Attributes, Challenges, and Performance of Women Leaders in Private Higher Education Institutions in Cavite: Basis For Strengthening Management Development Program

Attributes, Challenges, and Performance of Women Leaders in Private Higher Education Institutions in Cavite: Basis for Strengthening Management Development Program

Dr. Kirk Payton Manalo

College Dean, Hospitality and Tourism Management, National College of Science & Technology (NCST)

DOI : https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.807172

Received: 20 June 2024; Accepted: 12 July 2024; Published: 14 August 2024

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the attributes, challenges, and performance of women leaders in private higher education institutions in Cavite as a basis for strengthening management development program. Specifically, the study aimed to describe the profile of the participants; the most dominant attributes of women leaders; the most difficult challenges being encountered by women leaders; and their level of performance. This was also conducted to assess the relationship between the dominant attributes and profile and the most difficult challenges and profile, and the level of performance and profile of the participants; relationships between the dominant attribute and challenges and level of performance and most challenges encountered and performance of women leaders as well as propose a management development program to be used by private HEIs.

This research considered total enumeration of 103 women leaders of 15 selected private HEIs in the province of Cavite. The conduct of surveys, interviews and focus group discussions were done to gather data. The study employed the descriptive and correlational research designs with mean, frequency, standard deviation, Mann-Whitney U Test, Kruskal Wallis H Test, and Spearman’s correlation as statistical tools. Likewise, this applied qualitative research method to solicit deeper insights from the participants by posting questions focused on their experience, explicit expectation, challenges, and further aspirations as a woman leader in an HEIs in Cavite.

The results showed that majority of women leaders were married, with an average age of 41 to 50. Many were either with units in master’s or master’s graduates and with units in doctorate and with more than 16 years as a women leader.

The most dominant attributes of women leaders are integrity and the ability to build teams, while maintaining the balance between the work and life remained to be most challenging experience. People management got the highest mean. Significant differences were noted in the dominant attributes, most difficult challenges, and level of performance across the profile. Significant relationships were also identified between the dominant attribute and most difficult challenges encountered; dominant attributes and level of performance; and most challenges encountered and performance of women leaders.

In terms of performance, women leaders were found to be very good in people management. A proposed management development program was recommended which maybe integrated to the plans of the respective private HEIs.

Keywords: Attributes, Challenges, Performance, Women Leaders, Management

INTRODUCTION

In the ancient, classical, and medieval world, women were largely confined to the home and lacked the right to come and go as they pleased (Lewis, 2019). Many facets of life for women at the time where subjected to inferior or the complete absence of standards, stemming from the dominant ideology of women’s intellectual inferiority and that providing them rights such as basic education could not adequately prepare them for their “natural” roles as wives and mothers (Thorpe, 2017).

Over the course of the century, while women’s role in society has gone leaps and bounds (Ampog, 2020), evidence still suggests that many women remain unable to achieve their goals. The gap in earnings between women and men although smaller than it was years ago is still significant; women continue to be underrepresented in certain industries and occupations and too many women struggle to combine aspirations for work and family (Yellen, 2020). However, the world today is not devoid of stories of women who triumphed and find themselves on the top of their fields. Women in leadership roles are not particularly unheard of in many societies.

In the Philippines, women are considerably faring better than their counterparts in other Asian countries having ranked second in the East Asia and Pacific region and 17^th globally in the Global Gender Gap Report of 2021 conducted by the World Economic Forum (Philippine Commission on Women, 2021). The report highlighted for women to be incentivized to participate more in the broader labor force because only 49.1 percent of women are in the job market. Another cause of concern is the persisting disparity in income and wage, still needing to close 22 percent of the wage gap and 31 percent of the income gap.

Enshrined as a comprehensive human right law, R.A. 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women (Angara, 2022) mandates non-discriminatory and pro-gender equality and equity measures to enable women’s participation in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of policies and plan for national, regional and local development (GOV PH, 2020). Likewise, the institutionalization of GAD or Gender and Development program (DILG, 2022) focuses on gender mainstreaming and strategy for ensuring that women and men are equally benefited.

Women in leadership roles is particularly evident in the Philippine educational landscape. Of the 2,100 higher education institutions in the country, 39 percent or 850 institutions are led by women (Commission on Higher Education, 2017). However, despite the strong presence and representation of women leaders in the academe, it is not without challenges. Often described in the business sector as a glass ceiling — the symbolic obstacle women hit at mid-management barriers to women’s advancement could, in the context of academe also be thought of as a labyrinth. Women are not simply denied top leadership opportunities at the culmination of a long career but rather such opportunities seem to disappear at various points along their trajectories (Alcalde & Subramaniam, 2020).

These challenges create impacts both in the workplace and family which resulted in a variety of stress and strain, being caught between woman’s work and family roles, major source of dissatisfaction, experiences of scariness, nervousness, and irritableness.

Currently, there are several management development programs that exist in different private HEIs which provide programs and seminars on how to become a better effective leader, necessary skills, and knowledge to lead their respective teams. Lasegan (2023) stated that private HEIs should provide programs that aim to shape a high performing educational team. A well-planned and purposely conducted management development program partakes in a positive relationship with individual performance. Management development programs also act as a motivator that contributes toward career development as well as help enhance organizational performance (Khan, 2015). Thus, this study aimed to strengthen management development program that can be applicable for improvement of performance of women leaders in private HEIs.

In consideration of the above-cited context, this further sought to delve into the attributes, challenges, and performance of women leaders in private HEIs in Cavite to better understand how women in leadership role of an educational institution navigate the balance of advancement in both their profession and personal lives. Further, it is through this understanding that the study hoped to develop a basis for further strengthening the management development program for higher education institutions (HEIs).

Objectives of the Study

leaders in private the general objective of the study was to determine the attributes, challenges, and performance of women higher education institutions in Cavite which served as a basis for strengthening management

development program.

Specifically, the study aimed to:

1: describe the profile of women leaders in terms of:

1. age;
2. civil status;
3. highest educational attainment; and
4. years of experience as a women leader;

2: determine the dominant attributes of women leaders in terms of:

1. professionalism;
2. integrity;
3. receptivity; and
4. team building;

3: determine the most difficult challenge being encountered by the women leaders as to:

1. work life balance;
2. gender bias;
3. performance expectations; and
4. work style;

4: analyze the level of performance of women leaders in terms of:

1. policy formulation;
2. policy implementation;
3. people management; and
4. resource management;

5: compare the difference of the following:

1. dominant attributes across profile of the women leaders;
2. most difficult challenge encountered and profile of the women leaders;
3. level of performance and profile of the women leaders;

6: assess the relationship between the following:

1. dominant attributes and most difficult challenges encountered;
2. dominant attributes and level of performance;
3. most difficult challenges encountered and performance;

7: propose management development programs to be used by private higher educational institutions.

Significance of the Study

With the objective of determining and assessing the attributes, challenges encountered and performance of women leaders in private HEIs in Cavite, the results of the study are expected to be of benefit to the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), private higher education institutions, human resource managers, faculty and staffs, students and future researchers.

As the government’s main agency for safeguarding the rights of women, this study will be beneficial to the PCW as it can provide insight into one of its six focus areas the education sector. In this pursuit, PCW believes that one of the most effective ways to champion women in all aspects of society is by mainstreaming women and women studies in the academic landscape of the country. As such, this study could provide information that would be helpful in identifying the attributes of women leaders in the academic setting which can be emulated among future women leaders. The conduct of this study may lead to the creation of policies benefitting women educational leaders which could be further integrated to the existing policies of HEIs and SUCs.

Being the agency mandated with the management of tertiary and higher education in the country, CHED is an influential institution affecting progress in the nation. This study would be in the interest of the Commission because the realization of its objectives would be in support of CHED’s efforts to further strengthen the role of women in the commission as spearheaded by its Gender and Development (GAD) Unit. Through the study, this unit could realize the realities confronting women leaders in the academe and thereby create programs better suited to deliver lasting empowerment to the future women leaders of the Philippine’s tertiary education.

Private HEIs stand to benefit from the conduct of this study because in its aim of determining and assessing the attributes, challenges encountered, and level of performance in women leaders in the academic setting it will be able to identify the attributes which they as an institution should develop and nurture among their roster of mid-level management. Likewise, identifying the challenges they encountered and assessing their level of performance provides an in-depth understanding of the areas they could provide support to their senior-level management employees, thus not only providing scaffolding to the already existing leaders in their roster but also nurturing the potentials of future women leaders.

HR managers of HEIs also stand to benefit from this study since it can provide them a better understanding of their senior-level management women leaders – their attributes, the challenges they encounter, and their level of performance. In this regard, it could help them further develop plans for acquiring talent and enriching their existing pool of employees to turn them into future leaders of their respective institutions. Likewise, the study’s aim to develop a basis for strengthening management development program could be adopted and localized by respective HR departments of HEIs.

The study will be beneficial to the faculty and staff of HEIs, regardless of gender, for it will give them a picture of what attributes are needed to be in a senior-level management position and the challenges they face. As all employees aspire to move up the professional ladder it could provide information useful in realizing such aspirations. Likewise, it could also be a way for the faculty and staff to have a better understanding of the challenges faced by their educational leaders and foster a harmonious relationship in the workplace. Through this study, the faculty and staff could find a renewed sense of purpose, encouragement and motivation to move-up the ladder not only professionally, but in their personal lives as well.

Future researchers would benefit from this study as it opens other avenues of related research studies which could employ different theories, aside from what is used in the current study. While this study explores the relationship and differences in attributes, challenges, and levels of performance of women leaders in HEIs, its discussion leads to other areas that could be further researched as gender-related studies are not only timely but of great importance in the overall thrust of the national government’s policies.

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This study was guided by Feminist theory. This theory is a key perspective within sociology that shifts its lens, assumptions, and topical focus toward the experience and viewpoint of women (Crossman, 2018; Gordon, 2019; Khan, 2014). As such, the theory highlights social trends, problems, and issues that appear natural and reasonable and therefore overlooked or misidentified by a society that is historically based on the dominant male perspective (Crossman, 2018; Tong, 1998).  Feminist theorists have created more inclusive and creative social theories that oppose the assumption that ‘man’ should always be the social actor (Gordon, 2019). The theory also considers how systems of power and oppression interact (Crossman, 2018). Thus, the feminist theory focuses not only on gendered power and oppression but also on how gender relations intersect with racism, class system, and sexuality (Crossman, 2018; Gordon, 2019).

This study used the theory of Feminist since it specifically echoes the same assumptions this study is making in that, for women leaders in private HEIs in Cavite, their professional attributes, challenges, and performance constitutes a journey where the goal is to create valued results.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study

LITERATURE REVIEW

Several scholars like Swensen, Gorringe, Caviness, and Peters, (2016), and North house (2019) pointed out that leadership is an adoptive process towards the attainment of goals and objectives of an individual using skills and influence. Various research by Jones et al., (2018), Scott (2018), and Madsen (2015) strongly implied that women in the academic leadership of post-secondary institutions and being ascent to the role of trustee board chair identified women as useful. This is supported by the study of Helterbran and Rieg (2014) which demonstrated the rise on the number of women entering careers in the field of educational administration in the late 1980s and 1990s. While the Philippines comprises 2,100 higher education institutions and State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) in the National Capital Region were led by women in different positions such as vice presidents, assistants to the vice presidents, deans, directors, chiefs, chairpersons, units, and office heads, thus, Philippines has an impressive number of female university administrators. Therefore, these literature and studies together confirmed that the volume of women holding the highest positions and serving as leaders in higher education institutions is apparent.

Research conducted by Turnbull and Edwards (2013) and Bush and Glover (2014) found that higher education institutions have strengths and weaknesses, and they must ensure the right balance between bottom-up and top-down leadership approaches and leadership styles. However, Smith (2013) claimed that the implementation of managerial, corporate, enterprise and collegial forms of leadership in higher education institutions are part of higher education leadership. In contrast, Bush & Glover (2014) claimed that universities are different from entrepreneurial and corporate entities in which some leaders manage direction and resources at the faculty level while others manage strategic and financial responsibilities at the departmental levels. Therefore, these literature and studies together confirmed that higher education institutions require variety of leadership styles and approaches to fully achieve its goals and potentials.

Similar studies including Hashim (2016) also stated that there is a significant influence on the institutions’ knowledge of having women as leaders in the academe. This is supported by the published article of the New York Times (2017) where Roman was placed as the first female president of the University of the Philippines. Thus, Selzer et al, (2017) supported that such equipping and preparation strategy must be developed to foster greater numbers of future leaders in the higher education institution.

Similar studies by Black, Groombridge and Jones (2014), and Wolverton et.al (2015) implied that the attributes and characteristics possessed by successful leaders in higher education must be able to manipulate internal and external forces and must have a visionary approach to meet and achieve the institutions’ mission and objectives.

Thus, various literature including Iwata et al., (2017), Macintyre, (2016), Brooks (2019), Mochnacz (2019), Bosch and Cavallotti (2016), Hassan, (2017), and Phelps (2016), pointed out the variety of traits and characteristics of an effective leader including professionalism which is possessing the moral ideals and standards of behavior like adhering to a certain dress code, embodying the company’s values and serving as a stellar representative of the company; integrity which includes justice, coherence, ethical principles, and appropriate motivation; fair treatment; receptivity which is vital to both awareness and acceptance and; teambuilding which involves solidarity and cohesiveness among group members.

On the other hand, various studies found the challenges faced by women leaders and the impediments in their career development in the higher education institutions. These include criticisms and challenges to: devaluation of the field (Licuanan, 2018); administrative affairs (Calub, 2017) in higher education, glass ceiling which include sexism, gender bias, distrust; women role as mother (Eagly and Carlim, 2017); job and family demand imbalance (Peeterset al., 2015); and work group differences such as sets of values, expectations and work styles in the workplace (Bersin, 2017). This finding agrees with the work of Kuzhabekova et al. (2018) where they explained despite the presence of many policies to forward the cause of equal opportunities for men and women in the workplace, women, especially those in leadership roles, experience gender penalty in their career advancement. Gender penalty is a phenomenon where one gender seems to be penalized with other roles and responsibilities simply because societal norms expect them to perform them. In the case of women leaders, gender assigned traditional roles such as housekeeping, rearing children, or care for elderly members of the family are additional tasks that requires more personal time on the part of women. When women become leaders in the workplace, this inevitably will require them to render more time for work-related tasks, therefore creating disruption in the balance of work and home life.

Women leaders have functions in the workplace such as policy formulation, policy implementation, people management, and conflict management which contribute to their execution of their performance. Several studies by Bell and Stevenson (2015), Papayet al., (2016), Taylor and Tyler (2017) found that policy implementation is affected by the socioeconomic context and legal instruments that constrain these actors’ behaviors. It must take place in a network structure and no longer as a bilateral relationship between the government and other institutions.

On the contrary, conflict produces a net adverse effect on the individual as well as the team; conflict among team members can be dysfunctional and lead to unhealthy competition; the absence of a positive work environment affects not only employee job performance but also the organizational citizenship behavior of employees; conflict results in tension and performance-impeding behavior detrimental; thus,  managers must implement strategies that help in managing workplace conflict and motivate team members to be cooperative in the discharge of their work responsibilities.

Therefore, literature cited by Ward (2019), Grimmer, 2014; Jacobsson, (2017), Buller and Bell (2017), Masanja, (2019); Dapena, (2018); Doan, (2015); Fapohunda, (2017) McEwan, Rulessen, Eys, Zumbo, Beuauchamp, (2017), Miller et al, (2018) and Sanyal and Hisam, (2018) found that success of the team lies in leadership. To improve the overall performance and productivity of employees in the organization and resolve their challenges to meet common objectives and goals, team-building activities must be promoted. Solidarity and cohesiveness among group members, and effective communication to promote cooperation are the goals of the team-building activities. For the team members to fulfill their duties and responsibilities, a favorable working condition is imperative.

Furthermore, diversity management, providing fair treatment, and the right channels of communication must be recognized and practiced avoiding conflict in terms of managing people. Hence, Ward (2019), Schooley (2022), Sonnentag, Volmer and Spychala (2015) claimed that leadership is critical to the success of the team, thus, a leader must choose the right employees, properly train the team, and collaborate with employees to reach their goals and set the team up for success. Whereas resource management includes human/ intellectual, material and financial resources which the school leader must plan and manage well to achieve the pedagogical purposes and organization’s success. Thereby, all are necessary to strengthen an organization’s management development programs which aim in controlling and developing managerial resources that promote managers and leaders. Such development programs can lead not only to achieving organizational performance but also giving pride to women as they embrace the role of leadership.

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study followed the mixed-method approach and utilized both quantitative and qualitative research designs in the accomplishment of its goals.

Descriptive and correlational studies describe the variables and the relationships that occur naturally between and among them. Whereas quantitative research methods employ collection of data to be analyzed through numerical comparisons and statistical inferences (McLeod, 2019). This study likewise applied qualitative research method to solicit deeper insights from the participants by posting questions focused on their experience, explicit expectation, challenges, and further aspirations as a woman leader in an HEI in Cavite.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Profile of the Women Leaders in Selected Private Higher Education Institutions in Cavite

Table 4 shows the profile of the participants which include the age, civil status, highest educational attainment, and years of experience as a women leader.

Age: The age of the women leaders ranged from 30 and below, 31 to 40, 41 to 50, and 51 and above. Nineteen (19) percent of the participants belonged to the young age bracket of 30 and below while 20 percent belonged to the middle age bracket of 31 to 40 years. On the other hand, the 45 percent of the participants belonged to 41 to 50 years and only 16 percent were considered old who belonged to the age bracket of 51 and above years.

This finding showed that majority of the participants were young adults who have chosen a career in education, particularly in the tertiary level. These findings accord with the study of Chambers (2010) that the young adult age bracket of 31 to 50 finds teaching a viable career option.

Civil status: Majority, 73 percent of the participants were married while 27 percent were single. This implies that teaching is a desirable career choice for married women.

Table 1: Profile of women leaders in selected private higher education institutions in Cavite

This implication reflects the observation made by Ayeop (2003) as cited in the study of Alufohai and Ibhafidon (2015), which maintains that married teachers find higher job satisfaction compared to single teachers. Further, a similar implication is made in the study of Kemunto, Adhiambo, and Joseph (2018) where it was found that 56 percent were married, the segment of married teachers showed the highest percentage of job satisfaction than other groups such as single, separated, divorced, or widowed.

Highest educational attainment: A little less than 17 percent were bachelor’s degree holders while 28 percent had MA/MS/MBA units. The master’s degree and PhD holders had the same 27 percent. These results implied that HEIs, more than focusing on highest educational attainment for women leaders as the sole basis for climbing up the ladder for leadership rolesalso primarily investigates each women’s capabilities in various aspects needed for the leadership position.

This implication is evidenced in the study of Rice et al. (2020) where 146 institutions with faculties of biomedical sciences, they had found that institutional criteria for decisions about promotion and tenure is predominantly influenced by a mix of traditional and non-traditional capabilities such as research publication, authorship order, journal impact factor, grant funding, national or international recognition, and data sharing. This supports the implication that educational attainment is not the sole indicator for women in leadership roles in HEIs.

Years of experience: In terms of the years of experience, results showed that 27 percent has 16 years and above years of experience as a women leader followed by 25 percent who had 5 years and below years of experience as a leader. This result further strengthened the previous implication that HEIs currently do not solely base promotion of women leaders based on a single metric such as years of experience. While majority of the participants had 16 years and more of experience on the job, it is closely followed by women leaders who only had 5 years and below experience on the job.

This implication agreed with the study of Mbokazi, Mkhasibe, and Ajani (2022) where longer service or years of experience does not put one in a better position for leadership or appointment. They further argued that promotion standards for leadership roles in the education setting should be raised and aligned to the seniority of the position in question. They maintained that while a minimum education and experience standard should be in place, it should also include other requirements such as academic performances.

Most Dominant Attributes of Women Leaders

Table 2 shows the dominant attributes of women leaders in terms of professionalism, integrity, receptivity, and team building.

Professionalism: refers to the way a person conducts himself or herself in the workplace. An individual who shows consideration and respect for others demonstrates a commitment to professionalism. The mean score of 4.70 implied a very high level of professionalism. This indicates that women leaders uphold the strong commitment to their field of work. The same standards for everyone, including institutional, moral and legal standards. De Fouloy (2016) cited that professionalism is behaving ethically while assuming and fulfilling the rightful responsibilities in every situation every time, without fail.  Thus, women leaders in private institutions in Cavite demonstrate professionalism through upholding institutional, moral and legal standards the same standards for everyone.

Integrity: refers to being honest, trustworthy, and reliable. The mean score of 4.92 was very high were women leaders viewed that they follow the ethical standards diligently and they respect the rights of their subordinates and colleagues. Ethical principles are defined by Bastable (2014), as the principle of doing good, acting in the best interest of a client through adherence to professional performance standards and procedural protocols. While, motivation according to Dubin (2017) is something that moves the person to action and continues him during action already initiated.

Receptivity: refers to the receiving of knowledge, ideas, and inspiration from a variety of sources and inputs. The mean score of 4.81 signified a very high degree of receptivity which further implied that women leaders received knowledge, ideas, and inspiration from a variety of sources and inputs. The result showed that in terms of receptivity women leaders observe to consider or accept new suggestions. According to Daniel (2016), being aware means developing the capacity for self-observation, grounded ness, and the capacity to be present. Awareness requires an ongoing practice to increase receptivity and grounded presence so that the inner observation can “drop-in” and witness the basis of the reactivity and witness the habitual type-based patterns.

Table 2: Most dominant attributes of women leaders in terms of professionalism, integrity, receptivity, and team building

Team building: This received a mean score of 4.82 which was very high., which signified those women leaders participated in team building activities. Team building is a process to improve the performance of the team members which involves activities created to promote proper and effective communication to promote cooperation (McEwan et al., 2017).

This has been evident since they have shown to build teams. The results correspond to Karthikeyan (2017) who maintained that integrity is one of the top attributes of a great leader and a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. It further agreed with the study of Calancaet al. (2019) that they identified team building as a crucial component of jobs, especially in female-dominated professions such as in education.

Table 3 shows the most dominant attributes of women leaders. Using Friedman statistics this revealed that the most dominant attributes of women leader are Integrity which obtained 2.89 mean rank and Team Building with 2.58 mean rank, respectively.

Table 3: Most dominant attributes of women leaders

Mean Rank followed by a common letter are not significant at 5% level

As corroborated in the focus group discussions, when asked about the expectations of the management from them as a woman leader, the participants were unanimous in saying that management expects them to simply perform their duties well. This reflects the integrity they apply to the performance of their tasks as women leaders. The indicators for integrity such as respecting the rights of their subordinates and colleagues, followed closely by maintaining confidentiality and sensitivity of information, following ethical standards diligently, and accepting the consequences of the wrong decisions they have made – all points out that in order to meet management expectations of performing their duties well, they regularly perform their tasks with integrity since it allows them to work efficiently at their current level while maintaining a good relationship with the rest of their team.

The same as observed with their ability to build teams which is the second most dominant attribute of women leaders. During the focus group discussion, when asked whether they have experienced resistance in leading men and how do they deal with it if they have, some shared that initially, they felt a bit of resistance but that they were able to win them over eventually and has maintained a good working relationship with them since then. This finding reflects the indicators present such as respecting other people’s decisions and opinion, followed by facilitating collaboration and teamwork, observance of consultative decision-making, and showing genuine interest in all employees and the organization. Discussing the specifics, some women leaders shared that some of the ways they found effective in fostering good working relationships with their colleagues is by consistently showing them respect, being fair in treating them as individuals, and giving due importance to their contributions to the team, no matter how big or small.

Most Difficult Challenges Encountered by Women Leaders

This section presents the most difficult challenges encountered by women leaders in Private Higher Education Institutions in Cavite.

Work life balance: Table 4 shows the most difficult challenges being encountered by the participants in terms of in terms of work-life balance. In terms of work life balance, the participants were assessed to be in the state where a person chooses to equally prioritize the demands of work and career and the demands of their personal life with a 2.46 mean percentage. The result showed that they had received unreasonable demands at work and arrangements eating their personal time. Thus, work life balance is considered the most difficult challenge women leader is experiencing. Hughes (2013) stated that work-life balance is considered as not only a source of distress but also the major source of dissatisfaction. Work-life balance can be difficult to achieve for full time workers irrespective of work schedules, especially for those with children.

This is substantiated in the focus group discussion where participants maintained that although they have never experienced not being given adequate leaves by their respective organizations, they do concur that at times, the high demand from their tasks eats up some of their personal time. They explained that although these tasks are legitimate work tasks and that they work on it during actual work hours, because of their passion to do everything as well as they could, it cannot be helped that there were instances where they “take home” their tasks and continue working on them beyond working hours, outside the office, and into their homes.

This finding agrees with the work of Kuzhabekova et al. (2018) where they explained despite the presence of many policies to forward the cause of equal opportunities for men and women in the workplace, women, especially those in leadership roles, experience gender penalty in their career advancement. Gender penalty is a phenomenon where one gender seems to be penalized with other roles and responsibilities simply because societal norms expect them to perform them. In the case of women leaders, gender assigned traditional roles such as housekeeping, rearing children, or care for elderly members of the family are additional tasks that requires more personal time on the part of women. When women become leaders in the workplace, this inevitably will require them to render more time for work-related tasks, therefore creating disruption in the balance of work and home life.

Table 4: Most difficult challenges encountered by women leaders in terms of work life balance

Gender bias: Gender bias is when a person faces unfair disadvantages or benefits from unearned advantages because of their gender. Table 5 shows the most difficult challenge being encountered by the participants in terms of in terms of gender bias.

In terms of work gender bias, the participants were assessed as a person receiving different treatment based on the person’s real or perceived gender identity with a 1.30. The study also revealed they never experienced any harsh criticism and sexual harassment from their colleagues.  Further, due to the Philippine government’s initiatives in forwarding the cause for gender and development which sees the country ranking second as the most gender equal country in East Asia and the Pacific in the Global Gender Gap Report of 2022, next to New Zealand (Investing in Women, 2022), participants of the study concurred that in their performance of duties as women leaders, they have never experienced any gender bias with their male counterparts in the workplace. Participants of the focus group discussion further explained that now, they do not believe that gender bias exists in their respective workplace and that they have a harmonious working relationship with their male colleagues.

Table 5: Most difficult challenges encountered by women leaders in terms of gender bias

Performance expectations: Table 6 shows the most difficult challenges being encountered by the participants in terms of in terms of performance expectations. In terms of work performance expectations, the participants were assessed part of a documented performance plan that details goals, values, outcomes, and requirements related to a position with a 1.85 mean percentage with verbal interpretation of “rarely” which was low. According to Chisholm-Burns (2017), this plight of women in the work force is glass ceiling, which refers to the invisible barrier that many women face as they advance through the ranks of their chosen professions but can progress only so far before being hampered in their efforts to reach the upper echelons.

Work style: Table 7 shows the most difficult challenge being encountered by the participants in terms of in terms of work style. In terms of work style, the participants were assessed the ways your personality impacts work with a 1.85 mean percentage with verbal interpretation of “rarely” which was low. According to Robbins (2023), it is important to know the work style of a leader so that they can maximize their time at work, communicate effectively with subordinates and be as productive as they can.

Table 7: Most difficult challenges encountered by women leaders in terms of performance expectations

Table 8: Most difficult challenges encountered by women leaders in terms of work style

Table 9 shows the most challenges experienced by women leaders in terms of work life balance, gender bias, performance expectations and work style. This revealed that the most challenging experiences by women leader is work life balance followed by performance expectations, work style and gender bias, respectively.

The study further revealed that the most difficult challenge experienced by women leaders, maintaining balance between work and life as presented the highest weighted mean of 2.46.

This implies that although not frequently occurring, periodically, the challenge of having to maintain their personal lives and work presents itself caused by having to perform unreasonable demands at work and arrangements that eat their personal time.

Table 9: Most challenges encountered by women leaders.

Mean rank followed by a common letter are not significant at 5% level.

Level of Performance of Women Leaders in Selected Private HEIs

Table 10 shows the level of performance of the participants in terms of in terms of policy formulation, policy implementation, people management and resource management.

Policy formulation: Policy formulation is the process by which governments and other organizations develop policies that guide decision-making and action. In terms of policy formulation, the women leaders were assessed how problems identified in the agenda-setting phase transform into government programs with a 4.47 mean percentage. Performance is an important variable in work organization and has become a significant indicator in measuring organizational performance in many studies. Employee performance can also be measured through the combination of expected behavior and task-related aspects even though performance is often determined by financial figures. In reality, a performance that is based on an absolute value or relative judgment may reflect overall organizational performance (Gomez- Mejia, Balkin and Cardy, 2007; Wall et al., 2004).

Policy implementation: Based on the findings, women leaders were found to perform very well in policy implementation. Women leaders were assessed a series of activities undertaken by government and others to achieve the goals and objectives articulated in policy statements. Sabatier (2014) cited that policy implementation is the process through which a sector changes effectively over time. It results from the interaction of a variety of public and private actors with a policy problem and is affected by the socioeconomic context and legal instruments that constrain these actors’ behaviors.

Table 11: Level of performance of women leaders

People management: Based on the findings, women leaders were assessed on how they acknowledge and recognized their people with 4.85. Therefore, the result revealed that women leaders were very organized in handling their team in a way that increases productivity and optimizes efficiency among their subordinates.

Resource management: Based on the findings women leaders were assessed centered around optimization and efficiency with a 4.09. According to Igwe et al., (2014), organizational success is achieved when there is management of workers in organizations. As such, optimal utilization of relevant resources such as financial resources, material resources, and human resources is dependent even on the business success in a market economy.

Therefore, the study revealed that the level of Performance of Women Leaders in Private Higher Education in Cavite is “Very High”, and they excel well in Policy Formulation, Policy Implementation, People Management and Resource Management. This positive appraisal of their own performance as women leaders contradicts the conclusion made by the study of Ortega, Øvergård, &Henden (2015) that women involved in maritime education overestimated the level of their negative leadership skills, thus underestimating their leadership skills. Further, this finding agrees with the conclusion made by Young (2016) that women are naturally better leaders for the 21^st Century, having fared higher in the Emotional Intelligence Capabilities between Women and Men survey conducted by Leader Shape.

Difference on the Dominant Attributes of Women Leaders

This section presents the difference in dominant attributes and profile of women leaders.

Dominant attributes across age: Table 12 reflects the hypothesis testing using Kruskal-Wallis on the difference

of women leaders’ most dominant attributes across age. Since their p-value scored greater than 5 percent of the significant value, this leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study found that there is no significant difference in the most dominant attributes across age of women leaders.

This implies that integrity and ability to build team could be observed among women leaders regardless of their age. This implication is in agreement with the work of Mbokazi, Mkhasibe, and Ajani (2022) which argues that, similar with experience, having a more advanced age among those in service would automatically mean better leadership skills. This finding likewise implied that integrity among the age group of 31 to 40 and 41 to 50 are high due to the fact that they bring with them more work experience and tenure before having been given the leadership post. Their previous work in their earlier age provided them insight and sufficient experiences that have most probably honed their people-skills which developed a keen sense of integrity in their performance of work tasks.

Table 12: Difference of the most dominant attributes across age of women leaders

Table 13 reflects the hypothesis testing using Mann Whitney U Statistics of the women leaders’ most dominant attributes across civil status. Since their p-value scored greater than 5 percent of the significant value, that lead to the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study found that there is no significant difference in the most dominant attributes and civil status of the participants. This implies that the dominant attributes the same degrees of the ability to build team could be observed among women leaders regardless of their civil status.  This implication is in agreement with the work of Oktem and Kul (2020) which found that marital status holds no significant difference in the perceived leadership roles and skills of physical education and sports teachers, particularly on collaborating with a team or team building.

Table 13: Difference of the most dominant attributes across civil status

Table 14 reflects the hypothesis testing of the difference across the women leaders’ most dominant attributes across educational attainment. Since their p-value scored greater than 5 percent of the significant value, this leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study found that there is no significant difference between the most dominant attributes and educational attainment of the participants. This implies that the dominant attributes of integrity and team building could be observed among women leaders regardless of their highest educational attainment. This implication is in agreement with the work of Rice et al. (2020) which argues that having the highest educational attainment should not be the only basis for women leaders since, as evidenced by the result of this study, leadership attributes such as integrity and team building could be displayed by women leaders regardless of their educational attainment.

Table 14: Difference of the most dominant attributes across educational attainment

Table 15 reflects the hypothesis testing of the difference between the women leaders’ most dominant attributes and the participants’ years of experience. Since their p-value scored greater than 5% of the significant value, this leads to the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study finds that there is no significant difference between the most dominant attributes and years of experience of the participants. This implies that the dominant attributes of integrity and team building could be observed among women leaders regardless of their years of experience.   This findings is in agreement with the work of Mbokazi, Mkhasibe, and  Ajani (2022) where they reasoned out that in education, longer service or years of experience does not put one in a better position for leadership or appointment.

Table 15: Difference of the most dominant attributes across years of experience

 Most Difficult Challenges Encountered Across Profile of Women Leaders

This section presents the significant difference between the most difficult challenges across profile of women leaders.

Presented in Table 16,displays the result of comparison of the most difficult challenges when grouped according to their profile.

Using Kruskal-Wallis Statistics, it was found that for all the most difficult challenges – work life balance when compared across profile such as age, civil status, educational attainment, and years of experience, their p-value scored greater than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis.

This study reveals that there is no significant difference in the attributes of work life balance when grouped according to their profile.

Table 16: Difference between the most difficult challenges across profile of women leaders

 Level of Performance and Profile of the Participants

This section presents the difference in the level of performance across profile of women leaders.

Table 17reflects the results of hypothesis testing on the difference between the level of performance when grouped according to women leaders’ profile. Using Kruskal-Wallis Statistics, it was found that for all the level of performance – policy formulation, policy implementation, people management and resource management – when compared against the respondents’ profile such as civil status, educational attainment, and years of experience, their p-value scored greater than 5% of the significant value which leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study reveals that there is no significant difference in the level of performance when grouped according to civil status and educational attainment.

As shown in Table 17, the computed Kruskal-Wallis and P-Value in terms of People Management and Profile of Participants – Age obtained 10.529 and P Value was 0.015 which is lesser than the .05 level of significance, therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected in this variable. As per Resource Management and Profile of Participants – Age obtained 15.124 and P Value was 0.015 which is also lesser than the .05 level of significance, therefore the null hypothesis has also been rejected. However, with result of level of performance with 16.182 when compared against the respondent’s profile – age and years of experience their p-value scored lower than 5% of the significant value which leads for the rejection of the null hypothesis. Therefore, the study reveals that there is a significant difference in the level of performance when grouped according to their profile – age and years of experience.

These findings implied that level of performance of women leaders significantly differs based on age and years of experience. Particularly, age and extensive experience of activities in a certain domain is necessary to reach very high levels of performance. However, like previously cited works, it does not invariably lead to expert levels of performance since there are still other factors at play, such as deliberate efforts and motivation.

Table 17: Difference in the level of performance across age of women leaders

Mean rank followed by a common letter are not significant at 5% level.

Table 18 reflects the hypothesis testing of the difference between the level of performance when grouped according to participants’ civil status. Using Kruskal-Wallis Statistics, it was found that for all the level of performance – policy formulation, policy implementation, people management and resource management – when compared across the respondents’ profile of civil status, educational attainment, and years of experience, their p-value scored greater than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study revealed that there is no significant difference in the level of performance when grouped according to civil status.

Table 18: Difference in the level of performance across civil status

Table 19 reflects the hypothesis testing of the difference between the level of performance when grouped according to participants’ educational attainment. Using Kruskal-Wallis Statistics, it was found that for all the level of performance – policy formulation, policy implementation, people management and resource management – when compared against the respondents’ profile of civil status, educational attainment, and years of experience, their p-value scored greater than 5% of the significant value which leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study reveals that there is no significant difference in the level of performance when grouped according to educational attainment.

This finding is substantiated by the participants’ answers during the focus group discussion. In the FGD, which was participated by a mix of married, single, and widowed participants, all participants shared a similar work perspective as women leaders in their respective institutions and organizations. Regardless of their current civil status, performance of their task is based on the management’s expectations of them, and job description and duties and responsibilities communicated to them when they accepted the position. It is noteworthy to recognize, though, participants identified work-life balance as the challenge.

Table 19: Difference in the level of performance across educational attainment

Mean rank followed by a common letter are not significant at 5% level.

The same is observed through the women leaders’ answer during the focus group discussion. In the FGD, which was participated by a mix of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorate degree holders, all participants once again shared a similar work perspective as women leaders in their respective institutions and organizations. Regardless of their educational attainment, the participants assessed that they have performed well in their current positions. This was given light when some of them in the FGD that their current institutions have been extending help and assistance to them when needed, thus enabling them to perform in the level that they had regardless of educational attainment.

Table 20 reflects the hypothesis testing of the difference between the level of performance when grouped according to participants’ educational years of experience. Using Kruskal-Wallis Statistics, it was found that for the overall level of performance, when compared across the women leaders’ profile of years of experience, their p-value scored less than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the rejection of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this study revealed that the level of performance had is a significant difference when grouped according to years of experience.

Table 20: Difference in the level of performance and years of experience

Mean rank followed by a common letter are not significant at 5% level

Based on the finding on the focus group discussions, since all the participants have a significant amount of experience before finally reaching their current leadership role, it is believed that they have within them an advantage on skills, temperament, and attitude that they have developed over time which makes them the right fit for their current roles in their institutions and organizations. None of the women leaders where newly graduates, thus, illustrating how they are backed with a considerable amount of experience before becoming a woman leader. This finding conformed with the study of Forgas and Bless (2016) where it is reiterated that experience is imperative when acquiring highest positions. While experience may not be the sole factor that determines who goes up the corporate ladder, it is an important gauge of who would be accepted by their peers as authentic leaders – one who is backed with extensive. (Fu et al. 2017).

Relationship Between the Most Dominant Attributes and Most Difficult Challenges Encountered by the Participants

This section presents the relationship between the most dominant attributes and the most difficult challenges encountered by the participants.

Table 21 presents the result of hypothesis testing for the relationship between the most dominant attributes of women leaders – integrity and team building, and most difficult challenges encountered – work life balance. Using Spearman ranked correlation coefficient, it was found that for all the dominant attributes of women leaders – integrity and team building – when tested against the women leaders’ difficult challenges – Work life balance, their P value is greater than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Therefore, the study revealed that there is no relationship between the most dominant attributes of integrity and team building, and the most difficult challenge encountered by the participants is work-life balance.This implies that practicing integrity or spearheading and participating on team building activities had no significant relationship to the challenge of maintaining work-life balance among the participants.

This could be attributed to the fact that the identified dominant attributes comprises of actions that are performed on their personal capacity at the workplace setting and does not necessarily demand time from the participants’ personal time.

Table 21: Relationship between the most dominant attributes and the most difficult challenges encountered by women leaders (work-life balance)

Table 22 reflects the hypothesis testing of the relationship between the most dominant attributes of women leaders – integrity and level of performance such as policy formulation, policy implementation, people management and resource management.

Using Spear man ranked correlation coefficient, obtained 0.400 with p value of 0.000 it was found that the dominant attributes of women leaders – integrity when test against the women leaders’ level of performance their P value is less than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the rejection of the null hypothesis.

Hence, there was a moderately low correlation between the two variables. Therefore, this study found that there is a relationship between the most dominant attributes of women leaders- integrity and level of performance of women leaders.

Table 22: Relationship between the Most dominant attributes of women leaders(integrity) and Level of performance of women leaders

Based on the results using Spear man rank correlation of the relationship of integrity on employee performance in terms of policy formulation, Policy Implementation, People Management and Resource Management it was obtained 0.400, meaning that integrity has a direct effect on employee performance.

This means that the higher the integrity, the higher the employee’s performance, conversely, the lower the integrity, the lower the employee’s performance. Furthermore, based on analysis integrity has a positive and significant effect on employee performance. These findings are consistent with the results of research by Salwa et al. (2016) which revealed that integrity has a significant influence on employee performance.

This findings conformed to the study of Yulianti and Wuryanti(2021) which showed that integrity has a positive effect on employee performance. Integrity is a quality that underlies public trust and is a benchmark for institutions and organizations to test all their decisions. Integrity requires an employee to be honest and transparent, brave, wise and  responsible in carrying out their duties. Having employees with integrity will create a culture of integrity as well, and this culture will in turn create a valuable environment, so that they can focus more on a better long-term situation.

This implied that while not immediately noticeable, integrity as a dominant attribute of women leaders, has a significant relationship on the participants’ level of performance.

This result underscored how a leader’s commitment to doing the right thing for the right reason – the way integrity is described by Karthikeyan (2017), influences her in her overall level of performance, The fact that the indicators used to measure integrity in the instrument emphasizes skills which focuses on maintaining a harmonious relationship with colleagues, personal reflection on ethics, and personal accountability – all of which are integral to the indicators of level of performance. Likewise, in order to carry out the identified indicators of level of performance, elements such as justice, coherence, ethical principles, and appropriate motivation should be practiced and observed. These elements are described by Bosch and Cavallotti (2016) as common elements of integrity.

Table 23 reflects the hypothesis testing of the relationship between the most dominant attributes of women leaders – Team Building and Level of Performance such as Policy Formulation, Policy Implementation, People Management and Resource Management. Using Spearman Ranked Correlation Coefficient, obtained 0.410 with P value of 0.000 it was found that the dominant attributes of women leaders – team building when test against the women leader’s level of performance their P value is less than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the rejection of the null hypothesis.

It both revealed that there was moderately low correlation between the level of performance and most dominant attributes of women leader. Therefore, the study revealed that there is a relationship between the dominant attributes – team building and the level of performance of women leaders.

Table 23: Relationship between the Most dominant attributes of women leaders (team building) and Level of performance of women leaders

Table 24 reflects the hypothesis testing of the relationship between the most difficult challenges – work life balance and Level of Performance such as Policy Formulation, Policy Implementation, People Management and Resource Management. Using Spear man Ranked Correlation Coefficient, it was found that most difficult challenges – work life balance– when compared against the respondents’ level of performance their P value is greater than 5% of the significant value which leads for the acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Table 24: Relationship between the Most challenges encountered and the Level of performance of women leaders.

However, in terms of the most difficult challenge encountered – work life balance – and the level of performance of women leaders – policy implementation using Spear man correlation it obtained -0.222 and P Value of .024 which is less than 5 percent of the significant value which leads for the rejection of the null hypothesis.

Therefore, it reveals that there is a relationship between the most difficult challenges -work life balance and the level of performance of women leaders – policy implementation.  However, this relationship did not alter the non-relationship of the other indicators of level of performance with the most difficult challenge encountered by the women leaders.

This finding implies that the participants perceive policy implementation as one of the more demanding tasks on their job as a woman leader that takes much of their personal time since policy implementation requires consistent and persistent monitoring and evaluation.

Proposed Management Development Program

Management development is a process in which companies develop leaders and managers. This process is usually systematic and rigorous. Management development is also typically done with existing employees.

Based on the findings of the study, this section presents the proposed management development program that can

be used and adopted by the private higher education institutions in Cavite as a basis in strengthening their management development program.

Table 25: Proposed Management Development Program

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The study showed that most of the participants were married, with an average age of 41 to 50. Many were either with master’s and doctorate units and with 16 years and above experienced as a women leader. The study showed that most dominant attributes of women leader is integrity and team building. It was also revealed that the attributes of women leaders in terms of professionalism, integrity, receptivity and team building is “very high”.

The study showed that the most challenge encountered by women leaders is work-life balance. The result shows also that they never experienced gender bias in their respective workplace. The study’s findings found that there is no significant difference in the attributes of women leaders when grouped according to their profile. It also revealed that there is no significant difference in the attributes of work life balance when grouped according to their profile. Furthermore, the study reveals that there is a significant difference in the level performance when grouped according to their profile – age and years of experienced.

Moreover, the study showed that there is no relationship between the attributes and the challenges encountered by the participants. The results also showed that there is a relationship between the dominant attributes and the level of performance of women leaders.  It also reveals that there is a no relationship between the most difficult challenges and the level of performance of women leaders.

Conclusion

Based on the findings revealed in the study, the following conclusions were made:

1. Women hold higher positions in the private HEI’s in Cavite. They served and were designated as college deans, program chairpersons, coordinators, and office heads. Therefore, having women in leadership in the province of Cavite is evident in the academe.
2. The participants possessed the ideal attributes of an ideal leader such as professionalism, integrity, receptivity, and team building. The findings indicated that integrity and team building were the most dominant attribute. This accords with this study that integrity is one of the top attributes of a great leader and a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes.
3. Women leaders mostly face challenges in balancing work life situation, this indicates that women leaders still experience and received unreasonable demands at work and arrangements that eat their personal time,though this challenge is experienced by the participants rarely, it still reflects that keeping work-life balance appears to be a challenge for the women leaders.
4. This study concludes that in terms of level of performance, women leaders show good leadership and working relationship with their team. The participants manage their subordinates and colleagues remarkably, their performance in terms of people management as one of their administrative functions.
5. Furthermore, the overall results showed that the participants demonstrate their attributes, personal challenges faced, their performance of their administrative functions. Therefore, strengthening and adopting the management development programs is imperative for the continuous empowerment of women in the academic setting.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are made:

1. Private higher education institution may consider adopting the proposed management development program and investing in upskilling such as acquiring new skill sets and abilities to keep track of the emerging trends in the academe; and leadership development that can improve existing assets and grow the educational institutions, thus, can aid in strengthening the administrative functions of the employees.
2. Human resource managers of the respective private HEIs are encouraged to utilize and implement the proposed management development program based on the need of their respective institutions specific to providing greater organizational support for keeping the work-life balance of the women leaders. This study also recommends strengthening their plans for acquiring talent and enriching their existing pool of employees to turn them into future leaders as part of their management development program that they can adopt in their respective HR departments of HEIs.
3. Management of these HEIs encourage to allocate substantial funds to strengthen and to accomplish their task so that they will develop their competencies with regards to resource management and their responsibilities as women leaders. They should align their resource management strategy with the mission and vision of the HEIs they belonged to.
4. Future researchers may conduct and assess study about attributes, challenges encountered, and the level of performance of male leaders in the academe.
5. Future studies along this line may be conducted in a wider scope not only in Private Higher Education Institutions but also in State Colleges and Universities.

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