Assessment of the Behavioural Academic Engagement of Undergraduates Involved in Drug Abuse in South West, Nigeria

Assessment of the Behavioural Academic Engagement of Undergraduates Involved in Drug Abuse in South West, Nigeria

Adekunle A. Shoyemi^1*, Olusegun Omoluwa², Rohi K. Adedokun³

¹Department of Early Childhood and Educational Foundations, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

²Department of Educational Foundations, Adeyemi Federal University of Education, Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria

³Philosophisch-Sozialwissenschaftliche Fakultät, University of Augsburg, Germany

^*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000209

Received: 29 April 2025; Accepted: 08 May 2025; Published: 06 June 2025

ABSTRACT

There are controversies in the literature concerning the academic disposition of undergraduates involved in drug abuse, as previous studies are faulted based on biased perceptions and methodology. This study, through a methodology of incomplete disclosure of purpose, assessed the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in Southwest Nigeria. This study adopted a descriptive survey design and sampled 947 undergraduates involved in drug abuse through purposive, accidental, snowball techniques. Data were collected through an adapted two-section academic engagement self-reporting scale with a reliability coefficient of 0.91. These data were analyzed using Percentage, Analysis of Variance, and t-test statistics at a 0.05 significance level. The findings of the study were that the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse was average; there was no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on academic level; there was no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on university type; there was a significant difference in academic engagement of male and female undergraduates involved in drug abuse; and there was no significant difference in academic engagement of on-campus and off-campus undergraduates involved in drug abuse. The study concluded that the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse was average. This implies that stakeholders’ negative perception of the academics of undergraduates involved in drug abuse is sometimes untrue and pre-conceived. The study recommended that undergraduates involved in drug abuse should neither be rusticated nor written off as an academic misfit but rather be rehabilitated.

Keywords: Academic engagement, Behaviour, Drug abuse, Undergraduates and University

INTRODUCTION

The fundamental commitment of students should be toward their academics through thorough participation in the overall curricular and co-curricular activities. It is expected that students learning at various educational institutions exhibit enthusiasm and a positive attitude toward academic-related tasks. One could link the nature of involvement in academic exercise exhibited by students to their successful completion of academic programs. Further, irrespective of the level of learning, it is rational for students to fully get involved in various interactions to attain specific educational objectives. In other words, the direct and indirect involvement in the dynamics that occur in and out of the classroom is aimed at the successful completion of their academic programs. Such involvement is regarded as academic engagement. Academic engagement is an all-encompassing variable that has to do with the active participation of students in a learning program. It is a multi-faceted concept with three major dimensions, namely cognitive, affective, and behavioural characteristics of students toward educational endeavors (Seitaj, 2019). The behavioural dimension of academic engagement is the disposition of students to education. It is the degree of attendance and active participation of students in educational activities. This behavioural disposition of students is arguably the most evident and measurable aspect of all forms of academic engagement. Students who exhibit regular class attendance and participation in tutorials, consistency in the use of library facilities, and steady involvement in other classroom and out-of-classroom activities for high academic performance are those regarded as having adequate behavioural academic engagement (Ohamobi & Ezeaku, 2013; Abbing, 2013).

Behavioural academic engagement entails students’ disposition toward regular intellectual exercise within and outside the classroom. In other words, it is participation in activities that are required of students to attain a successful completion of an educational program. It is a social construct that deals with how students of all categories interact with other individuals (teachers, students, and management staff) and the processes that make up the entire educational system (Fauziah et al., 2016; Alcine, 2019). Students of various institutions of higher learning (undergraduates inclusive) are required to simultaneously get involved in curricular and co-curricular activities while in school. These activities make them complete individuals who have passed through education and those whom the school has passed through.

Undergraduates of universities are not left out in the analysis of behavioural academic engagement, as active participation in programs is expected, directly and indirectly, for academic progress. As undergraduates, there is an expected level of involvement in academic dynamics or educational purposes. Lawal (2020) posits that these dynamics could also occur in settings outside the lecture halls. These are academic-related activities with the potential of influencing and advancing academic prowess. Beyond lectures, it is ideal that students at the university level engage fellow students, course or level advisers, and lecturing staff in consistent interaction, which can pave the way for academic excellence. Also, surfing (browsing) the internet for study and research lessons taught in the classroom is an essential aspect of academic engagement. From a broader scope, it is not only involvement in the processes beyond the classroom but also the entire educational system. Thus, the participation of undergraduates in co-curricular activities within the university is an aspect of indirect academic engagement that further affects their educational life.

Beyond the foregoing, the academic engagement of undergraduates equally entails behaviours that directly affect their intellectual proficiency and bring about enrichment in academic experiences. The assertion of Oranu (2012) and Okubanjo (2014) was that these behaviours entail devotion to regular lecture attendance and involvement in a classroom exercise, participation in group study and discussions, coordination and attendance of tutorials, and attempting and submitting assignments, among others. Additionally, there are other direct forms of academic engagement, such as responding to teachers’ questions, making presentations in the classroom, and using electronic media to discuss with peers in class and others, to mention but a few. Thus, when undergraduates exhibit intellectual characteristics in the classroom which are in accordance and not in conflict with the institutional expectations and norms, such students are said to have a high and positive behavioural academic engagement (Fredricks & McColskay, 2012; Orji, 2013).

Having established the behavioural academic expectations required from undergraduates, it is imperative to note that there are instances where undergraduates are unable to keep up with the expected disposition towards their academics because of their involvement in various practices such as drug abuse. Although the foregoing is highly arguable and controvertible as several stakeholders, empirical research and non-academic literature have discrepancies in their submissions whether undergraduates in Nigerian universities involved in drug abuse have a positive or negative disposition towards academic hence having high or low academic engagement. The differences in position are evident in the study by Boluwaji et al., (2016), which assessed substance abuse among students of the College of Health Sciences and Technology, Ijero Ekiti found that respondents perceived that substance abuse did not bring about progression in academic performance among students involved. Similarly, Akanbi et al., (2015) and Uchendu and Ukonu (2016) both studied the causal relationship between substance abuse and academic performance of Colleges of Education students in Kwara state and undergraduate students in the University of Abuja, Nigeria, respectively, and found that students involved in substance abuse had lower academic performance. On the contrary, the study by Umar et al., (2016) found that more participants disagreed that the involvement of students in substance abuse affects their academics. Oliha (2014) equally reported that there is no significant difference in the academic performance of adolescents taking drugs and those not involved.

Beyond the established controversy in the findings of the literature, there have equally been observed physical controversies concerning the disposition of undergraduates involved in drug abuse toward academic dynamics. For instance, there have been situations and circumstances whereby students of various tertiary institutions acclaim, boast, and argue (among friends and colleagues) about engaging in their academic tasks and dynamics on and off campus despite their involvement in one form of drug abuse or the other. Several of these students have equally graduated with average, above average, and excellent grades (distinction) as consequential evidence of their commitment to academic-related tasks and exercise in their respective tertiary institutions. In addition, a number of them decide to consume drugs before engaging in any cognitive and mentally demanding exercise, such as studying or writing an examination. One such drug abused by youth (who are mainly students of tertiary institutions) is amphetamines. This, according to them, is to stay mentally active and get engaged and committed to various academic-related tasks such as long hours of studying (Adepeju & Osunwoye, 2022). On the other hand, there have been cases of undergraduates dropping out of an academic program because of several factors, one of which is associated with drug abuse. Likewise, students of tertiary institutions have been seen to show low or lack of interest in academic exercise as a result of mental imbalance caused by drugs.

 University undergraduates involved in drug abuse are of various categories based on gender, nature of residence, academic level, and type of school attended. These are equally moderating factors with the potential to influence the degree of academic engagement of students, as the case of undergraduates involved in drug abuse might not be an exception. To be put in proper context, it might not be out of place to hypothetically state that students’ academic engagement varies based on their academic levels (i.e., academic year of study on campus). In other words, the level of engagement in academic activities and dynamics for freshmen (newly admitted university students) might be different compared to those at higher levels. This factor is essential to consider since it is most likely that undergraduates involved in drug abuse can be found across all academic levels (100, 200, 300, 400… nth levels). Despite the foregoing assumption, studies on the difference in the behavioural academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on their academic level seem insufficient, especially in Southwest Nigeria. Although the study by Omolola et al. (2021) observed similarity in the behaviour of all sampled undergraduates of a private university involved in drug abuse, it was not mentioned in the study if participants cut across various academic levels.

Beyond the academic level, it is equally observed that there are possible discrepancies between the academic engagement/college activities of undergraduates who are residents on-campus and their counterparts who reside off-campus (Oladigbolu, 2017). Similarly, Ogwuche and Pinga (2017) opined that undergraduates living off-campus are often characterized by inadequate use of school facilities, which in this case might involve extensive use of library and e-learning centres (specifically late into the evening after lecture hours), use of classrooms for tutorials and the use of university environment internet facility and others. Having established that there is a possibility of students’ residence (on-campus or off-campus) influencing their commitment to academic dynamics, it becomes imperative to further investigate if the same could be assumed for undergraduates involved in drug abuse. This is important as Osahon and Oseh (2018) submitted that drug abuse is not only prevalent among students living outside the school hostels (i.e., off campus) but equally among students living within the school environs (on-campus/hostels inclusive).

 Furthermore, it is commonly assumed that the proprietorship of a university determines several factors, such as the way and manner in which the university is administered/managed and, by extension, the conduct and disposition of students towards academic-related dynamics and others. The prevailing argument is that private universities appear stricter and more principled in conducting their activities (Lawal & Viatonu, 2017). In other words, students are strictly monitored by management (through regular attendance/rollcall), hence the difficulty of skipping classes and other significant academic activities. Arguably, the practice in public universities allows for independence and freedom, which does not compel students to engage in academic dynamics, including class attendance. Based on the premise that there are likely differences in the academic behaviour of undergraduates from private and public universities, it then would be necessary to examine if similarities or differences equally exist in the academic engagement of those involved in drug abuse from both categories of institutions. The need to examine the possible differences can be further established based on the submission by Adekeye et al. (2015) and Omolola et al. (2021), who opined that undergraduates involved in drug abuse cut across private and public universities in Nigeria.

In analyzing another factor with the possibility of interacting with students’ academic engagement, Lam et al. (2012) argued that gender is an essential variable to be considered. It was submitted that gender difference exists in the school engagement of students, with female students recording a higher degree of school engagement compared to their male counterparts. Another study by Kinzie (n.d) confirmed the relationship between gender and the undergraduates’ engagement level in college. In other words, male and female undergraduates differ in activities such as discussing with lecturers on readings and classes; participation in activities termed as co-curricular for six hours and more; communicating with an instructor with the use of e-mail; conduct of assignments and participation in classroom presentations; participating in group work, project, and assignments; talked with an academic adviser on career plans and aspirations among others. Having established that gender is a plausible determinant of behavioural academic engagement, it is, however, essential to empirically examine if the same is the case for those involved in drug abuse. This is germane, based on the premise that undergraduates involved in drug abuse equally cut across genders. Before now, the prevalence of drug abuse in Nigeria was thought to be more prominent only among males, with very minimal participation of females in the social menace. However, recent data revealed that the involvement of the female gender in drugs has taken a different dimension as women of various age categories are now fully engaged in trafficking/sales and direct abuse across the globe, including undergraduates (Adepeju & Osunwoye, 2022). Beyond the participation of females, it is equally worthy of note that there is a possibility that more females than males are getting involved. The menace among females is encouraged due to less suspicion towards them from law enforcement agencies (Coleman, 2010). Since it is regarded as a menace that is equally believed to affect the academic and social life of those males and females involved, there will be a need to examine gender as a moderating variable in this study.

 Having established the background, it is equally essential to note that South-west Nigeria is volatile on issues of drug abuse among youths. This is because the location doubles as that with the highest number of tertiary institutions in Nigeria (by implication, having a high presence of youths), and according to the UNODC (2018), the geopolitical zone equally has the highest prevalence of drug abuse compared to others. The most recent documentary by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018) reported that 22% (i.e., 4,382,000) of the entire population in South West states (Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, and Ekiti states) are involved in drug abuse. Also, Madrine (2015), Ogunbiyi (2018), and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018) unanimously opined that Nigerian youths (age 10-29) who are most likely students of one tertiary institution or another are the individuals with the highest involvement in drugs through the consumption of tramadol, morphine or codeine and other cough syrups with the content of dextromethorphan among others. Despite the leading position of the South West, Nigeria in the hierarchy of drug abuse prevalence and significantly high presence of tertiary institutions among other geopolitical zones, there are no adequate studies on the assessment of the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria.

Another gap observed in knowledge is in methodology.  There is yet to be a known study that has employed a self-reporting scale as an instrument for collecting data to assess the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse. Also, none of the known studies employed the use of the “incomplete disclosure of purpose” principle in the collection of data for the assessment of the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse. It is based on the backdrop that this study purposefully assessed the behavioural academic engagement of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse using incomplete disclosure of purpose; examined the difference in the behavioural academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on an academic level (100 level, 200 level, 300 level, 400 level & 500 level); investigate the difference in the behavioural academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on university type (private & public); examined the difference in the behavioural academic engagement of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse based on gender (male & female) and finally reveal the difference in the behavioural academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on nature of residence (on-campus & off-campus).

Statement Of the Problem

The problem this study aims at is addressing the issues of controversies regarding the perceived academic disposition of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria by stakeholders. This is evidenced by findings in some studies that opined that the disposition of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse toward their academics is negative, while others have a contrary submission. While most studies examined the academic disposition of undergraduates involved in drug abuse through the perception of stakeholders (parents, teachers, and students), no existing study directly sampled the undergraduates involved. This is an area of concern and interest as the sampled stakeholders’ perceptions could have been biased or prejudiced, thus labeling such undergraduates as those with negative academic dispositions. Further, other studies that sampled the undergraduates involved in drug abuse can also be faulted based on the assumption that the participants (undergraduates engaged in drug abuse) had a foreknowledge of the purpose of the study, as there is the possibility that the responses of the participants (undergraduates involved in drug abuse) were biased and untrue. In other words, there is the possibility that they were not honest with their responses due to societal expectations and prejudice. To this end, there might be the need to let undergraduates involved in drug abuse use a self-reporting scale (quantitative instrument) to present their disposition towards academics, also known as their academic engagement, using the principle of incomplete disclosure of purpose in methodology.

Research Question

1. What is the level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South west Nigeria?

Research Hypotheses

H₀₁      There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on their academic level

H₀₂      There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on university type

 H₀₃     There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on gender

H₀₄      There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on nature of residence

METHODOLOGY

This is quantitative research. The design for this study was descriptive research of a survey type. This is because an attempt was made to describe the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse through the collection of data from relevant participants (drug-abusing undergraduates in South West, Nigeria). The population for this study included all undergraduates involved in drug abuse in the Southwestern states of Nigeria, which are Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti, and Ondo states. A multistage sampling procedure was used in selecting samples for this study, which is the combination of more than one sampling technique. At Stage One (1)– Purposive sampling was utilized to choose Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, and Oyo states based on the premise that these states had the peculiarity of a higher prevalence of drug abuse compared to other states within the geopolitical zone (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018). At Stage Two (2)– Referral sampling and accidental sampling (non-probability sampling) were used to select undergraduates involved in drug abuse in both public and private universities due to the hidden nature of the participants (undergraduates involved in drug abuse). In other words, because of the conservativeness of Nigerian society, the practice of drug abuse among undergraduates is secret, and universities deny having such cases ever. Hence, this study had to get further participants through referral as a drug user will most likely know another taking it. Furthermore, accidental sampling was used in the data collection for this study, as the researchers occasionally came in contact with target participants (undergraduates involved in drug abuse) by chance during this study.

This study employed Referral and Accidental Non-probabilistic sampling techniques. At this point, it is imperative to mention that non-probabilistic sampling is most common in qualitative research. However, according to Kassiani (2023) and Asiamah et al. (n.d), in cases such as this study, where reaching the target population appears difficult (due to their hidden nature), using the Referral and Accidental non-probabilistic sampling in a quantitative study (such as this) can be considered as normal and acceptable.

A 20-item Self-reporting scale of four rating scale options of Never (1), Sometimes (2), Often (3), and Very Often (4) was used for data collection. The instrument, which was tagged Academic Engagement Self-Reporting Scale (AESRS), was adapted from the Students’ First Year Experience Questionnaire (FYEQ) developed by Kerri-Lee and Hamish (2008) with a reliability index of 0.67; the Student Engagement Questionnaire designed by Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE, 2011) with no reported reliability index; the Student Engagement in School Questionnaire (SESQ) by Shelley et al., (2011) with reliability index of 0.85; and the International Students Academic Engagement Questionnaire (ISAEQ) developed by Elena (2015) with reliability index of 0.77. The AESRS had sections A and B containing items demographic characteristics of the respondents and their behavioural disposition towards academics, respectively. The reliability was equally re-ascertained through the administration of the instrument to 30 undergraduates within the Ilorin metropolis. After administering the instrument, an analysis of the reliability was done using Cronbach’s Alpha, and the reliability coefficient index was 0.91

In the data collection process, incomplete disclosure of purpose was employed. This is because the consulted members of staff from a few private universities declined claims that their institutions had no undergraduates involved in drug abuse. This principle was equally employed during data collection as briefing the participants (who are undergraduates engaged in drug abuse) on the actual purpose of the study was concealed from them. This was possible by not writing the entire research title on the heading of the self-reporting scale (instrument) for data collection and hiding the main reason for their qualification to participate in the study from the respondents. This was to ensure the authenticity, objectivity, and unbiased nature of responses provided by the target subjects/participants, who, in this case, were undergraduates involved in drug abuse (Wendler, 1996; Pascual-Leone et al., 2010; Committee of Protection of Human Subjects, 2015; Alan, 2015; Athanassoulis & Wilson, n.d). This agreed with the perspective of Wendler (1996) and Cheng-Tek (2012), who opined that some sociological and behavioural research could only be possible or best studied through the principle of deception. In other words, in some behavioural, social, and educational survey studies, the less the participants/respondents know, the better and more authentic the data and, by extension, the findings provided. This method was suitable based on the condition that participants would not be physically and emotionally harmed and that their profile or contact would not be revealed. Since research ethics requires that the protection of participants is guaranteed in any study that adopts the principles of deception, this study did not require the personal information of participants, such as their names, matriculation numbers, contacts, institutions, and courses of study. In other words, anonymity, secrecy, privacy, and confidentiality were highly upheld in the process of this study and at its conclusion.

The data collected from the field study was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics on Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Percentage analysis was used to describe the demographic data of respondents and to answer the research question. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test hypothesis 1, while a t-test was used for the testing of hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 at 0.05 level of significance.

RESULTS

Answering Research Question(s)

Research Question One: What is the level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South west Nigeria?

TABLE 1 Percentage Analysis Of The Level Of Academic Engagement Of Undergraduates Involved In Drug Abuse In South West, Nigeria

Keys: 20-39=Low Level; 40-59= Average Level; 60-80= High Level

The table 1 shows the level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria. The result shows that 149 (15.8%) undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria had a low level of academic engagement. Also, 649 (68.6%) of undergraduates involved in drug abuse exhibited an average degree of academic engagement in South West, Nigeria and 148 representing 15.6% undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria as sampled in this study had high levels of academic engagement. It therefore implies that the level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria was average.

Testing of Research Hypotheses

H₀₁:     There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on their academic level

TABLE 2 Analysis Of Variance (Anova) On The Difference In The Level Of The Academic Engagement Of Undergraduates Involved In Drug Abuse Based On Their Academic Level

Significance: P>0.05

Results in Table 2 show F-value of 1.102 and p-value of .358 which is greater than 0.05 (.358>0.05). Since .358 is greater than 0.05 alpha level of significance, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This means that there is no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on their academic level in South West, Nigeria. The level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria does not differ across various academic levels. The degree of the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 levels does not vary.

H₀₂: There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on university type

TABLE 3 The T-Test Analysis Of Difference On The Academic Engagement Of Undergraduates Involved In Drug Abuse In South West, Nigeria Based On University Type

Significance: P>0.05

As shown in Table 3, the t-test calculated value is .137 while its p-value is .891, which is greater than 0.05 (.891>0.05). Since .891 is greater than 0.05 alpha level of significance, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This means that there is no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria based on their university type. The level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria does not differ across university types. The degree of the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in private and public universities does not vary.

H₀₃: There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on gender

TABLE 4 The T-Test Analysis Of Difference On The Academic Engagement Of Undergraduates Involved In Drug Abuse In South West, Nigeria Based On Gender

Significance: *P<0.05

As shown in Table 4, the t-test calculated value is 4.907 while its p-value is .000, which is lesser than 0.05 (.000<0.05). Since .000 is lesser than 0.05 alpha level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. This means that there is a significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria based on their gender. The academic engagement mean score of female undergraduates involved in drug abuse is  51.5884 and the academic engagement mean score of their male counterparts involved in drug abuse is  48.2516. Therefore, the level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria differs across gender, with females having a higher academic engagement than their male counterparts.

H₀₄: There is no significant difference in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on nature of residence

TABLE 5 The T-Test Analysis Of Difference On The Academic Engagement Of Undergraduates Involved In Drug Abuse In South West, Nigeria Based On Nature Of Residence

Significance: P>0.05

As shown in Table 5, the t-test calculated value is 1.596 while its p-value is .111, which is greater than 0.05 (.111>0.05). Since .111 is greater than 0.05 alpha level of significance, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This means that there is no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria based on the nature of their residence. The level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria does not differ as a result of the nature of their residence. The degree of the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse residing on-campus and those resident off-campus does not vary.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The first finding in this study revealed the level of academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West, Nigeria. It was observed that the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse is average. This is partially in consonance with the findings by Umar et al. (2016) and Okafor (2020), who discovered that drug and substance abuse by youths in tertiary institutions does not adversely influence their academic activities, such as their relationship with lecturers and does not necessarily cause absenteeism. However, this disagrees with the findings in the study by Uchendu and Ukonu (2016), who investigated how substance use affects the academic performance of undergraduate students at the University of Abuja, Nigeria. The findings in their study reveal that undergraduates involved in several forms of substance abuse equally experience difficulty in their studies and unpleasant academic experiences. Also, the finding in the work by Imam (2004), who examined drug and substance abuse among participants, which were students from Kaduna Polytechnic, Nigeria, showed that poor class attendance is one consistent disposition of tertiary institution students who get involved in drug and substance abuse. In addition, a closely similar study was done by Ogbu and Akintoye (2017) on substance abuse and its influence on the academic commitments of undergraduates in selected universities in Benin City of Edo State. The finding is equally in disagreement as it revealed that substance abuse has negative/destructive effects on the academic commitments of undergraduates, which manifest in school misconduct, inadequate participation in academic activities, and class/school absenteeism, among others.

The probable reason for the observed difference in findings above could be based on the differences in the drug culture (which is a subset of counterculture) of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in sampled institutions. What this implies is the possibility that while undergraduates sampled in this study erroneously engage in the consumption of drugs (and other psychoactive substances) because it makes them academically and mentally active, the sampled participants in previous studies engage in the practice for some other reasons, such as pleasure and intoxication. Research by Idowu et al. (2018), which examined substance abuse dynamics among students in an urban community secondary school situated in Oyo State, revealed that most of its participants were involved in the practice of drug abuse with the sole aim of aiding their intellectual prowess and capabilities. Also, in line with the above submission, Joseph et al. (2019) revealed that several participants in their study argued that drug abuse increases their grades academically. Additionally, there are high chances that, while the practice of drug abuse has gone beyond the control of those sampled in previous studies (evidenced in their negative and poor academic disposition), this might not be the case or yet to be the case with undergraduates sampled in this present study. Another possible reason for the difference in findings could be that sampled universities in this study adopt strategies that directly or indirectly compel undergraduates (including those involved in drug abuse) to get committed and engaged in a required academic exercise, unlike other tertiary institutions sampled in previous studies. 

Further, it was found in this study that there was no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on their academic level in South West, Nigeria. In other words, the observed average academic engagement of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse was not exclusive to those in specific academic level(s). However, average academic engagement is a common trend across those undergraduates of all levels (100, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 levels) involved in drug abuse. Although it appears that none of the empirical studies reviewed in this present research gave a report or had findings on the differences in academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse based on an academic level, however, the study by Omolola et al. (2021), which examined 140 undergraduates engaged in substance abuse and addiction in a private university in South-west Nigeria might have sampled participants across all the various academic levels. Indiscriminate and similar academic disposition was observed across all participants (undergraduates involved in drug abuse), irrespective of the differences in their academic levels. In other words, the foregoing study agrees with the findings of this present study. The only difference was that the previous study observed a similarity in the low academic disposition of participants across academic levels, while this present study observed a similarity in the average academic disposition of undergraduates involved in drug abuse. Likely, the observed similarity in the academic disposition of participants (drug-abusing undergraduates) across all academic levels is caused by measures put in place by the management and academic staff of sampled institutions. It could be that lecturers ensured that students of all levels (including those involved in drug abuse) moderately participated in academic-related tasks in and out of the classroom. Further, it is possible this finding is caused by lecturers’ and management’s emphasis on the statutorily required percentage of attendance in class/lectures as a prerequisite to writing exams or compulsory and regular assignments which have directly or indirectly compelled undergraduates of all levels (including those involved in drug abuse) to have an average academic engagement.

Also, another finding in this study was that there was no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria based on their university type. This means that the academic engagement of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse in both private and public universities in South West Nigeria is found at the same level by this study. This result showed, specifically, that the kind of university attended by an undergraduate involved in drug abuse (either private or public) does not matter or influence the level of their engagement in academic activities. Based on size, population of students, modes of operation, and style of administration, among others, it could be assumed or argued that undergraduates involved in drug abuse studying in private universities can keep up with academic activities better than their counterparts studying in public universities. However, this is contradicted by the findings in this present study. Omolola et al. (2021) also established that undergraduates in private universities involved in drug abuse, like their public university counterparts, equally experience dropout, which most often is preceded by poor demonstration and disposition toward academics. To confirm the similarity in the academic lives of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in private and public universities, Uchendu and Ukonu (2016) equally observed that undergraduates engaged in drug abuse (in a Public University, University of Abuja) experience unpleasant academic life, which stems from psychiatric morbidity, study difficulty and brain fag syndrome among others. This finding implies that the academic disposition of drug-abusing undergraduates in private and public universities is the same. While previous studies observed poor levels of academic disposition to be common with drug-abusing undergraduates from private and public universities, this present study contrarily observed an average level of academic engagement, which was common with private and public universities. The likely reason for the finding above could be that most of the sampled universities compel their students through regulations to attend class. Also, through regular assignments, undergraduates are compelled to use the library and participate in tutorials and other academic-related dynamics.

Another finding in this study is that there is a significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria based on their gender. Female Undergraduates engaged in drug abuse reported themselves to exhibit higher academic engagement than their male counterparts. Although there seems to be no known research that examined the gender difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse, the closest study is that conducted by Akanbi et al. (2015), who researched the effect of substance abuse on the academic performance of adolescent students of Colleges of Education in Kwara State, Nigeria. The consistency observed in their findings with this present study is that there is a gender difference in the academic performance of tertiary institution students involved in substance abuse. The observed gender difference was in favour of female students, as it was shown that their results (academic performance) were higher than that of their male counterparts. It is, however, likely that this higher performance of females involved in drug abuse is a reflection of higher engagement in academic activities compared to their male counterparts. Also, the reason for this result could be associated with an assumption that male undergraduates are more easily influenced and engrossed in the illicit consumption of drugs than their female counterparts. Thus, drugs adversely affect the academics of males involved rather than females involved. This assumption aligns with the findings by Okpala (2015), Gunjan et al. (2020), and Ajayi and Somefun (2020), who established that susceptibility, vulnerability, and implication of drugs are seen more in male students than female students. It means that male students are likely to be affected or influenced by drugs when compared to their female counterparts (even in academics). Further, this greater susceptibility towards drugs by males than females could arguably/hypothetically be said to be caused by the volume (i.e., quantity of drugs) of consumption. In other words, the possible arguable explanation is that males tend to consume more quantity of drugs than their female counterparts, hence, a greater adverse effect on their academic life.

This study equally revealed that there was no significant difference in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria based on the nature of their residence. By implication, this means that there is a similarity in the academic disposition of undergraduates involved in drug abuse living within the university campus (hostel) and those resident off-campus. This finding differs from the observation by Adeyemo et al. (2016), who stated that students’ residence cannot be isolated in explaining and understanding their academic dynamics, which are the accumulation of their disposition in school, which entails involvement in acceptable and unacceptable activities. The foregoing can be further supported by the empirical assertion by Ogwuche and Pinga (2017), who established that undergraduates living off-campus are often characterized by inadequate use of school facilities. Considering the submissions by the previous studies observed, it can be arguably assumed that the residence of undergraduates will determine the degree of their involvement in academic activities, which is possibly the case with those involved in drug abuse. However, the submission that students’ residence influences their engagement in academic activities is not consistent with the findings of this study. This is possibly because this study examined undergraduates involved in drug abuse, while the study by Ogwuche and Pinga (2017) was on general students. Another possible explanation for the finding could be that undergraduates engaged in drug abuse (living on-campus and off-campus) often converge (as a group) at the same place, leading to fraternization (peer influence). Hence, the exhibition of similar academic engagement between undergraduates involved in drug abuse staying on-campus (university hostels) and off-campus. This is equally in line with the submission by Egbe (2013), who revealed that undergraduates involved in drug abuse, more often than not, engage in the practice as a group and with friends, hence, the possibility of academic influence.

CONCLUSION

The study assessed the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse. The study, which was conducted among undergraduates involved in drug abuse in South West Nigeria using incomplete disclosure of purpose, generated several results based on the highlighted research questions and hypotheses. Based on the quantitative analysis of the data retrieved, it can be concluded that the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse is average. There is no disparity in the academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse across academic levels, private and public universities, and those residing on and off campuses. There is an exception in that female undergraduates involved in drug abuse have a higher academic engagement than their male counterparts.

RECOMMENDATION

There is an expectation that, as undergraduates, there is adequate engagement in academic-related activities and dynamics, which cumulatively makes an individual educated. However, there are undergraduates involved in drug abuse. These are controversially perceived by stakeholders as academically non-compliant. This study was, however, embarked upon to assess the academic engagement of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse in South West Nigeria, adopting a different methodology and instrument. Based on the findings, which revealed an average academic engagement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse, it becomes pertinent to recommend that university authorities, parents, lecturers, students, and other concerned stakeholders in the field of higher education cease labelling all undergraduates involved in drug abuse as having a poor and low educational disposition. Also, university management should cease rusticating undergraduates based on drug abuse (as is the case with most private, faith-based/religiously affiliated universities in Nigeria, but rather provide rehabilitative facilities and services, which is one of the latent functions of the educational sector. University counselling sessions for educational, career, and rehabilitative therapy should be up and doing for undergraduates involved in drug abuse.

Also, the university management and lecturers should devise several other means to encourage greater academic engagement for undergraduates involved in drug abuse. This can be done by introducing and providing adequate e-learning facilities and libraries. Other means through which higher engagement in academics can be ensured for undergraduates involved in drug abuse is through exposing them to seminars, workshops, and conference attendance, participation in group discussions and tutorials, and the use of the university library and e-learning facilities, among others.

University lecturers and facilitators should engage all undergraduates in contributing during discussions in class to further encourage engagement in academic activities. Also, university teachers/lecturers can engage all undergraduates (which will include those involved in drug abuse) in their classes by sharing them into groups as a teaching method. It is suggestive that in doing such, all undergraduates (including those involved in drug abuse) would have equally been included adequately in an academic exercise. To make the foregoing possible, university management and governments should adhere to the expected teacher/student ratio of 1-50 as recommended by UNESCO. It is imperative to note that an adequate engagement of drug-abusing undergraduates in academic activities might serve as a measure to reduce their involvement in the social anomaly.

Further, the encouragement of academic engagement for all undergraduates, including those involved in drug abuse, will require the provision of adequate facilities such as libraries, class/lecture rooms, e-learning facilities, and others. With the provision of such facilities for all undergraduates to use academically, there are chances that they will be distracted from the practice of drug abuse. Also, regular assignments should be given to undergraduates to ensure their continuous engagement in academic-related activities.

Based on another finding that showed similarity in the low academic engagement of drug-abusing undergraduates residing in hostels on-campus and those dwelling off-campus, it is recommended that university hostels develop programs that will encourage various academic exercises for all undergraduates living in them. Encouraging academic activities beyond class attendance for all undergraduates in a hostel will, in one way or the other, include those involved in drug abuse. Hostels of residence on campus could equally schedule or host academic seminars for all undergraduates who stay in them. University hostels should organize orientation programs for undergraduates through a social funfair gathering to encourage them to increase their academic engagement activities. Other students are not involved in the practice of drug abuse but are aware that those involved should not exhibit stigmatization against those involved both in social and academic activities.

This study, due to the controversy concerning the social involvement of undergraduates involved in drug abuse, assessed social participation. Based on the findings of this study, which reported average social participation of undergraduates engaged in drug abuse, it is recommended that the assumption that all undergraduates involved in drug abuse are sociopaths should be expunged. Therefore, rather than seeing them all as social misfits, attempts should be made to expose them to more social activities and civil society engagements. Accordingly, social actors and social prophets (as classified by labelling theory) such as religious clerics and institutions, parents, mass and social media, peers, and others should cease from side-lining and pre-conceiving those involved in drug abuse and terming them as social miscreants but rather improve and encourage their participation in social and civil responsibilities. This might be a platform through which the social menace of drug abuse will be curbed.

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