Dependency in Africa: Exploitation in Aspiration to Educational Development.

Dependency in Africa: Exploitation in Aspiration to Educational Development.

Caleb Imbova Mackatiani*

University of Nairobi, Kenya.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.807259

Received: 21 June 2024; Revised: 11 July 2024; Accepted: 15 July 2024; Published: 24 August 2024

ABSTRACT

This study examined the mechanisms that promote educational dependency in Africa. These mechanisms focus on dependency theory, economic and political status of African countries. According to the dependence theory, both economic and educational progress cannot be achieved in a balanced and constructive way because of the nature of the structural interaction between the developed and less-developed states. The benefit of applying dependence theory is to explain human relationships and why wealthy countries continue to be wealthy while impoverished countries find it difficult to escape poverty. Contemporary African scholars in all academic disciplines have blamed the Europeans for the underdevelopment of Africa. This has necessitated the evocation of dependency theory in explaining Sub-Sahara Africa’s under-development conditions. Subsequently, Africa’s underdevelopment has been linked to internal and external factors. The paradigm has recently shifted from political to economic colonialism, which has fueled dependency and underdevelopment in Africa. Nonetheless, there exist justifications for maintaining reliance on education and advancing education in Africa. According to this school of thinking, the sustainability of education depends on the interactions between society and education. The African education industry has been impacted by this paradigm change.

Keywords: Colonialism, Development, Dependency, Education, Exploitation

Objectives of the Study 

1. To investigate the genesis of education dependency in Africa
2. To assess the role played by imperial powers in the promotion of education dependency in Africa
3. To establish means of minimizing education dependency in Africa.

INTRODUCTION

The formal educational systems of African countries were initially organized under colonial powers (Mackatiani et al,2016). However, the plans did not change after the attainment of political independence. The systems remained the same. This implies that they perpetuated the colonial view of the ideal society and education. According to the model, the society was organized into three social strata or classes; the kings were to get some philosophical and literate education. Then the auxiliaries were to get some intellectual and literate education, but not as much as the philosopher kings. At the bottom were the masses of producers of goods who were to get elementary and practical education. This was in line with British racial policies concerning the educability of African natives (Mackatiani,2022). The policy concentrated on the cranial capacity of Africans. The Europeans deduced that Africans were not educable. Hence, the policy on African education was aimed at providing labor for the white settlers to promote agricultural production. This type of education also promoted missionary activities. Missionaries were able to produce catechists who would assist them in their pastoral work in Kenya. Early technical education centered on trades mainly building and carpentry. This platonic model was reproduced throughout Africa. In some countries, it took racial characteristics; European settlement and control were expected to be permanent. The sons of expatriates were the philosopher kings, and high education was reserved for sons of chiefs and those who intended to collaborate with the Philosophical Kings.

The spiritual model was not abandoned at independence. There were some changes like the integration of schools where they were separated on racial lines. However, the separation of knowledge for stratified social stations continued despite efforts to provide equal opportunity for everyone to contest for the highest expertise and social status. Among the circumstances that facilitated the continuation of the model was the fact that the Africans never questioned the model because they were overwhelmed by the situation that existed. The colonial educational systems were handled by personnel to sustain the systems. They also needed to expand the procedures to produce human resources for the various sectors such as the administrative machinery and the private economic sector. Mackatiani and Likoko (2022) noted that Africans rely on developed countries for resources that promote learning in schools. This is in light of Altbach (1978) who observed that third world countries are annexed to industrialized nations for school resources. Therefore, Africans had to depend on the metropolitan countries to provide teachers, particularly secondary school teachers, from such groups as the Anglo-American Programme, the U.S.A. Peace Corps, the British Volunteers Service Overseas, the Canadian University Service Overseas, the Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers, and others. This recruitment of so-called expatriate teachers has continued mainly because almost all African countries found it unavoidable to continue recruiting from metropolitan countries. Consequently, it would be utterly impossible to understand thoroughly, for example, the expansion of secondary education without examining the availability of teaching staff in metropolitan countries and the capacity of any one African country to recruit from these countries. Thus, without worrying about donors’ motives, the historical relationships between African countries and metropolitan countries have made the former dependent on the latter for teachers and other resources

The state of dependency is particularly dire at the university level. Most developing countries employ only roughly 40% of native academic staff. Universities in developing nations tend to adapt to Western trends, as stated by Okolie (2003) and Tikly (2001). Initiatives for quality certification and strategies for financing education are examples of reform measures that are adapted from the West. As they navigate political and economic issues, African higher education institutions are especially vulnerable to these reforms. Aid conditionality is a defining feature of external liberalization programs. The net effect of all this is to produce a crisis perspective whereby African institutions are perceived as being unable to aid in development (Roe 1999). Therefore, for teaching staff and other resources, universities in Africa rely on developed nations. Teachers in secondary and higher education in several African countries continue to be dependent on education from Western nations. As these developments come together, African institutions are weakened and transform from being agents of development to becoming the inheritors of development aid, sometimes misinterpreted expertise, and Western-created reform models.

Fannon (1968) revealed that neo-colonialism has been established in Africa through educational support. However, Fanon and Memi (1957) had recommended a revolution as the only way out of colonial and neo-colonial situations. Besides, they argue that the solution to dependency is delinking developing countries from industrialized nations.

Statement of the Problem

The Industrial Revolution transformed economies that had been based on agriculture and handicrafts into economies based on large-scale industry, mechanized manufacturing, and the factory system. Subsequently, the Berlin Conference of 1885 was convened to scramble and partition Africa. This implies that Europeans rushed to set up colonies in Africa. The imperial governments looted natural resources and took them to Europe for processing in industries. The processed products were exported back to colonized regions leading to dependency. The same period saw the transplanting of western education in Africa. The western education systems were anchored in their philosophy of exploitation. All the components of colonial education systems and their implementation promoted the process of dependency. All resources were gotten from the colonial masters. However, Africanism philosophical that emphasizes the importance of self-reliance. With the close of the second world war, political decolonization was realized in Africa. But there was there was no economic and educational decolonization. Epistemologically, it is difficult to decolonize Education. Mental colonization cannot be easily removed from the minds of Africans. We need an ontological approach to understand the root causes of these evils in Africa. Through this interrogation, Africans will weigh reliance on developed economies for sustaining and expanding education parameters to enslave Africa. It is on this basis that the study interrogated educational dependency in Africa.

Significance of the Study

The study could be useful to Kenya’s Ministry of Education and Africa south of the Sahara. The findings would be used by policy planners to redress the issue of educational dependency in developing countries. It could be used by education strategists to create a legal framework aimed at redressing issues of dependency in education. Education planners and implementers would create roadmaps for continuous improvement of education systems based on the findings of this study. The study may add value to the current research literature by providing additional knowledge on dependency. Finally, the study’s findings may also help future researchers by identifying priority areas for additional research.

Theoretical Construct

The study was guided by dependency theory. Cardoso and Falleto (1969) influenced the development of the theory of dependency. They concentrated mainly on economics as applied in Latin America. Their contributions are essential in the development of the idea of educational dependency as used in Africa. Sander (1958) notes that the theory of dependency was initially applied to education. Arnove (1980) called for a world-systems analysis of education. He suggested a comparative studies model that would consider the international forces impinging upon education systems. He contributed to the ongoing discussion about using a model based on the dependency theory in comparative educational studies. The idea of dependency in education is therefore, contained in the dependency theory. Proponents of the theory argue that the dependency theory in education has relative potential and it would help enlighten stakeholders in education. Proponents of dependency theory further argue that the importance of global economics and political structures influence dependency. The tenets of dependency theory pay attention to the role of history and, in particular, the role of colonialism in constructing the positions of different countries within the global economy. Analysis of why a country occupies a certain position within the world economy, therefore, begins at the global level. Dependency theorists argue that, beyond the end of formal colonialism, the value transfers of profits have continued to flow from the Global South to the North. This implies that the “core countries” of the North continue to benefit from their extraction of wealth from the “peripheral countries” of the South. Within such a framework, the underdevelopment of countries in the South can be explained via their continued exploitation at the hands of the North, rather than only by way of internal policy failures. Dependency theory also encompasses world systems theorists and structuralisms. They regard dependency theory as more of an approach than a theory.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study adopted a Documentary analysis where documentary evidence supports and validates facts stated in the study. The local and international sources of documents included legal documents, conference of education reports, and studies related to dependency. Besides, International literature on the provision of inclusive and quality education and colonialism were reviewed. Research findings on dependency were on empirical studies conducted globally by various researchers. Analytic reading and review of these written materials on dependency were done. The data was analyzed and interpreted through the examination of documents and records relevant to dependency in education. The researcher extracted relevant statements of facts to validate the individual research objectives of the study. Discourse analysis and interpretative analysis were conducted to capture meaning from the texts. The variables investigated included school physical infrastructure, human resources, and instructional materials. These variables are considered crucial for pupils to participate reasonably in learning activities in the classrooms. Therefore, the variables are crucial in influencing dependency in education.

DATA SOURCES AND DISCUSSIONS

Concept of Dependency

Cardoso (1969) refers to dependency as a situation in which a state’s economy is dominated by another or a group of other states. Consequently, its political and social institutions are conditioned by the dominating country or countries. The social institutions that encompass dependency are constituted in the education systems of dependent countries. Karl Marx (1818-1883), in his economic theory, formulated the initial proposal of the concept of dependence. Marx believed that in a capitalist system, society would inevitably divide itself into two classes of business owners and workers. The workers would produce the material goods and conduct all the labor, while the owners would reap all the financial and social benefits. According to Marx’s analysis, capitalism was inevitably bound to generate dependence because of its need for goods and capital.

The concept of dependency has attracted many researchers. However, a few scholars on the topic make exciting comments. Mannoni (1964) has attributed colonialism to the resultant phenomena of dependence. He revealed that psychological drives among different people lead to dominance or to be dominated. Mannoni attributed the relationship between Europeans and Africans to child-rearing practices. To him, child-rearing practices in colonized societies were directed to ancestors’ domination resulting in feelings of dependency and inferiority, which were early transferred to the colonizer. It is the psychological condition of the colonial situation and the relationships between the two sides. The problem is psychological and independent of structures, and the solution is intensive individual psychotherapy. In light of this, Mackatiani (2020) notes that dependency has contributed to the rise in Xenophobia in Africa. As a result, different practices contributed to the dispositions to dominate and to be dominated.

However, Memi noted that colonialism is not a product of the mind but a product of the economic and basic needs of the colonizers. This concurs with Mackatiani, Imbovah &, and Mackatiani (2014) who noted that peace prospects promote dependency in Africa. The financial situation leads to the states of mind of both the colonizer and the colonized. The colonizer comes with power. He owes his wealth to the colonized and justifies his position by using the colonized’s poverty. The colonizer shapes all the institutions of colonial society according to his view of the colonized. According to Caroy (1974), the relationship between Memi’s analysis and the dependency theory was apparent. He affirms that the colonial relationship determines the pattern of development or non-development in a colonized country. However, Memi did not cover the post-independence situations of countries governed by their nationals.

Fannon (1968) provided the analysis of neo-colonialism and revolutionary imperatives. He argued that the independence of colonized peoples was the transfer of power to the national bourgeoisie. This process maintained colonial institutions and generally further promoted the economic and social influence of the respective imperial forces. Independence transferred the administration into the hands of a national bourgeoisie, but metropolitan capitalists continued to gain the benefits of the colonial relationship. In this situation, the national bourgeoisie is an intermediary. Although they attempt to take over the colonialists, they do not have the metropolitan counterpart’s history, power, and wealth. Therefore, they merely maintain the colonial institutional structure. The outcome is that post-independence economies are not integrated into the nation as a whole.

Indicators of Dependency

Dependency is a conditioning situation in which the development and expansion of others condition the economics of one group of countries. Therefore, it is necessary to consider aspects that contribute to dependency. A thorough understanding of educational systems in Africa would require considering the international forces that impinge on the African Educational systems. The comparative education researchers provide valuable and relevant information and advice to educate policymakers in Africa, and the international troops are inevitably considered. Personnel, equipment, teaching materials, and facilities are essential in any educational system. To understand the dynamics of an educational system, it is necessary to understand the nature and availability of these resources. Therefore, it is imperative that in studying African educational systems, one should examine the influence of external aid as such, even without going into the gray area of the motives of the donors.

The teaching materials, especially books used in African countries, are generally from metropolitan countries or have been published by a publisher based in a metro government. Altbach (1978) states that ‘the third world is beholden to the industrialized nations for books and journals,’ pertinent to African countries. This is also a result of the historical relationship between the metropolitan countries and African countries. Because of the colonial relationship, the African countries have not developed the necessary capacity to write or manufacture the materials. The inferior educational, economic and cultural status that the Africans were relegated to during colonialism hindered their ability to generate teaching materials. It has not been easy to develop this capacity even after political independence, and therefore most of the teaching books still come from metropolitan countries. It has been an inevitable consequence of colonialism but not the result of a conspiracy by various foundations.

Mackatiani (2017), argued that UN legal instruments on UPE and EFA promoted educational dependency in Africa. UN agencies like UNESCO and World Bank had to come up with funding polies that were to be adhered to by African countries. All African countries had to receive either bilateral or multilateral aid or both. Hurst (1983) identified two kinds of assistance to education; capital and technology. Capital aid is in the form of buildings and equipment. Technical assistance is in the form of ‘know-how,’ for example, teachers, curriculum developers, or planners, usually referred to as expatriate experts. The other kind of technical aid is training the workforce in the areas or disciplines the recipients need. Assistance in education has affected the education systems of African systems qualitatively; one would conclude that the aid has been positive in that it has facilitated an increase in school enrolment. However, this would not sum up the influence of education support. A thorough grasp of the effect of reliance on African Education systems will also require considering the study of the international context of the transactions.

MC Neil (2010) is considered a critic of aid in general, but his conclusion in one of his articles is revealing. He points out that aid agents have inadequate finances generally; they have high costs and often exacerbate the very problems they are intended to solve. Also, the context of aid involves an assortment of procedures and regulations that are lengthy and inefficient; many rules they adopt are designed to serve the interest of donors rather than recipients; most governments have mixed motives for providing aid. In addition to donors and recipients, consultants, contractors, and advisors’ reasons and interests further distort the situation. An example of this factor that distorts the impact of aid projects in education, this writer says he has seen a building project for dormitories in primary teacher training colleges in one African country. It was agreed that the capital of a western country was to aid the building project. However, the cement had to come from Ethiopia and the steel from India.

Advantages of Dependency

The world has become one global village. Thus, interactions in whatever form are inevitable. This implies that dependency has several advantages. Reliance has increased the cost of Africa’s ability to compete and develop the best prospects for future economic prosperity and poverty reduction. The promotion of online publishing of works written by African scholars is a significant contribution to African scholarship. Besides, World Bank conditions of structural adjustment programs include policy reforms ranging from proper finance management, accountability, and transparency, without which developing countries would not reform. The donor agencies and non-governmental organizations have reached out to the remotest schools and funded educational activities of different kinds. Also, teaching English and other languages like French, German and Arabic in secondary schools and other levels of learning is beneficial to Africa. The frustrations of dependency have made African educators wake up and take charge of their education. 

Disadvantages of Dependency

Poverty reduction policies and strategies have tended to be influenced by the theories of development. Modernistic policies and strategies tend to be top-down in approach. They see the development of Africa as the responsibility of the metropolitan states. Thus, development strategies and finances are produced, packaged, and sent to Africa by economically powerful states. In light of this Mackatiani et al (2014) noted that developed countries loot natural resources and fuel conflicts in Africa. In disguise, the imperialists initiate developments and peace structures. Subsequently, the developed countries ensure thriving of dependency in Africa. The dependency theory attributes rural poverty to the continuous pillage of human and nonhuman resources from the satellite to the metropolis. Underdeveloped Africa is a result of a cultural collision between two different development spheres of imperialists and Africa. The former, because of its strategic and technological advantage over Africa, can choke and subdue Africa’s cultural value system. In the process, Africa loses its right to determine its way to development.

MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Major Findings

African educational systems that demonstrate the importance of an international approach to comparative study is the medium of instruction. African countries have adopted the language of their respective colonizer as media of instruction. Again, this is a result of the colonial historical relationship. One, there is a dependency on teaching materials like textbooks, which has been discussed before. It has continued to influence the systems strongly to maintain the metropolitan languages as media of instruction. This is, of course, international. There is also the local factor of the existence of multi-indigenous languages, which, coupled with the political goal of national unity, have favored the relation of the metropolitan languages as instruction in African educational systems. There is the encouragement of the retention of urban languages primarily by intellectuals who feel that reverting to an indigenous language will isolate them from international exposure. There is a solid drive for science that favors the conservation of metropolitan languages. There is also influence through aid.

Aspects of the Western system of education in Africa have caused a culture of selfish materialism. Also, Western education works to eliminate students through failure on tests, giving rise to competitive individualism. Besides, the education policies instituted by donor agencies to our education institutions, though perceived to bring positive change, have created more problems for Africa’s education systems, such as expensive quality education. Due to dependency on the western education system and policies, there is the production of people whose degrees and diplomas alienate them from the very societies that education should train them to be part of. In addition, the sponsors and donor agencies stipulate the recipient country meets conditions and demands before they give any assistance. Donor countries use the dependency trap to impose their ideas on Africa and re-colonize African countries.

Theorists of dependency advance dependency as a situation in which a state’s economy is dominated by another or a group of other states. Consequently, its political and social institutions are conditioned by the dominating country or countries. In essence, the by-product of dependency is colonialism. The social institutions that encompass dependency are constituted in the education systems of dependent countries. They argue that in a capitalist system, society would inevitably divide itself into two classes of business owners and workers. The workers produce the material goods and conduct all the labor, while the owners would reap all the financial and social benefits. They conclude that capitalism generate dependence because of its need for raw materials from recipient countries.

Conclusion

Educational dependency in Africa is a creation by the imperial power to exploit developing countries economically. Many of the principles suggested as the basis for the developmental strategy for education in developing countries have been established for the exploitation of these countries by developed economies. However, to make it possible for education in African countries to undergo progressive transformation and overcome crises, appropriate social and economic reforms are necessary for the creation of transformative education. Foremost, it is important to carry out reforms that will expand the use of available material and human resources in education. This should lead to expanding the possibilities of work and production and will reduce the aspect of profit as the exclusive factor determining the volume of production and consumption. As such, developed countries won’t possess the authority to exploit. This matter falls within the future framework of the developmental strategy for African countries. The establishment of the new international order is therefore in the interest not only of the developing countries but equally of the developed ones. By the creation of equitable economic conditions for the development of developing countries, new and very extensive markets would be opened. This would lead to non-reliance on developed countries. The scenario for the developmental strategy for education in developed countries should be guided by those same principles expounded for developing countries.

RECOMMENDATIONS

From the study findings, dependency has exemplified itself education settings in Africa. It is therefore recommended various structures be put in place to minimize dependency. The African Union(AU) and East Africa Community (EAC) should be commended for the recognition of Kiswahili as an official language. It is an important step in the minimization of dependency. The following ways would also be considered as means of reducing dependency. First, there is a need to balance Western influence by promoting an education system with a vital component of African cultures such as drama and music. Second, intellectuals should be encouraged to live in rural communities. This has been practiced in Ethiopia and Tanzania. Also, education systems in Africa should have a practical-oriented curriculum whose primary emphasis is an education system that is realistic and addresses the people’s real needs. Third, local languages should be used as media of instruction and publishing. Tanzania practiced this with Kiswahili as the medium/language of instruction. Also, there should be a limitation on the importation of western materials and equipment. There is a need to have a practical-oriented curriculum whose primary emphasis is an education system that is realistic and that addresses the real needs of the people. Besides, there is a need to localize the curriculum whereby subjects like history, geography, and literature emphasize local situations. Finally, African countries should promote local authorship and publishing firms through favorable economic policies.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The study is empirical and was conducted through documentary analysis.

STUDY LIMITATIONS

This study like any other study had various limitations. The area of the geographical region of the study site was a significant limitation. The site was expansive and cosmopolitan. The study methodology was also a limitation. Besides, data from documents was a limitation. Data collected was mainly secondary. With regard to the mitigation of limitations, the study was conducted through documentary analysis. Documentary analysis was conducted from research works conducted from both developed and developing countries. It therefore minimized the biasness of researchers. The study site being vast with cosmopolitan population, study findings were generalized. The researchers’ skills of creativity and flexibility determined reliability and validity of data analyzed. Also, various studies from developed countries and Africa used to gather information ensured the supplementation of each other. Furthermore, information on educational dependency was not manipulated.

Study Contributions

This study is significant to education stakeholders in Africa. The Stakeholders will be sensitized on the role of dependency in education sectors in Africa. It will highlight on concerns when there are shifts sourcing of educational funding. Policy formulators and policy implementers might use the findings of the study to redress issues that promote dependency in learning institutions. The study might be significant to developing countries as it provides data on educational dependency in developing countries. Following study findings on dependency in education and contribution to the body of knowledge, the study may be important for comparative and international education.

Suggestions for Further Research.

Further research on education dependency should be used to open up discourses about the expectations and realities of dependency in education. It should minimize exploitation and erosion of African culture. Education systems should focus on exploitation of local resources to avoid reliance on foreign institutions. For learners to thrive in the 21st century education skills, it will require decolonization of education.

Authors’ Contributions

One Author participated in the study

Conflict of Interest

There was no conflict of interest

Funding Source

There was no external source of funding. The Author sacrificed his savings to actualize the study.

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