anonymity and confidentiality.

The responses are gathered in a standardised way, so questionnaires are more objective, certainly more so than interviews. Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire. however in some situations they can take long time not only to design but also to apply and analyse. Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group. The advantages of using questionnaires were that the researcher was able to gather as much data as possible from many respondents .it assisted in minimising interviewer bias and subjectivity. Questionnaires provided for great assurance of anonymity on the part of the respondents.

3.8 Reliability and Validity

3.8.1 Reliability of the Study

Saunders (2009) defines reliability as the extent to which data collection techniques or analysis procedures will yield consistent findings. Similarly Easter by –Smith (2008) highlighted that it is concerned with whether measures yield same results on different occasions other researchers will reach similar observations and whether there is transparency in how sense is made from raw data. Creswell (2003), simply states that reliability is imperative for research. Robson (2002) posits that there are four threats to reliability namely subject /participant’s errors or bias and observer error or bias Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) said that reliability refers to the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after being used more than once. Reliability in research can be influenced by error reliability was ensured by using questionnaires and then later using interviews to obtain data from the same respondents so as to make sure that their responses are consistent. According to Walliman (2001), reliability was assessed using the test retest reliability method by including similar items on the measure and tested a diverse sample of individuals. All the sources of information will be referenced and data sources kept in a more transparent manner as these will serve to increase the reliability of the research. To increase reliability of data, data will be collected from appropriate population, a large sample size used and numerical techniques also used to analyse data. Use of direct quotations in participant’s responses will also increase reliability of data (Glatthorn and Joyler, 2005). The reliability statistics were Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.83 as calculated from the SPSS.

3.8.2 Validity of the Study

Validity is the extent to which data collection technique or techniques will yield consistent findings, similar observations would be made or conclusions reached by other researchers or there is transparency in how sense was made from raw data (Creswell, 2011) Validity is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about (Saunders, 2009). Robson (2002) identified some threats to validity namely history, testing, instrumentation, mortality and maturation. He added that there are multiple validity measures such as construct, face, internal, external and content validity a study by Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) reveals that validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences based on research results. It comprises of the degree to which results obtained from the data analysis represents the subject of the study. To ensure validity, accuracy of research data has been put into consideration to represent variables of the study. In this case data that is validated will be data that is evaluated to be fit for use in the decision making and corroborated from various sources in the information system. The researchers focus was to have data that has consistency, understandable and traceable to the system, it is actually data that has integrity. Validity was ensured through the use of the correct sample for the research under study. The correct sample was having the rightful people who are actually the direct users of transport. To crosscheck the validity of results yielded by one paradigm with those yielded by another, any research should have both the quantitative and qualitative research aspects. The two paradigms are complementary and never antagonistic. Researcher made sure that population is suitable. Data triangulation, use of large sample size, collection of data from rich sources and verification of recorded information by participants was done to ensure validity of data collection.

3.9 Pilot Survey

Testing was done to determine the effectiveness of a survey questionnaire before actually using it. This was designed in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the survey concerning question format, wording and order. According to Dillon (1990), pilot testing is where a small number of questionnaires or interviews are carried out in the fields to see if there are any aspects of it that require refinement. Ten (10) questionnaires were dispatched for testing to passengers and motorists. These were hand delivered. Telephone follows up were done and 1005 response rate was achieved as some were physically collected. These respondents did not form part of the final survey. The pretesting was effective as it enables refinement of certain questions. Vague and difficult questions were simplified in terms of wording so that respondents will not have problems in answering the questions. The actual survey involved researcher administering questionnaires to participants at bus terminuses.

Face to face interviews were done with senior officials at ZRP Traffic Department. Steps to the interview entail emailing interview questions to the senior official a week before date of interview. Appointment to secure date of interviews was made. Stakeholders in the transport were subjected to a focus group discussion researcher will ask questions and record using a smart-phone.

3.10 Methods of Data Analysis

The process of encoding qualitative and or quantitative information is called data analysis. It involves the presenting and interpreting of data collected from the subjects. According to cooper and Schindler (2014), data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to manageable size, developing summaries and looking for patterns. Researchers must interpret findings in light of the research questions or determine if the results are consistent with their hypothesis and theories.

Cooper and Schindler (2014) go on to mention that data analysis involves the following stages which will be adopted by this study. Firstly, editing of raw data in order to detect errors and omissions and correct them where possible and that certifies the maximum data quality standard are achieved. Secondly, editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are accurate, consistent with intentions of the questions, uniformly entered, complete and arranged to simplify coding and tabulation. Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so that the responses can be grouped into a limited number of categories both closed and open response questions should be coded. Finally data entry converts information gathered by primary and secondary methods to a medium for viewing and manipulation. Data collected under research question will be entered in the statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Tables, pie charts, and graphs will be used to present data. The purpose of the analysis will be to summarise data in order to provide the answers to the research questions. Qualitative data shall be analysed through thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data (Baun and Clarke, 2006). It will compress long statements into briefer statements in which main sense of what had been said or observed is rephrases in a few words. Principal themes will emerge and their apparent relationship produced. The data was presented in form of tables, text, summary statements and figures.

3.11 Ethical Considerations

Research ethics to the appropriateness of the researcher’s behaviour in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of a research project, or who are affected by it (Creswell, 2011). Research considerations therefore relate to those factors that were taken into account about how to formulate and clarify research topic, design research and gain access, collect data, process and sore our data, analyse data and write up research findings in a moral and responsible way (Zikmund, 2000).Cooper and Schindler said that ethics are norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our behaviour and relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from the research activities and it includes confidentiality and protecting the rights of the respondents among other issues. The research was conducted in Masvingo and as such ethical issues had to be considered. The researcher secured authority from the university on the terms of reference for the research a disclaimer statement and a confidentiality statement were given to the respondents and participants. During the data collection stage, respondents will be assured that all data provided would be treated with confidentiality and would be used exclusively for evaluation purposes. It has been viewed as good ethical practice if respondents are afforded the time to decide, refuse to participate or withdraw from a survey (Kotler, 2016). The questionnaires, corresponding codes and other confidential data will be destroyed after they have served their purpose. The researcher will not interfere with or undermine normal organisational processes, practices and procedures. The researcher will also ensure that this study is original and not plagiarised. Participation was voluntary and not coerced. General ethical issues considered in this research included privacy of possible or actual participants, voluntary participation and right to withdraw partially or completely from the process, consent and possible deception of participants, maintenance and confidentiality of data provided by individuals.

3.12 Summary

The chapter gave an outline of what approach was adopted in the research and the sources of data used and the data collection methods employed by the researcher. The chapter also outlined how the research was carried out in the research design research instruments were also highlighted. Validity, reliability and ethical considerations and data presentation, analysis and discussion were also given. By following applicable research methodology, reliable and accurate data was collected from the participants of the research. This data was analysed to obtain meaningful information upon which recommendations would be made. The presentation and discussion of these results are contained in Chapter 4.

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRTETATION

4.0 Introduction

The previous Chapter critically discussed the procedures used for framing the research problem, data collection, analysis and discussion of results. The present Chapter presents the results generated from a survey and case study with stakeholders influenced by traffic flow and congestion in Masvingo City. The data was presented in tables and text with results from quantitative research being triangulated with those from qualitative research. The major sections covered in the Chapter are the demographics of respondents, causes of traffic congestion in Masvingo, effects of traffic congestion in Masvingo, measures of reducing traffic congestion in Masvingo and regression analysis among the variables. The discussion of results was done with respect to the framework of improving the flow of vehicles in the urban centres.

4.1 Demographics of Respondents

From a sample of 200 questionnaires that were sent out to respondents, 154 were returned to researcher. The response rate was calculated as 154/200= 77%. The response rate was high and acceptable enough to represent views of the people who were interviewed.

4.1.1 Gender of Respondents

Table 4.1 Gender of Respondents

Source: Survey Results 2022

The study used 91 male respondents and 63 female respondents to provide views on causes of congestion in the city of Masvingo. More males represented the number of male drivers. Gender of respondents represented attitudes, perceptions and motivations that relate to congestion.

4.1.2 Age Group of Respondents

Table 4.2 Age Group of Respondents

Source: Survey Results 2022

The age distribution was comprised of 21 to 30years (14,9%), 31to 40 years (52,60 %) ,41 to 50 years (25.3%) and 51 and above (7,1 %) as depicted in Table 4.1 above. Age is critical as it exposes the respondents with adequate knowledge on vehicle driving and matters to do with congestion.

4.1.3 Education Levels of Respondents

Table 4.3 Education Levels of Respondents

Source: Survey Results 2022

The respondents who participated in the study received formal education through various structures of the education system in Zimbabwe. From a total of 154 respondents the majority were educated in levels of 27.9% at certificate and below, 35.7% at diploma levels and 36,4% at first degree and above. Table 4.3 above depicts respondents response pattern. It must be observed that education level of respondents is critical as it assist to tell ability of respondents to understand questions raised in the questionnaire and their meaning. Bulky of the people were first degree and above holders. This scenario made it easy for respondents to attend to the questions with consummate easy. They had adequate knowledge about matters to do with congestion

4.1.4 Experience of Staying or Visiting Masvingo

Table 4.4 Experience of Staying or Visiting Masvingo

Source: Survey Results 2022

From the respondents in the study 50 people amounting to 32.5% showed that they had stayed in the city for a period of below 10 years while the majority of 67.5% had stayed for a period in excess of 10 years. These statistics showed that the majority of the people had stayed in the city for a fairly long time as to appreciate evolution of congestion in Masvingo. They fully comprehend background and current levels of traffic demand in the city.

4.1.5 Occupation of Respondents

Table 4.5 Occupation of Respondents

Source: Survey Results 2022

The research respondents comprised of mainly students and people from both formal and informal sectors. From the 154 respondents, 16.9% were students while 57,8 % were employed in the informal sector while 25 3 % were formally employed. While these figures demonstrate nature of industry in the city, it must be observed that they all sustain their living from central business district of the city. The majority of the respondents are in the informal sector.

4.2 Causes of Congestion in Masvingo

The following is a list of possible major causes of congestion in city of Masvingo. To what extent do you agree that each of the factors in the table below is prevalent.

Table 4.6 Causes of Congestion in Masvingo City

Source: Survey Results 2022

4.2.1 Being Part Harare –Beitbridge Highway (mean = 3,81)

This factor recorded a positive value of 3,81 and a total agreement of 65%. Respondents therefore agreed that by virtue of being strategically located on Beitbridge –Harare highway, Masvingo town was probe to traffic congestion. The remaining 35 % was comprised of 19,5% of respondents who were not sure and 15,5% who disagreed with this assertion.

Key informant l admitted that indeed congestion in Masvingo was attributed to fact that the city is situated strategically on Beitbridge – Chirundu highway. The informant validated this by way of statistics that I in 10 vehicles randomly checked was a haulage truck or long distance bus.

Key informant lll further noted that all the traffic from Beitbridge to Harare and beyond filter through Mucheke Bridge into the city centre thereby creating bottlenecks on smooth flow of traffic from suburbs of Rujeko and Mucheke and Runyararo.

4.2.2 Poor Driving Practices and weather Conditions (mean = 3 69)

This measure registered a high mean value of 3,69 and agreement of 68,2%. From the 154 respondents, 9.7% strongly disagreed with assertion that poor driving practices and weather conditions contributed to congestion, 7.8 % disagreed with this statement, 14,3% were not sure while 27,9% strongly agreed with fact that poor driving practices and conditions cause congestion in Masvingo. The majority of the respondent, 40,3 % strongly agreed with statement that poor driving practices and weather conditions contributed to congestion in the city. The remaining 27.9% strongly agreed that poor driving practices and weather conditions contributed significantly to congestion.

Key informant ll also noted that most drivers drive automatic vehicles which are easy to drive but may not be bonafide holders of drivers licences. Their style of driving violates basic tenets of sound driving thereby creating bottlenecks to smooth flow of traffic. Such poor driving standards coupled with rainy weather conditions in some cases contributed to traffic congestion in the city.  

4.2.3 Narrow, Rough and Potholed Roads (mean = 3,54)

Of the total respondents,11,7% strongly disagreed that narrow rough and potholed roads contribute to congestion, 9,7% disagreed ,9.1 % were not sure while the majority of respondents agreed that it causes congestion. These statistics show that the majority of the people agree that narrow, rough and potholed roads contribute to congestion as demonstrated by a positive mean value of 3,54 and an aggregate agreement of 69,4 %.

Key informant 1 underscored observations made by key informant ll that traffic into city centre from high density surburbs of Rujeko, Runyararo and Mucheke filter through one main road and bridge (Mucheke Bridge). This naturally creates demand for space and competition by motorists for a forward step ward into city centre. Absence of other minor feeder roads into city centre strains the one major road that filers via the main bridge creating congestion right round the clock.

4.2.4 On Going Road Works, Rehabilitation and Road Closures (mean =3,22)

From this factor, a positive mean value of 3.22 was recorded and total agreement of 48,7% A total of 26,6% of respondents were in disagreement with the abovementioned measure while 24,7% were not sure.

Key Informant lll highlighted that road works have often contributed to traffic congestion in the city each time these are carried out. Road works often lead to temporary closure of some roads in and around the city .These creates pressure on the remaining open roads thereby creating congestion.

4.2.5 Increase in Use of Small Occupancy Vehicles (MEAN=2.91)

This variable recorded a lower/weak mean value of 2.91 and a total disagreement of 47,4%. Respondents disagreed that use of small occupancy vehicles causes congestion in city of Masvingo while 37% were in agreement. Only 15.6 % were not sure.

Key informant illustrated that indeed there is a general increase in number of vehicles on roads in the city of Masvingo. Following government ‘s relaxation on policy with regards motor vehicle importation, it must be observed that there has been a huge influx of small vehicles into the country. These are used both in towns and cities even on the countryside. The same vehicles are competing for same road space that was in place since several years ago. In other words, while vehicles are increasing in number, infrastructure has remained the same for quite a long time now. That imbalance or mismatch creates congestion.

4.2.6 Human Traffic Congestion in Roads and Streets (mean = 2,34)

The current state of congestion in the city of Masvingo was exposed by the research through the question which asked whether human traffic congestion in roads and streets contributed to congestion. The Majority of the respondents, 61,1 % strongly disagreed that human traffic causes congestion. This measure recorded a negative value of 2,34. Respondents who were in agreement constituted 25,3% while 13.6% were not sure.

Although majority of respondents were reluctant to express their views on this aspect, informant lll argued that the number of people has increased in the city. This was evidenced by mushrooming of some activities that used to be done away from city centre. For example, the central business district has been turned out to be some kind of termini for long distance travellers. Mucheke Bus Terminus is now a white elephant and all termini activity shifted to city centre thereby creating not only unwarranted congestion and chaos. Travellers must access transport through designated termini and interchanges where there are proper facilities for them (Faulks, 1999).

4.2.7 Vehicle Breakdowns and Poor Parking (mean = 2,27)

This dimension recorded a negative mean value of 2,27 and aggregate disagreement of 59,1 %. This therefore means vehicle breakdowns and poor parking are not a prevalent phenomenon in Masvingo. A smaller number of respondents amounting to 17,5% agreed that there are vehicle breakdowns and poor parking in Masvingo while 23,4 % respondents were not sure.

Key informant ll also concurred with the view expressed above that vehicle breakdowns and poor parking, although these have a potential of causing traffic flow bottlenecks, this was not very prevalent in Masvingo.

4.3 Effects of Congestion in Masvingo City

There was also need to establish a list of possible effects of congestion in the society and economic –technical structures of the affected urban centre. The Table 4.7 below indicates the results derived from the survey questionnaire with traffic stakeholders. Detailed discussions of their implications are presented below the table of results.

Table 4.7 Effects of Congestion in Masvingo City

Source: Survey Results 2022

4.3.1. Destruction of Road Infrastructure by Congestion and Response to Congestion (mean=3.94)

The destruction of road infrastructure directly by traffic congestion and by driver’s response to that congestion was rated with a mean value of 3.94 and a total agreement percentage of 76.6%.  Only some 21.4% felt that it was a minor impact of the traffic congestion. The destruction of roads, pavements and water pipes has been experienced as a result of overweight on the road sections. Some road signs, road sides, the centre of the road and even nearby buildings are in danger of destruction as motorists make short cuts in dealing with congestion.  Some roads recently laid out are now in bad state as motor vehicles stampede for space and mobility.

Key informant l noted with concern how congestion negatively impacts on the environment particularly with regards to infrastructure. He had this to say: “From a motorist point of view, congestion is characterised by slow stop start movements. This phenomenon creates impatience on part of drivers resulting in a temptation to want to gain a forward step by violating traffic lanes and riding overs road curbs and other forms of infrastructure. Some infrastructure like poles and road signs are hit and pulled down in the process”

4.3.2 Collapse of Service Delivery and Poor Reaction to Emergencies (mean=3.81)

The collapse of service delivery in businesses and poor reaction to emergencies by individuals and organisations was rated as highly prevalent by a mean value of 3.81, a total agreement percentage value of 76.6% and an overall disagreement figure of 21.4%. The delays in travel by business people, council officers, government employees and other city stakeholders had led to paralysis of services in all sectors. The drivers of vehicles had to wait for long hours before delivery of expected goods and services. The services offered by ambulances, fire fighters, municipal vehicles and personal vehicles are delayed in reaction to emergencies. This generally put the society at more risk than if congestion is eliminated.

Key Informant lll argued that congestion had a negative effect of interfering with provision of public service delivery systems such as smooth movement of ambulances and other emergency vehicles like police, fire brigade and even Presidential motorcades. Key informant ll also argued along same lines that delivery of goods and services become very slow because half the town vehicles will be trapped in congestion.

4.3.3 Delays in Goods and Passenger Transportation (mean=3.80)

The study established that delays in goods and passenger transportation were rated as a major challenge with a mean value of 3.80 and total agreement percentage of 78.65. The total disagreement percentage of 17.5% showed those who rated it lowly. The informal traders, wholesalers, retailers, government departments, bus operators, mushikashika operators, taxi drivers and majority of stakeholders indicated that delivery of goods and taking people to and from work is restricted by traffic congestion.  Such delay lead to downstream inefficiencies in the flow of resources and people as time is lost.

Key informant 1 supported the view that congestion reduces smooth functioning of supply chain operations i,e movement of  goods  and  services from different points  of  origin to destinations. Efficient supply chain operations cannot be achieved in an environment characterised by congestion.

4.3.4 Lost Man-Hours and Opportunities in Companies (mean=3.46)

The lost man-hours and opportunities in companies in Masvingo city was rated with a mean value of 3.46 and a total agreement percentage of 50.7%. Those who generally disagreed were 23.3% of all respondents.  The lost man hours become significant over a long period of time as there is some accumulation of hours lost by all employees in Masvingo delayed by traffic congestion. Traffic congestion delay suppliers, customers, partners and various operations of the company. In this discussion a loss of 30Mins per day by 50 000 workers translate into 25 000 hours lost per day. If we add this to a year, then its significance become critical in terms of productive time lost. Many companies in agriculture and construction industries lose opportunity through delays on traffic as contracts are given to the first comers. Informal businesses lose customers and cheaper suppliers due to traffic congestion.

Key informant ll stated that “productive time is lost while people are locked in congestion as they try to access their work stations. This was also underscored by key informant lll.

4.3.5 Increase in Fuel Consumption and Pollution (mean=2.36)

The increase in fuel consumption and pollution resulting from congestion was rated as a weaker impact with a mean value of 2.36 and a total disagreement figure of 69.5%. Those who agreed were only 22.1% of the total respondents. The respondents felt that loss of fuel and pollution were generally negligible and less worthy noting. In this environment motorists and residents regard fuel saving measures as only critical in terms of choosing a less expensive fuel service station. Though respondents perceived fuel consumption and pollution effects as unnoticeable, the technical side consider fuel consumption to be higher in the traffic jam and traffic congestion. The vehicles will be using heavy gears and hence more fuel consumption.

Key informant l, ll and lll were of the view that congestion can lead to increased consumption of fuel and pollution. Although most respondents were of the view that this does not increase fuel consumption. This variance in opinion between key informants and other general respondents could be a function of differences in educational and professional backgrounds in the sense that those asked could be lay persons.

4.3.6 Increased Chances of Accidents (mean=2.16)

The increased chances of accidents as an impact of congestion was rated lowly by a mean value of 2.16 and a total disagreement percentage of 72.1%. Those who agreed that congestion lead to more chances of accidents were 24.0% of the research participants. In terms of low chances of accidents, the respondents could have perceived that real accidents are those of fatal scale rather than where vehicles just rub and press each other. Slow speed in a congestion may cause more exposure to cars hitting each other but are not taken as real accidents. Real accidents are considered as those occurring when motorists are speeding in a non-congested space. Congestion may cause fatal accidents to the extent of motorists trying to use short cuts and cover up for the time lost during traffic jam.

Key informant lll was of the view that congestion often leads to chances of accidents. This was however disputed by other respondents. That difference in opinion could be attributed to lack of knowledge on real aspects of congestion.

4.4 Measures to Address Congestion

The following is a list of possible measures that can be taken tom address congestion.  To what extent do you agree that each of the effects areas in the table below are effective measures?

Table 4.8 Measures to Address Congestion in Masvingo City

Source: Survey Results 2022

4.4.1 Use of High Occupancy Public Transport Vehicles of

This factor recorded a positive mean value of 4.19 and a total agreement of 74,7 %. Respondents were of the view that use of high occupancy public passenger transport vehicles were a possible solution to congestion in city of Masvingo. High occupancy vehicles are an economic user of space. In other words few vehicles are utilised and they carry more people. High occupancy vehicles (HOV) aim to move more people and improve on overall performance of the highways segments by reducing travel time, increasing average operational speed and reducing traffic congestion (Maunder 2013. The remaining respondents of 13,6% disagreed that high occupancy vehicles could solve issue of congestion while 11,7 % were not sure.

Key informant l,ll and lll were in agreement that use of high occupancy vehicles was a critical factor in resolving congestion. They made reference to yesteryear when urban public transport was functional. High occupancy vehicles are economic users of space (Maunder,2013)

4.4.2 Introducing a 24-Hour Economy, Staggered Working and Flexible Working

This factor recorded a positive mean value of 3.89 and a total agreement of 78,6%. Respondnets felt that congestion could be addressed by intruding a system of working where people work right round the clock. This has a tendency to spread demand for transport than have a situation of peak during morning, afternoon and evening rush hours. The remaining respondents comprised of 17,5% who disagreed with the suggestion while a few 3,9% were not sure.

Key informant ll argued that introducing a 24 hour economy had the effect of spreading demand for transport right round the clock. A 24 hour economy and staggered working hours naturally destroy the peak times phenomena experienced in the morning, afternoon and evening (Faulks,2009)

4.4.3 Strict Enforcement of Transport Laws and Regulations on Motorists

This factor registered a positive mean value of 3.29 and a total agreement of 53,9%. Strict enforcement. Respondents felt that issue of traffic congestion could be addressed by strict enforcement of transport and regulations on motorists. Strict enforcement has a tendency to dissuade motoring culprits from using their unroadworthy vehicles. Same people could be unlicensed or fear to be caught on wrong side of the law. With law enforcers on the road, it will promote sustained compliance and congestion with traffic laws through deterrence and also help prevent hazardous traffic situations from occurring and thus prevent or reduce the number of traffic accidents and congestion.

Key informants l, ll and lll were all of the view that too many small vehicles in towns and cities call for strict enforcement of traffic laws by various arms of the states in form Vehicle Inspectorate Department, Zimbabwe Republic Police and Traffic Safety Council of Zimbabwe. Current congestion was viewed as a manifestation of failures of law enforcement.

4.4.4 Widening of Roads and Building Additional Bridges

A question was asked whether widening of roads could assist tame congestion in Masvingo. This factor recorded a positive mean value of 3.25% and a total agreement of 42,2%.Respondnets therefore were in agreement that widening of roads and building of additional bridges are a possible measure to addressing congestion. A big number of respondents, 36 % were not sure though while a small percentage of the respondents ,21,4% disagreed with the proposal.

Key informant l suggested that current infrastructure of roads and bridges was no longer coping with prevailing traffic volume dictates. Widening of roads by introducing dual or triple lanes would assist improve traffic flow. Key informant l was quoted as saying :“Traffic congestion cannot be avoided in city of  Masvingo congestion cannot be avoided given fact that there is one major road that feeds not town”

4.4.5 Decentralisation of Administrative Facilities to Residential Areas

This variable recorded a negative mean value of 2.49 and a total disagreement of 60,4%. Respondents did not agree with the assertion that decentralisation of administrative facilities to residential areas with 21.4% of respondents not sure.

Key informant ll was quoted as saying: “sustainable land use strategies are required in the city of Masvingo. This entails decentralising major services and amenities like banks, health facilities and supermarkets to residential areas. Bringing services to people‘s neighbourhood discourages people from moving . It reduces demand for transport as most services will be within people ‘s reach, he said.

4.4.6 Improving Road Signage and Traffic Lights

This factor recorded a negative mean value of 2,82% and a total. Respondents were not sure whether improvement of road signage and traffic lights would reduce road traffic congestion ion Masvingo

Key informant lll was of the view that road signage and traffic lights required attention in city of Masvingo. The robots in the city centre is always not in working order most of the time. This creates congestion especially during rainy weather.

4.5 Regression Analysis of the Traffic Congestion System

4.5.1 Hypothesis Testing of the Regression Model

A multiple regression analysis test was carried out for fitting the basic road traffic issues on the measures to reduce traffic congestion in Masvingo city. The two dimensions that represented the independent variables were causes of congestion and effects of congestion, and the dependent variable was the measures of reducing traffic congestion.

The study tested the hypothesis as stated below:

H₀: There is a significant relationship between basic issues of traffic congestion and the measures for addressing traffic congestion in Masvingo city.

H₁: There is no significant relationship between basic issues of traffic congestion and the measures for addressing traffic congestion in Masvingo city.

The results of the test are given on Tables 4.9 (a,b,c) below. The model summary of results gives an R-value of +0.924, an R-Square value of 0.854, an adjusted R-Square value of 0.853 (85.3%), a Durbin Watson value of 1.890 and Standard Error of the Estimate of 0.38. An F-test value of 443.203 and a p-value of 0.000 were produced by the ANOVA analysis as indicated by findings on Table 4.9(b) below. Given the F test value of 443.203 with a p-value of 0.000, and adjusted R-square of 85.3%, the study concluded that there is a positive and significant relationship between basic traffic congestion issues and measures of reducing traffic congestion in Masvingo city. The study accepted the null hypothesis and rejected the alternative hypothesis was in the multiple regression analysis test. This demonstrate that basic traffic congestion issues have power to influence the way such congestion will be reduced in Masvingo city.

Table 4.9 (a) Model Summary of the Regression Analysis

a Predictors: (Constant), Effects of Congestion, Causes of Congestion

b Dependent Variable: Measures to Congestion

Table 4.9 (b) ANOVA Results of the Regression Analysis

a Predictors: (Constant), Effects of Congestion, Causes of Congestion

b Dependent Variable: Measures to Congestion

Table 4.9 (c) Coefficients of the Regression Analysis

a Dependent Variable: Measures to Congestion

4.5.2 Fitting the Multiple Regression Model

The table 4.9(c) shows the Beta values, t-values, standard errors, p-values and other statistical coefficients as summarised from other tables above.  The standard error was +0.031 at p-value of 1.000 for the dependent variable ‘measures of reducing traffic congestion’ in Masvingo city. The independent variables which determined the measures to be used for reducing traffic congestion in Masvingo city were causes of traffic congestion (p-value=0.002; Beta=0.244) and effects of traffic congestion (p-value=0.000; Beta=0.696).

The following multiple regression equation was established based on the model results above as all variables had p-values below the 0.05 benchmark.

Measures of traffic congestion =0.031 + 0.244(causes of traffic congestion) + 0.696 (effects of traffic congestion) + 0.38 (Std Error of Estimate)

In the above model, there is need for analysing the major causes of traffic congestion and jam, and evaluate its effects on the physical, business and social dimensions before designing the strategies of reducing such traffic congestion. The effects have a higher beta value and hence close impact on the strength of designing the solutions to traffic congestion in Masvingo town. The effects that lead to more innovation on ways to address the traffic congestion include destruction of infrastructure and roads, collapse of service delivery, failure to react to emergencies and loss man hours.

4.6 Chapter Summary

The Chapter presented the results generated from a survey and case study with stakeholders influenced by traffic flow and congestion in Masvingo City. The data was presented in tables and text with results from quantitative research being triangulated with those from qualitative research. The major sections covered in the Chapter are the demographics of respondents, causes of traffic congestion in Masvingo, effects of traffic congestion in Masvingo, measures of reducing traffic congestion in Masvingo and regression analysis among the variables. The discussion of results were done with respect to the framework of improving the flow of vehicles in the urban centres. The next Chapter presents a brief view of the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the whole research processes and findings of the study. 

SUMMARY, FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This Chapter presents a concise version of the research procedures, rationale, key findings and suggested ways of solving the problem. Major sections that are in this Chapter are the summary, conclusions, recommendations and topic for further study.

5.1 Summary

The study focussed on analysing the causes, effects and way forward of Traffic congestion in Masvingo city in the 2018 to 2020 period.  The was carried out to address issues of congestion that were experienced from morning, mid-day to evening in major streets and roads in Masvingo. These forms of transactions had been associated with intermittent traffic jams, long queues and suffering of motorists and passengers. The major research objectives included establishing the underlying causes of traffic congestion in the City of Masvingo, analysing the impact of congestion on supply chain operations in city of Masvingo and determining the approaches for reducing congestion in the city of Masvingo. The study adopted a pragmatic research philosophy that applied a mixed methodology research design. A cross-sectional survey of 154 survey questionnaires and a case study of 3 in-depth interviews were used to collect data. Quota sampling and judgmental sampling were used for selecting the research participants. The research faced challenges of some impatient respondents, long time taken in the field and loss of funds used in visiting research participants. The use of 154 survey respondents could perceived as smaller than the optimal sample size of 200 for problem solving researches.

On the causes of congestion, being part of Harare-Beitbridge road (mean=3.81), poor driving practices and weather conditions(mean=3.69), and the narrow, rough and potholed roads (means=3.54) were key findings.  The effects of congestion were mainly destruction of road infrastructure 9mean=3.94), collapse of service delivery and poor reaction to emergencies (mean=3.81), delays in goods and passenger transportation (mean=3.80) and lost man hours and opportunities(mean=3.46). Key approaches for dealing with congestion were rated as use of high occupancy public transport (mean=4.19) and introducing a 24 hour and flexible working hours(mean=3.89), strict enforcement of transport laws and regulations (mean=3.29) and widening of roads and building additional bridges (mean=3.25).

5.2 Conclusions

5.2.1 Causes of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo.

With the mean values ranging from 3.22 to 3.81 from the survey it can be concluded that, Poor driving practices, unwelcome weather conditions, narrow, rough and potholed roads, ongoing road works and rehabilitation, road closures and increase in use of small occupancy personal vehicles were the major causes of congestion in Masvingo city. This is in line with Mbara 2015 that says, ‘The situation of traffic congestion has worsened for developing countries due to unplanned cities, poor discipline, alternate traffic means, archaic management, and improper lane management (Mbara,2015).’ Human traffic congestion in roads and streets, vehicle breakdowns and poor parking were found to be less important causes of congestion.

5.2.2 Effects of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo.

The study concluded that destruction of road infrastructure, collapse of service delivery and poor reaction to emergencies, delays in goods and passenger transportation, lost man-hours and lost opportunities in companies were critical effects of traffic congestion in Masvingo city. Possible increase in fuel consumption and pollution and increased chances of accidents were perceived as weak effects of traffic congestion in the city of Masvingo despite the fact Mahmud, 2012 further expounded that traffic congestion increases travel costs. He mentioned various costs caused by traffic congestion, traffic slows down speed which is a visible cost and when people forgo their trips because of fear for congestion then it becomes a hidden cost of congestion and when traffic congestion make people not to believe in their cities they miss finding better jobs, and sharing better amenities.

5.2.3 Measures for Reducing Congestion in city of Masvingo.

The study concluded that use of high occupancy public transport vehicles as a measure of reducing congestion, this conclusion is supported by a study of car ownership in Canada done by Anowar, Eluru and Miranda (2015), shows that improvements in public transport services can reduce car ownership levels. Their findings were supported by Gubbins (2003) who showed that driving in urban areas has been actively discouraged by improvements in public transport.  Also, in conclusion introducing a 24-hour economy and staggered inter-company work time tables and flexi-working, strict enforcement of transport laws and regulations on motorists, widening of roads and building additional bridges were more appealing measures of reducing congestion to traffic stakeholders in Masvingo. Decentralisation of administrative facilities to residential areas and improving road signage and traffic lights, were however, found to be less important in taming traffic congestion in Masvingo city.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Causes of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo.

The study recommends the traffic stakeholders in Masvingo city to put measures that will reduce use of small occupancy vehicles by households and public transport operators. This could be done by making improvements on the public passenger transport system like Zupco buses and associated sub-contractors. Poor driving practices need to be dealt with by stepping up law enforcement and road rules compliance systems. Education and awareness campaigns on ways of improving driving skills and ability to deal with congestion.  The City of Masvingo need to build advanced road networks that accommodate the vehicles moving from Beitbridge to Harare. They may need to create by-pass roads that avoid transit traffic for passing through the city centre.

5.3.2 Effects of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo.

Given the various effects of congestion on stakeholders in Masvingo, the   study recommends building more bridges and strong alternative routes to the city centre. There is need for monitoring situations of congestion by police officers on busy intersections, who then supersede the directing of traffic flow. Motorists need to be encouraged to remain in the main roads while traffic flow is improved. There is need to use smart vehicle technology for spotting and tracking traffic rule offenders. There is need to create awareness on the effects of congestion on lost man hours and productivity, increase in fuel consumption and even high pollution rates. There is need to ensure that congestion risks are factored in the logistic and delivery systems of organisations. Movement of critical goods need to be done at off-peak period and in advance.  

5.3.3 Measures for Reducing Congestion in city of Masvingo.

There is need for authorities in city of Masvingo to employ other traffic demand management measures which from look of things are not in use at the moment. These range from introducing one-way streets, no right turn signs clamping and towing away of incorrectly parked vehicles. The use of mass transit vehicles is another viable option which should see

5.4. Topic for Further Study

Given that the ZUPCO franchise is at the centre of reducing congestion by its high occupancy vehicles, the research recommends further studies to be carried on ways of improving operational performance of ZUPCO franchise in Masvingo Urban Commuting System.

Approval Form

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Reformed Church University in Zimbabwe, for acceptance a dissertation entitled, “An Analysis of The Causes, of Traffic Congestion in the City of Masvingo, Zimbabwe.”, submitted by Parmela Nyungu, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Commerce Degree in Logistics and Supply Chain Management.

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T.Gaswa

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Signature

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Date

Declaration

I, PARMELA NYUNGU, declare that this study is my effort and is a true reflection of research executed by me. This research in full or part thereof has not been submitted for examination for any degree at any other university/institution.

No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means (e.g. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without the prior express permission of me the author, or Reformed Church University Zimbabwe on my behalf.

I, PARMELA NYUNGU, permission to reproduce this dissertation in whole or in part, in any manner or format, that which the Reformed Church University in Zimbabwe may deem fit.

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PARMELA NYUNGU

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Signature

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Date

Dedication

I dedicate my Research Project to the City of Masvingo and all stakeholders in the traffic safety enforcement campaign. A special appreciation goes to my loving family and supervisor for their unwavering support in making this research a success.

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APPENDIX

Appendix I

Survey Questionnaire

My name is Parmela Nyungu a final year student in Logistics and Supply Chain Management with Reformed Church University. I am conducting a research entitled,” An analysis of the causes, to Traffic Congestion in city of Masvingo

The purpose of this questionnaire is to kindly request for your cooperation during my data collection process for this study. I guarantee that your responses will not be divulged to anyone and shall remain anonymous. Information gathered is strictly for academic use only.

Your input in filling the questionnaire is greatly appreciated.

Email pnyungu@gmail.com

Instructions

Tick the appropriate responses on the squares provided in the questionnaire and responses to questions should be written in the spaces provided.

Section A

Demographic Data

1. Gender

Male                                        Female 

2. Age Group

          21 years to 30 years     

          31 years to 40 years    

          41 years to 50 years     

          51 years and above     

3. Education Levels

Certificate   

Diploma     

First Degree and above 

4. Experience

Below 10 Years         

10 years and above  

5. Occupation

Student                                 

Formally Employed           

Informally Employed         

SECTION B:

RESPONSES ON CAUSES OF CONGESTION IN MASVINGO

1. The following is a list of possible major causes of congestion in city of Masvingo. To what extent do you agree that each of the factors in the table below is prevalent.

2. The following is a list of possible effects of congestion. To what extent do you agree that each of the motivating factors in the table below is relevant.

3. The following is a list of possible measures that can be taken tom address congestion.  To what extent do you agree that each of the effects areas in the table below are effective  measures?

4. Any comments on issue of congestion in the city of Masvingo?

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Appendix II

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TRAFFIC SAFETY STAKEHOLDERS

The researcher (Parmela Nyungu) Reformed  Church University Logistics and Supply Chain Management student carrying out a research on An analysis of the causes , of Traffic  Congestion in city of Masvingo.Your open views and opinions are all important in this study. Feel free to express yourself in this interview since your views are valuable for improving efficiencies  in supply chain operations. This guide contains four (4) questions for your consideration. I faithfully promise that no names of individuals will be used for expressing the research results. I thank you for your co-operation in advance!

1. What are the major  causes  of  congestion in Masvingo.?

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2. In your view, what are the effects of congestion ?

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3. What do you think are the possible measures that can be taken to address congestion Masvingo?

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4. Any suggestions and comments to do with congestion in Masvingo ?

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Thank You for Your Co-operation.