Bonding Beyond the Screen: Investigating the Effects of Parasocial Relationship Between Fans and Society

Bonding Beyond the Screen: Investigating the Effects of Parasocial Relationship Between Fans and Society

Nur Adilah Sofiya Ahmad Khairi, Nur Dinie Amani Norazman, Mohamad Iadid Ashrai Hassannudin, Nur Fajrina Abdul Khalip, Sarah Yusuf

Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Kampus Kuala Pilah, Malaysia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.808004

Received: 29 June 2024; Revised: 10 July 2024; Accepted: 17 July 2024; Published: 26 August 2024

INTRODUCTION

Today, humans relate to others using media platforms that have successfully shown the world artists, content creators, and idols, but this phenomenon has given birth to parasocial relationships. Normal relationships are the relationships between individuals with mutual knowledge, while parasocial relationships are where one becomes obsessed with celebrities. Parasocial relationships are one-sided relationships where one person devotes their time, emotion, and attention while the other party is utterly oblivious to the other’s existence (Wayne, 2023). Eren (2021) and Hartmann & Goldhorn (2011) have referred to a theory by Horton and Wohl (1956) that parasocial relationships were first identified that parasocial have a positive impact and are long-term. Meanwhile, Dibble, Hartmann, and Rosaen (2016) had a different view towards parasocial relationships: The viewing experience will be transformed into a false sense, whether short- or long-term attachments to a persona.

The significance of research on parasocial relationships has gained recognition as to the influence of fans and the general community in connecting and interacting with the individuals known as media personalities. Comprehending parasocial relationships and interactions can further clarify how individuals connect with their favourite media personalities, affecting their actions, perspectives, and social engagements. Kim & Kim (2020) stated that by clarifying parasocial relationships, fans could improve their quality of life and well-being. The similarity of interest, language and interaction frequency are the contributing factors that foster self-congruity, friendship and devotion to the respective media personalities (Kim & Kim, 2020). Furthermore, the parasocial relationships are multi-layered with cross-cultural connections and contexts in which in analysing the substantial socio-emotional bonds between fans from different countries of the celebrities in which the connections are enabled through social media, in devoting the loyalty through parasocial relationships by protecting and supporting their favourite celebrities’ persona (Syawal, 2023).

The rise of social media platforms has caused a new generation of parasocial relationships which are more interactive and intimate than before. This phenomenon has gotten the attention of many researchers who want to understand the parasocial relationship and its underlying implications. This phenomenon of parasocial relationships could lead to negative relationships with social media influencers that result in the so-called war between the loyal fan communities and the anti-fan communities. According to Mardon et al. (2023), these communities will defend their power, status and resource dynamics through manipulative relationships in sustaining their celebrities’ ranking. The occurrence of the conflicts highlighted the emotional difficulties that the fans encounter through the connections that they make (Hollday & Edgar, 2019). Hence, below are the research objectives and questions of the study:

Research Objectives:

1. To investigate the development and influence of PSRs on fans and society.
2. To identify the positive and negative psychological effects of PSRs.
3. To analyse the role of social media in shaping PSRs.

Research Questions:

1. How do PSRs develop and influence fans’ behaviours and social interactions?
2. What are the psychological effects of PSRs on individuals?
3. How does social media facilitate and transform PSRs?

Conducting a systematic literature review on parasocial relationships is vital for consolidating current research, focusing on the areas that need further research and providing direction for future investigations. This research contributes to developing a thorough comprehension of the impacts of parasocial relationships on fans and society, offering valuable perspectives for academicians of media studies. This systematic literature review will examine parasocial relationships and interactions to deepen our understanding of their development and influence on fans and society. Moreover, building up the comparison of the past, current and ongoing studies in this field would profoundly affect the media personalities who have control of the power towards individual behaviours, social interactions and business strategies.

In providing a comprehensive synthesis of meta-analysis, the research findings from multiple studies construct a broader perspective on the past and current state of parasocial relationships, identifying the factors of impactful associations between parasocial relationships (Tukachinsky et al., 2020). In addition, comparing previous and current scholarly research would identify the research gap and contradictions that need to be studied. This method could facilitate the development of new research questions to be inquired into to achieve thorough analysis and neutralise publication bias in systematic literature review studies (Paez, 2017). Furthermore, the systematic literature review studies have developed standardised procedures that other researchers can adapt to improve the dependability and accuracy of the results, outlining and guiding the efficient approach to report the significance of the findings from the reviews (Siddaway et al., 2019).

Current literature on PSRs primarily focuses on their development and psychological impacts. However, more research is needed on the cross-cultural implications and the role of social media in enhancing or exacerbating these relationships. This study aims to fill these gaps by examining PSRs in diverse cultural contexts and understanding the nuanced role of social media platforms.

By further exploring knowledge of parasocial relationships, we can understand their implications for this social media world’s social and psychological aspects. Hence, knowing how parasocial relationships influence behaviour changes and an individual’s well-being is essential since technology is rising now and in the future. Thus, this paper examines the complexities of parasocial relationships, their adverse effects on individuals, and the issues surrounding them. Therefore, the systematic literature review is crucial because various conceptual frameworks and models could help the community better understand parasocial relationships. This paper also allows future researchers to identify the research gaps in parasocial relationship studies.

LITERATURE REVIEW ON PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

Parasocial relationships (PSRs) have evolved significantly since Horton and Wohl conceptualised them in 1956. Initially understood as one-sided relationships where individuals feel connected to media figures, PSRs have been increasingly studied to understand their complex implications for individuals and society. This review synthesises past and current research to highlight the trends and effects of PSRs.

Historical Perspective and Early Research

Early research focused on defining and understanding the nature of PSRs. Horton and Wohl (1956) first introduced the concept, noting that PSRs resemble real social relationships but are inherently one-sided. These interactions were primarily observed in television and radio contexts, where audiences formed emotional bonds with media personalities (Giles, 2002). The foundational work laid the groundwork for understanding how media figures could elicit strong emotional responses from audiences.

Development and Theoretical Frameworks

Dibble, Hartmann, and Rosaen (2016) clarified the distinction between parasocial interactions (PSIs) and PSRs. They identified that PSRs are more enduring and involve a more profound emotional investment than PSIs, which are momentary interactions during media consumption. Tukachinsky et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis, confirming that PSRs are strongly correlated with factors that facilitate interpersonal bonds, such as homophily and identification. This study also highlighted the theoretical distinction between PSRs and PSIs, showing that PSRs are stronger predictors of media involvement.

Psychological and Social Effects

The psychological effects of PSRs have been widely studied. Derrick et al. (2008) found that low self-esteem individuals could use PSRs to move towards their ideal self, a benefit they might miss in genuine relationships. This suggests that PSRs can have positive psychological benefits by providing emotional support and enhancing self-concept.

PSRs also influence consumer behaviour. Hwang and Zhang (2018) demonstrated that PSR with digital celebrities positively affects followers’ purchase and electronic word-of-mouth intentions. This highlights the commercial potential of PSRs in marketing and advertising contexts. Similarly, Chung and Cho (2017) found that social media interactions and self-disclosure with celebrities enhance PSRs, which can subsequently boost the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements.

Adolescent Development and Identity Formation

PSRs play a crucial role in adolescent identity formation. Gleason, Theran, and Newberg (2017) observed that adolescents often view celebrities as role models, which can influence their self-esteem and social development. The study found that boys tend to see male celebrities as authority figures, while girls often imagine egalitarian relationships with female celebrities. This gender difference underscores the diverse ways PSRs impact identity formation during adolescence.

Modern Developments and Digital Media

The rise of digital media has transformed PSRs. Kurtin et al. (2018) applied the concept of PSRs to YouTube, finding that social and physical attraction to YouTube personalities can significantly enhance PSRs. This shift to digital platforms has made PSRs more interactive and accessible, intensifying the emotional bonds between audiences and media figures.

Moreover, PSRs have been linked to educational outcomes. Beautemps and Bresges (2022) found that PSRs with educational YouTube personalities could slightly enhance learning motivation, particularly among female students. This indicates the potential for PSRs to impact educational engagement and motivation positively.

Future Directions and Research Gaps

Despite extensive research, several gaps still need to be addressed in studying PSRs. Tukachinsky and Stever (2018) proposed a theoretical model for developing PSRs, emphasising the need for further empirical examination of these relationships as dynamic processes rather than static experiences. Additionally, Cohen and Holbert (2018) highlighted the predictive value of PSRs in political contexts, suggesting that future research should explore the impact of PSRs on political behaviour and public sentiment.

METHODOLOGY

A systematic review investigates the parasocial relationship between fans and society. This systematic review considers potential articles published from January 2013 to March 2023. Three articles older than ten years were used in the research as the content is still relevant to current issues of PSR and PSI on fans and society. When using keywords such as Parasocial relationship (PSR), parasocial interaction (PSI), celebrities, behaviour, influencers, and consumers on Google Scholar, 26,900 results were identified. After screening, a total of 12 articles were selected as they met the criteria of this research. These 12 articles were assessed meticulously to obtain the information needed for this systematic review. The research principal study is to inquire about the effects of PSI and PSR on fans and society in various literature reviews from different countries and methods of studies throughout different years of publication.

Research Design and Conceptual Framework

The research adopts a systematic literature review design, following established protocols to ensure reliability and validity (Siddaway et al., 2019). The conceptual framework is based on Horton and Wohl’s (1956) theory of PSRs, supplemented by contemporary studies on social media interactions and their psychological effects on fans (Dibble et al., 2016; Kim & Kim, 2020).

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of a Systematic Literature Review on Parasocial Relationship Effects on Fans and Society.

Sampling Procedures

The articles were selected through a meticulous screening process to ensure relevance and quality. The final sample included studies from various countries, providing a broad perspective on PSR across different cultural and social contexts.

Data Analysis

The data from the selected studies were analysed using a meta-analysis approach to identify common themes and findings (Tukachinsky et al., 2020). The analysis focused on the development, psychological effects, and social media dynamics of PSRs.

DISCUSSION

In this discussion section, the study delves into a comprehensive analysis of various aspects of Parasocial Interaction (PSI) and Parasocial Relationship (PSR). Specifically, the study explores the formation of PSI and PSR, shedding light on the factors contributing to their development and establishment. The psychological effects of PSI and PSR are explored, including their impact on emotional well-being, self-esteem, and the fulfilment of unmet needs. Furthermore, the discussion critically addresses the negative consequences and risks of PSI and PSR, considering potential issues such as obsessive behaviours and negative body image issues. Hence, the study delves into the applied perspectives and practical implications. This comprehensive discussion will further elaborate on the multifaceted nature of PSI and PSR, which can pave the way for future research and practical considerations in various domains.

Formation of Parasocial Interaction and Parasocial Relationships

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationships can be formed through various forms of social involvement. Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationships were never recent in this generation. The term parasocial interaction was coined by Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl in 1956. However, it has started to be put into the spotlight again due to the extreme media exposure worldwide.

According to Dibble, Hartmann, and Rosaen (2016), who referred to a study by Horton and Wohl (1956) and Horton and Strauss (1957), a parasocial interaction can be formed when the presence of the audience is acknowledged by the media performers, such as by verbally addressing their names, making eye contact, or holding informal face-to-face gatherings. Users or the audience seem to know it is only an act, but parasocial interaction can still be formed.

Horton and Wohl (1956) suggested that users who see parasocial interaction are aware of the illusion of the interactions. However, they continue to perceive it as a reciprocal social interaction (Dibble et al., 2016).

Findings from Dibble, Hartmann, and Rosaen’s (2014) study agreed with Hartmann and Goldhoorn’s (2011) study, which found that making eye contact and addressing themselves bodily produce an experience of parasocial interaction.

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationships do differ in terms of their lastingness. Horton and Wohl (1956) indicated that parasocial relationships have one-sided intimacy, more persisting, known to be long-term and generally positive. Parasocial interaction can be developed during viewing; meanwhile, a parasocial relationship can transform the viewing experience into a false sense of short- or long-term attachment towards the media performer (Dibble et al., 2016).

Psychological Effects of Parasocial Interaction and Parasocial Relationships

Despite its popularity as a one-sided relationship between individuals and their media figures, everyone might undergo different psychological reactions towards PSI and PSR. Several psychological effects could appear because of PSI and PSR.

Individuals exposed to PSI and PSR are likelier to develop a sense of attachment to their media figure. Strong emotions of attachment are seen in early adulthood. According to Cahyani and Purnamasari (2019), this leads to a worship culture where these worshippers, more known as fangirls or fanboys in Korean pop culture, feel a great attachment to celebrities because there is a feeling of closeness that is caused by the parasocial interaction between the celebrities and their fanboys and fangirls. Amid rapid technological advancement, celebrities and media figures have managed to maintain their fan’s psychological attachment by doing live-stream shows. A study by Ma et al. (2022) collects data from a total of 288 respondents in their survey to determine fans’ attachment and loyalty towards K-pop group comeback in live streaming platforms. They found out that emphatic attachment and sustained loyalty both have a positive impact on PSI. Thus, PSI and PSR are essential in the fans’ attachment to their media figures.

An increase in purchase intention is also a physiological reaction caused by PSI and PSR. An individual purchase intention is measured by their willingness and tendency to buy products or services. Chung and Cho (2017) found that in their studies, celebrity endorsement increases the probability of their fans following the brand that their celebrities endorsed. Celebrities’ endorsement can encourage an increase in the purchasing intention of their fan as some fans will try to follow or mimic their favourite celebrities’ styles. A study by Kim, Liu, and Chang (2022) shows that parasocial interaction between influencers and viewers positively impacts the purchase intention of the viewers. Influencers usually review their endorsed products on their channel and increase purchase intention by persuading their viewers to try the brand. Thus, the higher the PSI and PSR between media figures and their fans, the higher the purchase intention of their fans.

PSI and PSR also caused individuals to start idolising media figures. They felt like those media figures had traits and personalities they wanted in themselves; hence, they began to take on their idols’ values, aspirations, and behaviour in shaping their identity. According to Gleason, Theran, and Newberg (2017), early adolescents are more prone to idolise media figures to shape their identity. Early adolescent boys are more inclined to idolise men with high positions in the hierarchy as their idols and authority figures. Meanwhile, early teenage girls choose beautiful and skilled media figures as idols. In their studies, Nguyen, Khadadeh and Jeong (2023) mentioned that PSI and PSR cause “Kinning” acts to appear as individuals feel close personality correlation and find themselves relatable with fictional characters; hence, they start idolising them. Even though the relationship between those individuals and their fictional characters is extremely one-sided, it does not prevent them from developing PSI and PSR with fictional characters, as they can relate to those characters when they consume a medium that contains them. Therefore, the idolisation of media figures is also a psychological effect of PSI and PSR.

In conclusion, PSI and PSR play a significant role in influencing someone psychologically. PSI and PSR can psychologically influence by developing a sense of attachment, increasing purchase intention, and idolising media figures. These psychological influences can affect and impact individuals emotionally and physically in their daily lives. Media figures need to maintain their PSI and PSR with their fans to maintain their influence on their fans, thus increasing fans’ engagement with PSI and PSR.

Negative Consequences and Risks

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationships may look and sound harmless, but they come with negative consequences and risks.

A study by Chung and Cho (2017) indicated that social media has a direct negative effect on source trustworthiness. Celebrities interacting with their fans on social media can have conflicting effects if they do not endorse it from a positive experience. As noted by Chung and Cho (2017), the authors highlighted Erdogan and Baker’s (2000) study that any unfavourable information about a celebrity can adversely affect the advertising campaigns they are associated with. Just like how we see in recent times where celebrities are frequently being called out by social media users for their inappropriate behaviour in the past, be it sexual harassment, racism, misogyny and more.

In the modern world, where online shopping has become a norm for most people, micro-blogging and social media influencers influence to encourage their followers to shop for the things they wear and advertise. Gong and Li (2018) indicated that celebrities or influencers easily influence consumers through advertisements due to their attractiveness and trustworthiness. This does prove endorsement effectiveness; however, from another perspective, celebrities and influencers are promoting materialism and consumerism, and they are trying to encourage their followers or fans to buy the things they do not need or want. Other than that, influencers and celebrities often promote unrealistic body standards, and this could lead to further adverse effects such as body dysmorphia and eating disorders.

A study by Gleason, Theran, and Newberg (2017) shows that girls tend to choose celebrities older than themselves and often imagine egalitarian relationships with their favourite male celebrities. However, girls do not usually end up in a relationship with their favourite male celebrities. This may sound harmless, but there have been cases where girls have developed their egalitarian relationship into a more disturbing one- stalking. For many years, celebrities have endured various forms of intrusion of privacy and harassment by their fans, paparazzi, and, in some cases, even their family members. The relentless stalking experienced by Princess Diana serves as a distressing example, as she was ardently stalked for years by paparazzi until the fateful accident that claimed her life.

Applied Perspectives and Practical Implications

In parasocial relationships and parasocial interaction, the outcomes between two sides result in different behaviours. Therefore, there are few applied perspectives and practical implications due to these parasocial relationships.

A parasocial relationship does act as an extension for an individual to deepen their emotional connections with their media personae, but it may lead to some mental illness. As stated by Christy and Adam (2023), they studied the fact that people who perceive themselves as marginalised groups often lack social support. The lack of social support is correlated with loneliness. Thus, these people will turn to social media, which allows them to attract media personalities and form parasocial relationships. PSI and PSR are also able to make a person delusional about their desire to be with someone they admire or are attracted to. A study by Nguyen, Khadadeh and Jeong (2023) indicates that self-shipping with fictional characters could also lead to mental health, where they feel that when they ship themselves with the characters they are attached to, it could provide some emotional support. Usually, “shipping” is the term used by fans towards the characters, which describes the desire of two or more characters to be in a romantic or sexual relationship. Therefore, fans who like self-shipping will consider themselves as having a romantic relationship with fictional characters to fulfil their desire. According to Bernhold (2019), older adults who are attached to disliked characters may experience depressive symptoms and loneliness due to the development of some unfavourable personality characteristics when having a parasocial relationship with disliked characters. They also mentioned why older adults are most likely to be attached to these negative characteristics because they spend most of their time alone without involving other people. Thus, they will likely emphasise independence, minimise strong emotions, and develop an avoidant attachment style.

Next, the behaviour of the social norms changes due to their attachment towards the people they admire and being able to do something for their desire, causing parasocial relationships. Ballantine (2005) indicates that the non-active users, also called lurkers, are the community who decide to be unnoticeable without writing their consumption interests or desires, and this leads them to become attached to the active users because they usually show the same kind of behaviour of what the lurkers are desire for. It shows how active participants within an online community can influence the consumption behaviour of other non-participants. Cahyani and Purnamasari (2019) also mentioned that since K-pop culture became world-popular, fans have started to change their lifestyle regarding love life, fashion, and loyalty towards their favourite K-pop artists. This affects their early adulthood as they refer to everything in their interest as the figure they idolise.

Based on a study by Bernhold (2019), having a parasocial relationship with disliked characters can develop attachment anxiety and avoidance. This can be seen when the media personae show negative emotions, possibly attributing unpleasant personality characteristics to someone. This also causes them to avoid and separate from people as they think it is not worth it, and they should ignore or suppress cognitions or emotions.

Although most of the negative impacts go to the fans and the followers on the other side, the people they admire gain benefits such as popularity and boost the marketing. Hudders and Lou (2023) stated that an ‘online celebrity’, popular among online and social platforms, can gain increasing traction with brand endorsement and sponsorship due to the parasocial relationship between followers and influencers. Moreover, according to Hudders & Lou (2023), influencers can gain more fans by communicating with their followers by responding to their comments, giving them feedback, and making exciting content that is usually related to the followers because that attracts them towards the influencers. Influencers such as brands and sponsorship can boost marketing because followers always look up to their influencers. As a result, there will be more critical attitudes towards the sponsored content and the brands instead of the influencers (Hudders & Lou, 2023).

FINDINGS

This section presents the findings in the table below, summarising the critical outcomes derived from the collected data. Table 3.0 below provides a comprehensive overview of the study’s results, including significant relationships. Subsequent discussion paragraphs will give detailed explanations and interpretations of the findings.

Table 1.0: The findings from collected data of PSR and PSI

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Parasocial relationships still need more research or studies on the topic itself. The field has much room to explore. More comprehensive exploration could deepen society’s understanding of parasocial relationships and impact various aspects, such as individuals and media culture. Developing a deeper understanding of parasocial relationships is vital for future research, as this analysis will give broader perspectives on the interactions that impact fans and the wider dynamics of society. The existing study emphasises the intricate and diverse characteristics of parasocial relationships. There is a broader range of fields on parasocial relationships in social media exploration, which plays a significant role in the well-being of individuals (Hoffner & Bond, 2022).

In continuing studies on parasocial relationships, future researchers acknowledge some ideas known to be the research gap in parasocial relationship studies. Hoffner and Bond (2022) highlighted the research gaps in parasocial relationship studies. The research gaps mentioned are small moments of interaction between two or more people where one is the persona that could be the opportunity to influence parasocial relationships. Examining parasocial relationships across diverse cultures and socio-demographic groups might offer valuable insights into the presence and differences of these relationships. Novikov (2019) highlighted the importance of using multidisciplinary methods to examine parasocial relationships in various cultural and social settings (Novikov, 2019). Gaining insight into the influence of characteristics such as gender, age, and social background on the development and impact of parasocial relationships helps enhance our theoretical and practical knowledge of these interactions. They also mentioned how personas represent themselves or the characteristics of representation affect the well-being of people intentionally or unintentionally. Studies on why fewer individuals are in the minority scale socially are less able to be seen as the models or personas that we see in media could be one of the research ideas that could be used in the future.

Moreover, future research on parasocial relationships can immensely impact the influence of political support and behaviour. Cohen and Holbert (2018) proved that the parasocial relationship findings could forecast individuals’ performances in the political arena through conventional predictors and voting patterns. Subsequent studies should also investigate the impact of political and social relationships involving political leaders on political participation and public sentiment, considering various media landscapes and cultural settings.

Studies examining the interactions between different cultures and the characteristics of various social groups. Further research should explore the impact of digital platforms and emerging media on establishing and sustaining personal social relationships, as demonstrated in previous studies on YouTube and social media interactions (Kurtin et al., 2018). On the other hand, since artists contribute to the well-being of their fans, future research could offer a broader range of perspectives on social media if permitted, which is also brought up in the article.

According to an article by Chung and Cho (2017), the article focuses on improving the validity of the samples obtained from sample collecting for the study. Future studies should use other research designs to validate the findings of parasocial relationship studies, such as longitudinal studies or multimethod approaches. Longitudinal studies allow the researcher to track trends and patterns of evolving changes in the samples since it is an approach that studies the same group for an extended period. Multimethod approaches avoid any biased perspectives by using methods such as surveys, interviews, and observations. This enhances the validity by integrating multiple approaches and including other researchers’ disciplines. The findings of later studies should be validated with these longitudinal studies and multimethod approaches. Future studies should include samples from different countries to avoid societies with a specific mindset towards the study. In future studies, provide greater external validity by adding celebrity involvements such as high-involvement or low-involvement. All these methods are significant to parasocial relationships since there are still many different demeanours about parasocial relationships from people who see it differently.

Therefore, future studies of parasocial relationships can be increased, and the effort to close the research gap in the field can be approached. The quality and validity of samples from studies on parasocial relationships can be increased with these improvements. In addition, parasocial relationship studies could be further improved by focusing on broadening theoretical frameworks, investigating the maintenance and growth of these ties, evaluating their influence on social and political behaviours, conducting cross-cultural comparisons, and enhancing methodological approaches. These instructions will offer a more profound comprehension of parasocial relationships and their ramifications for individuals and society.

CONCLUSION

This study was meant to dissect and discuss the effects of parasocial interaction and relationships. This paper utilises mixed methods of qualitative and quantitative approaches to achieve more comprehensive information and findings whilst focusing on papers published between 2018 and 2023. Based on our extensive review of the topic, it has become evident that PSI and PSR can contribute to the phenomenon of individuals idolising media figures, and this is where it leads to the adverse effects: source trustworthiness, the easy influence to shop for what is being advertised, unrealistic body standards, egalitarian relationships and more. While it is true that PSI and PSR can bring other beneficial interests to most people, it is unmistakable that PSI and PSR are damaging our community, especially the youth. Hence, this paper gives insights into the consumers’ perspectives and the effects of PSI and PSR on various aspects. The realm of PSI and PSR ranges beyond public spaces, and there is more room to explore and understand society’s needs for a PSI and a PSR on account of the research gaps. Regarding default discarding or criticizing𑁋, this study proposes that psychology and media go hand in hand.

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