Diversity of Higher Fungi on University of Ibadan Campus (2)

Diversity of Higher Fungi on University of Ibadan Campus (2)

¹*Jonathan, SG; ²Adeboye, FT; ³Okpewho, OP; ⁴Omeonu, FC; ⁵Nwaokolo, VM; ¹Salaam SM; ⁶Wood, TT and ¹Alabi, VJ

¹Mycology & Applied Microbiology Group, Department of Botany, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

²Curator. University of Ibadan Botanical Gardens, Ibadan. Nigeria

³Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, Delta State University, Abraka,. Nigeria

⁴Department of Microbiology, Chrisland University,Abeokuta.Nigeria.

⁵Federal College of Forestry, Jericho, Ibadan, Oyo State. Nigeria

⁶National Biotechnology Research and Development Agency, FCT, Abuja, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000185

Received: 29 April 2025; Accepted: 04 May 2025; Published: 03 June 2025

ABSTRACT

Fungi generally play crucial roles in the forest ecosystems; by enhancing soil fertility, facilitating nutrient recycling, decomposing organic matter, and promoting plant health. In our first published article, some higher fungi (mushrooms) that were collected from  University of Ibadan Botanical Gardens were reported. In this present study, further investigations were carried out on the diversity, distribution, and ecological significance of other higher fungi collected from the University of Ibadan campus. The collections were done between April and October 2024. The research was aimed in identifying macro-fungal species, estimate their population, and determining their preferred habitats .Findings from this study emphasized the ecological importance of fungi in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and soil enrichment. In addition to the twenty four( 24 ) already reported  higher fungi in Part 1 of this study, additional  twenty one (21)new genera of macrofungi were collected ,characterized and reported in this present investigation. The new fungi group in Part2 of this study includ the Agarics, Auricularias Lycoperdons , Clavarias  ,Polypores  and Craterellas .These fungi  play  important roles in forest ecosystem, food production and medicines .The significance of the of the study  were discussed.

Keywords: biodiversity, fungi, distribution, ecological significance

INTRODUCTION

Higher fungi are important components of forest ecosystems and; this  group of organisms have received less attention than animals and plants. (Arnold and Lutzoni, 2020;Jonathan et.al.,2025a) Fungi  are essential, cosmopolitan ,omnipresent and highly diverse in nature(Jonathan et.al.,2025b;Omotayo et.al.,2025).They could be microscopic or macroscopic in nature.The kingdom fungi  is made of many simple,complex and diverse groups. ) Fungi play many important functions in their natural habitats. They exist in   soil,  water and air in spore form  (Adeoye-Isijiola et. al.,2021; Asemoloye,2022;Agbaje et al.,2024; Jonathan et al., 2023).Their activities in any environment could have  great influence on humans and human-related functions. Soil fungi play uncountable roles in many ecological processes which are crucial in maintaining ecosystem stability, as influencing soil fertility, cycling of minerals and organic matter, as well as plant health and nutrition (Jonathan et al., 2018a; Okpewho et al.,2024). Fungi are important in forest habitats and are involved in the degradation and decomposition of dead trees and forest litters .They deliver species-specific benefits to their host plants, which aid in plant-microbes nutrition (Jonathan et al., 2024;Omotayo et. al.,2025). Edible fungi are important article  of food for human beings; besides their usefulness in agro-industrial industries, pharmaceutical companies and textile companies (Otunla et al., 2017;Jonathan et al., 2018b;Omotayo et. al.,2025;Anakaa et. al.,2025).

Economically important fungal group may include morels, mushrooms, canthrellas, auricularia puffballs and ;plant and animal pathogens (Omotayo  et. al., 2025; Jonathan et al., 2025a). The two major classes of fungi that form fruiting bodies are Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.. Most members of  Ascomycota are microscopic species, but they also have some macrofungi members such as cup-fungi, morels and truffles. The Basidiomycotes, is a large class including mushrooms, toadstools, bracket fungi, polyporus and puffballs, although about 30% of its species are microscopic (Vargas et al., 2015; Jonathan,2019).

The higher fungi are differentiated by their spore-bearing structures “basidiocarp” that could be seen with naked eye. These group may compose of Auricularia, bracket fungi ,mushrooms, puffballs, , false-truffles, and cup fungi, which are common examples of macrofungi ( Jonathan et al.,2025a). Higher fungi usually produce a visible basidiocarp (fruiting bodies) under favorably atmospheric conditions of optimal temperature, humidity, light, and surrounding flora (Martínez et al., 2019; Jonathan et al.,2025a).). Fruiting bodies are usually  short lived and may last only a 2 to7 days before bio deterioration (Karasawa et al., 2016). Macroscopic fungi with specific fruiting organs and sizes are  big enough to be visible to the naked eyes  (Karim et al., 2017; Jonathan et al., 2024). Many highernfungal species are believed to fruit sporadically with no consistent pattern of occurrence from year to year (Tedersoo et al., 2018).

Macro-fungi  are much abundant in rainy seasons because of  the wetness and  richness of the soil substrates in the lawns ,forests and fields (Martínez et al., 2019). In some species, fruiting bodies may be short-lived; while in others, they are persistent and may be perennial (Karim et al., 2017;Jonathan,2019). The fruiting body of macrofungi are dependent on weather conditions, and the abundance of the basidiocarps may vary from species to species over the years (Tedersoo et al., 2018; Jonathan et al.,2025b). When there is a change in climate,the basidiomycetes fruiting bodies are among the first biotic groups that are unusually being affected by environmental disturbance, and as such, they can be considered as good indicators of ecosystem changes or modification (Barrico et al., 2016).

Higher fungi mycelia and fruiting bodies are known to contain multiple nutrients and bioactive health components such as amino acids, proteins, dietary fibers, active polysaccharides and functional components such as lovastatin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and ergothioneine. Thus, they are good sources of healthy food, nutraceuticals, and food-flavoring additives (Jonathan,2019).. Macrofungi could be used  in flour based products such as breads and biscuits. They could also enhance antioxidant and nutritional content of pasta, decrease the digestibility of  carbohydrates, and regulate the hypoglycemic activities ion human beings  (Lu et al., 2018). The adverse effects of the toxins in certain edible macrofungi on human health remain a matter of concern. It was reported that the consumption of yellow knight mushrooms (Tricholoma equestre) could cause rhabdomyolysis in rats (Jonathan,2019;Bedry et al., 2021). After extensive and numerous human trials on T. equestre intake there were no hematological or biochemical alterations nor any adverse effects  (Klimaszyk and Rzymski, 2018).

Wild macro fungi constitute important natural resources on which the people of many nations depend. In Nigeria, edible macrofungi  are known and consumed by many tribes in many homes..

Fungal biodiversity is an important component of global ecological niche, particularly community diversity, which is an essential part of biological niche (Hyde et. al., 2019; Jonathan et al.,2025a)). The current rate of bush burning, deforestation, and overexploitation of both timber and non-timber products are threatening to macrofungi diversity in Nigeria . Although macrofungi have perhaps the long history of existence, but they are nevertheless not well studied Only about 6.7% of the 1.5 million species of fungi estimated in the world have been described. The tropical region, which has the highest fungal diversity, has not been fully exploited. Therefore, the present study sheds light on the diversity of higher fungi on University of Ibadan campus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

Higher fungi in this study were collected from University of Ibadan campus. Latitude N 7° 22′ 39.1296″ and Longitude E 3° 56′ 49.344″. University of Ibadan is located within the Tropical rain forest supported the luxuriant growth of various types of mushrooms and other varieties of other higher fungi.

Collection and preparation of samples

Samples of macro-fungi used for this study were obtained during the rainy season (April to October) 2024.They were collected randomly at different locations within the University of Ibadan campus. Wild higher fungi samples was sourced for in fairly wet places that contained decomposing organic materials of leaves, agricultural wastes, wood and soils. The fungal samples were collected by carefully uprooting from soil,termite nests,the decaying agricultural wastes, leaves debris, and log of wood (Jonathan,et al.,2024). Careful precautions were taken not to damage any vital part of the sample, especially the annulus and the volva.. With the aid of a thermometer and humido -meter, the temperature and relative humidity of theeach sampled location was taken. GPS readings were taken using Compass software. Matured fruit bodies were collected manually, cleaned with dry cotton wool to remove soil debris, and disinfected with ethanol. The specimens were subsequently transported to the Pathology Laboratory Department of Botany for authentication. Preliminary identification of the collected higher fungi were carried out using the morphological features such as  pileus color, stipe morphology, presence of annular ring, arrangement of gills and volva  (Ostry et al., 2017) Digital photographs were also taken for each specimen. Confirmed identification was carried out using chemicals tests (Bassette et al.,2019,) and spore prints (Jonathan,2019).Completed identification were carried out using micro-morphological descriptions observed under the X60 objective of the microscope (Alexopolous et al,1996) .Standard features such as pore type, spore sizes shape and attachment  were considered.

Spore prints

To prepare the spore print, the  fungal cap  was placed with its undersurface facing downward on a piece of white paper. In cases where the spore print was expected to be white, black, green, or red paper was used as the background for better visibility. A light weight was placed on the pileus to prevent the delicate cap from collapsing, ensuring that spores would not escape, (Jonathan 2019).

Chemical Tests

Chemical tests were carried out for confirmed identification of the collected macrofungi. The procedure were according to the outline of Jonathan (Bassette et al., 2019)

Ammonia (NH₄OH, Ammonium Hydroxide)

A drop of ammonia was separately placed on the cap, stipe, and pore surface of the fungal specimen and color changes were observed and recorded. Blue-green colour confirms that the fungus is Boletus illudens while Boletus separans usually has a greyish colour (Bassette et al.,2019)

KOH (Potassium Hydroxide)

This is a general identification test for polypores and agarics, Aqeuous KOH Solution (5%) was added to the fresh tissue of collected fungi to test for color changes. KOH was employed in the identification of various mushrooms, including boletes, polypores, and Agarics .For boletes, a drop of KOH was applied to the cap, stem, sliced flesh, and pore surface. For polypores, KOH was applied to the flesh and the cap surface. In the case of agarics, a drop was placed under the fungal surface. Any color changes that occurred were carefully observed and recorded. A yellow color  indicates that the fungus is agarics e.g Agaricus and Amanita; magenta or olive reactions shows that is Russula and Lactarius.  Sometimes deep red or black reactions were common in many agarics; black reactions were crucial for distinguishing polypore species; and various color reactions (Jonathan, 2019).

Iron Salts (FeSO₄)

Aqueous (5%) FeSO_4­ was used in this experiment to test for color changes, primarily in the identification of Boletes and Russulas. For Boletes, a drop of the solution was applied to the cap, stem, sliced flesh, and pore surface. For Russulas, the drop was applied to the stem surface. For example, in Boletus edulis, the cap surface stained orange upon the application of either KOH or NH₄OH.

Ammonia: A couple of drops were placed on the flesh. For polypores and agarics will change blue-green (Bassette et al., 2019)

Meixner test

The Meixner test, also known as the Wieland test, which used concentrated hydrochloric acid and newspaper to test for the deadly amatoxins found in some species of Amanita, Lepiota, and Galerina. Red colour indicate the presence of Amanita , Lepiota and Macrolepiota.   (Bassette et al., 2019)

Melzer’s reagent:

Melzer’s reagent was used to test whether spores were amyloid, nonamyloid, or dextrinoid. Spores that stained bluish-gray to bluish-black were classified as amyloid, while those that stained brown to reddish-brown were categorized as dextrinoid. This test is typically performed on white-spored mushrooms, as color changes in darker spores are not readily detectable. Although the color change is most easily observed under a microscope, it is also possible to discern the reaction with the naked eye, provided a good spore print is available (Jonathan,2019).

Potassium hydroxide:

A 3–10% solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) was used, which induced a color change in some species of mushrooms. In Agaricus, some species, such as A. xanthodermus, turned yellow with KOH, many species showed no reaction, and A. brutilescens turned green. Distinctive color changes were observed in certain species of Cortinarius and Boletus. The Schaeffer reaction, developed by Julius Schäffer, was used to assist with the identification of Agaricus species. A positive reaction in Schaeffer’s test, which involves the reaction of aniline and nitric acid on the surface of the fungus, was indicated by an orange to red color. This reaction is characteristic of species in the section Flavescentes. The compounds responsible for the reaction, named schaefferal A and B, were named in honor of Schäffe

RESULTS

Table 1: Group of  macro -fungi collected from University of Ibadan Campus

PLATES OF MACROFUNGI COLLECTED

Plate 1: Panus velutinus (Fr.) Sacc.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Panaceae

Genus: Panus

Species: Panus velutinus

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 2: Trametes gibbosa (L.) Lloyd

Kingdom: Fungi Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Polyporaceae

Genus: Trametes

Species: Trametes gibbosa

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 3:  Amanita cokeri (E.J. Gilbert & Cleland) Bas

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita cokeri                        

Edibility: Inedible/Poisonous 

Plate 4:  Hydnopolyporus fimbriaus (Fr.) D.A. Reid

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Irpicaceae

Genus: Hydnopolyporus

Species: Hydnopolyporus palmatus

Edibility: Inedible            

Plate 5: Boletellus emodensis (Berk.) Singer

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Boletales

Family: Boletaceae

Genus: Boletellus

Species: Boletellus emodensis    

Edibility: Not commonly consumed   

Plate 6: Daedaleopsis confragosa (Bolton) J. Schröt.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Polyporaceae

Genus: Daedaleopsis

Species: Daedaleopsis confragosa

Edibility: Inedible

Both species are essential to nutrient recycling in their ecosystems.

Plate 7:  Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.) Murrill

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Polyporaceae

Genus: Pycnoporu

Species: Pycnoporus sanguineus                       

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 8: Mycena laeiana  (Berk.) Sacc

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Mycenaceae

Genus: Mycena

Species: Mycena leaiana

Edibility: Inedible                 

Cymatoderma elegans and Schizophyllum commune are both wood-decaying fungi. Cymatoderma elegans has a distinctively elegant, whitish to pale yellow cap and typically grows on decaying wood in temperate forests, contributing to wood degradation. Schizophyllum commune, known for its split, fan-like cap, is one of the most widely distributed fungi, often found on decayed wood, where it plays a significant role in lignin breakdown and nutrient cycling. Both fungi are important in the decomposition process in forest ecosystems.

Plate 9: Cymatoderma elegans (Jungh.) D.A. Reid

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Meruliaceae

Genus: Cymatoderma

Species: Cymatoderma elegans                                                                                            

Edibility: Inedible  

Plate 10: Schizophyllum commune  Fr.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Schizophyllaceae

Genus: Schizophyllum

Species: Schizophyllum commune

Edibility: Inedible

Marasmius albuscorticis and Ganoderma applantum are both fungi associated with decaying wood. Marasmius albuscorticis has a small, white fruiting body and typically grows on decayed bark in forest environments, contributing to the breakdown of plant material. Ganoderma applantum, also known as the artist’s conk, has a woody, large fruiting body with a smooth, white to brownish cap, often found on hardwoods. It plays a crucial role in the decomposition of lignin and cellulose, aiding nutrient recycling in forest ecosystems.

Plate 11:  Marasmius albuscorticis Desjardin

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Marasmiaceae

Genus: Marasmius

Species: Marasmius albuscorticis                   

Edibility: Inedible         

Plate 12: Ganoderma applantum (Pers.) Pat.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Ganodermataceae

Genus: Ganoderma

Species: Ganoderma applanatum

Edibility: Inedible

Humaria hemisphaerica and Lycogala epidendrum are both fungi with unique appearances and ecological roles. Humaria hemisphaerica, also known as the hemisphere jelly fungus, features a small, semi-circular, translucent fruiting body and typically grows on decaying wood in temperate regions. It contributes to the decomposition of organic matter. Lycogala epidendrum, commonly known as the wolf’s milk slime mold, is a bright, pinkish slime mold found on decaying wood and plant debris, where it plays a role in breaking down organic material and recycling nutrients.

Plate 13: Humaria hemisphaerica (F.H. Wigg.) Fuckel

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Ascomycota

Class: Pezizomycetes

Order: Pezizales

Family: Pyronemataceae

Genus: Humaria

Species: Humaria hemisphaerica     

Edibility: Inedible        

Plate 14: Lycogala epidendrum (L.) Fr.

Kingdom: Protista

Phylum: Cercozoa

Class: Mycetozoa

Order: Amaurochaetales

Family: Amaurochaetaceae

Genus: Lycogala

Species: Lycogala epidendrum

Edibility: Inedible

Calvatia fragilis and Trametes betulina are both wood-associated fungi. Calvatia fragilis, also known as the fragile puffball, features a round, whitish to tan fruiting body that easily breaks apart when disturbed. It typically grows on decaying organic matter in forests, contributing to decomposition. Trametes betulina, a bracket fungus, has a white to pale cap with a characteristic pore surface and grows on decaying wood, particularly hardwoods. It plays an essential role in breaking down lignin and cellulose in forest ecosystems.

Plate 15:  Trametes betulina   (L.) Ryvarden

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Polyporaceae

Genus: Trametes

Species: Trametes betulina  

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 16:   Calvatia fragilis  (Vittad.) Morgan

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Amaurochaetales

Family: Amaurochaetaceae

Genus: Calvatia

Species: Calvatia fragilis

Edibility: Inedible               

Clavaria rosea and Lepiota atrodisca are both fungi with distinct characteristics. Clavaria rosea, also known as the pink coral fungus, features delicate, branching, pink to reddish fruiting bodies that resemble coral and typically grows on decaying organic matter in woodlands. Lepiota atrodisca, with its small, white to brownish cap and scaly appearance, grows on the ground in forests or grassy areas, often associated with decaying plant material. Both species contribute to the decomposition of organic material in their ecosystems.

Plate 17:    Clavaria rosea (Pall.) Fr.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Cantharellales

Family: Clavariaceae

Genus: Clavaria

Species: Clavaria rosea          

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 18: Lepiota atrodisca Zeller

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Agaricaceae

Genus: Lepiota

Species: Lepiota atrodisca

Edibility: Inedible          

Meripilus giganteus, commonly known as the giant polypore, is a large, wood-decaying fungus found at the base of trees, particularly beech. From an upper view, its fruiting body appears as a rosette-like cluster of overlapping, fan-shaped caps with a brown to tan coloration that darkens with age. The surface is often slightly rough or wrinkled. This fungus plays a significant role in breaking down lignin and cellulose, contributing to forest nutrient cycling. Let me know if you need an illustration or more details!

Plate 19a: Meripilus giganteus (upper view) Plate

(Pers.) P. Karst.   

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Meripilaceae

Genus: Meripilus

Species: Meripilus giganteus                            

Edibility: Inedible          

19b:   Meripilus giganteus (lower view)

(Pers.) P. Karst.  

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Meripilaceae

Genus: Meripilus Species: Meripilus giganteus

Edibility: Inedible            

Armillaria gallica and Caloporus dichrous are both wood-decaying fungi with ecological significance. Armillaria gallica, a species of honey fungus, has a yellow-brown cap, thick stipe with a bulbous base, and bioluminescent mycelium. It primarily grows on decaying wood and roots, contributing to decomposition while also being a potential plant pathogen. Caloporus dichrous is a polypore fungus with a reddish-brown to purplish cap and a contrasting pore surface, commonly found on decaying hardwoods, where it aids in lignin breakdown. Both species play vital roles in forest nutrient recycling.

Plate 20: Armillaria gallica Marxm. & Romagn

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Physalacriaceae

Genus: Armillaria

Species: Armillaria gallica                 

Edibility: Edible                           

Plate 21: Caloporus dichrous (Fr.) Quél.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Irpicaceae

Genus: Gloeoporus

Species: Gloeoporus dichrous

Edibility: Inedible                

Results of Chemical Tests and Spore prints

This table presents the results of key chemical tests used in the identification of macrofungi. The Ammonia Test involves applying ammonia (NH₃) to fungal tissue to observe color changes, which can indicate specific chemical compounds within the fungus. The Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Test was used to detect pigmentation changes in fungal structures by applying KOH (3-10%), helping to distinguish between different fungal genera and species. The Iron Salts Test identifies the presence of certain iron-binding compounds in fungi by adding iron salts and observing any resulting color reactions. Lastly, the Meixner Test (Guaiac Test) is a toxicological test used to detect amatoxins, poisonous compounds found in some fungi, such as Amanita species. This was done by applying guaiac reagent and hydrochloric acid to produce a blue or green color reaction.

Table 2

DISCUSSION

This study investigated the diversity, ecological roles, and edibility of macrofungi within the University of Ibadan campus. Fungal diversity varied across the study sites: the Botanical Gardens exhibited the highest diversity and abundance due to minimal human disturbance and high organic matter, followed by the Teaching and Research Farm, where agricultural activities influenced fungal communities. This results is similar to those obtained by (Jonathan,2019) whom suggested that many higher fungi were found at the University of Ibadan due to reduce no agricultural activities.The fact that the Nurserysection of the Botany Department had the second fungal population may be due to similar reason (Jonathan et al.,2024).

Fungal groups identified included Agarics (26.8%), Polypores (53.0%), Auricularias (5.4%), Boletes (1.9%), Clavarias (2.8%), Craterellas (3.6%), Hydnums (0.8%), Lycoperdons (3.4%), and Pezizas (2.4%). Many of these fungi contribute to nutrient cycling, bioremediation, and food security. The dominance of  Polypores aligns with previous  studies (Chikwem et al.,2019), while findings on edible fungi support the previous studies  of Jonathan et al., (2013) and Hyde et al.,2019). International research corroborates the observed roles of Agarics, Boletes, and Craterellas in ecosystem stability and nutrient cycling (Bruddedrelt and Tenderson,2018).

Overall, macrofungi play crucial ecological roles, including organic matter decomposition and symbiotic relationships, with some species offering potential as alternative food sources. The presence of toxic fungi highlights the need for further research to differentiate edible from poisonous species, emphasizing the importance of fungal biodiversity conservation and food security.

This study provides a comprehensive assessment of macrofungi diversity, ecological significance, edibility, and potential applications within the University of Ibadan campus. The Botanical Gardens exhibited the highest fungal diversity due to minimal human disturbance and rich organic matter, while the Teaching and Research Farm supported considerable fungal populations influenced by agricultural activities. The Nursery of the Botany Department showed moderate diversity, and the Heritage Park along Queen’s Hall had the lowest diversity, likely due to anthropogenic activities and soil compaction (Jonathan et al,2024).

The study highlights macrofungi’s role in bioremediation, with Polypores (53.0%), Craterellas, and Auricularias significantly contributing to nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. Edible species such as Auricularias, Lycoperdons, and Clavarias offer nutritional benefits, supporting food security. However, the presence of toxic fungi like certain Agarics (26.8%) underscores the need for further taxonomic classification. The findings align with previous local and international research, confirming the ecological importance and distribution patterns of these fungal groups.

Beyond ecological roles, macrofungi have potential applications in bioremediation, pharmaceuticals, and sustainable agriculture. Some species possess enzymatic properties useful for breaking down pollutants and detoxifying soils, while others have medicinal properties with antimicrobial and immunomodulatory effects. Further biochemical studies could reveal novel bioactive compounds for pharmaceutical use. Additionally, integrating macrofungi into sustainable agriculture through mycorrhizal inoculation could enhance soil fertility and crop productivity.

This study underscores the need for fungal conservation strategies, public awareness on edible fungi, and further research on their biochemical properties. Understanding fungal diversity and ecological interactions will enhance biodiversity conservation, environmental sustainability, and food security, reinforcing the need for continued research and preservation efforts.

Based on these findings, it is recommended that further research be conducted to assess the potential for sustainable cultivation and utilization of edible macrofungi species. There should be increased efforts in educating the public and local communities on the identification of edible and toxic fungi to prevent accidental poisoning. Conservation policies should be implemented to protect fungal biodiversity, particularly in urban and semi-urban environments where ecological balance is crucial. Additionally, collaborations between mycologists, ecologists, and policymakers should be encouraged to enhance fungal research, conservation, and commercialization efforts. Future studies should also explore the molecular characterization of identified species to expand scientific knowledge on their taxonomy and potential biotechnological applications.

Global Comparisons aim to compare the fungal diversity of the University of Ibadan campus with similar ecosystems worldwide. By conducting comparative studies, researchers can identify regional differences in fungal species composition, distribution, and ecological roles. This contributes to the broader understanding of global fungal biodiversity and informs conservation strategies. These research areas provide a comprehensive understanding of macrofungi within the University of Ibadan campus, highlighting their ecological importance, biotechnological potential, and commercial viability. These studies not only advanced scientific knowledge but also support sustainable development and environmental conservation efforts.

CONCLUSION

University of Ibadan,Ibadan,Nigeria is very rich in vast number of  wild higher fungi because of the undisturbed natural vegetation. Commercial cultivation of edible fungi should be promoted  in Nigeria because there were pockets of undocumented reports that consumption of poisonous fungi have caused death of few people  in Nigeria. The best  method of identifying edible mushrooms   from poisonous  toadstools is the proper authentication from trained  mycologists/. Identification of edible mushroom species by guessing or books is dangerous and lead to unpalatable experience.

AKNOWLEGEMENTS

The researchers appreciate the efforts of Prof AA Jayeola( the Head of Department, Botany University of Ibadan ,Mr Olumide Oladiran, Mr Isreal Adediran and Mr Benedict Izuagieb of the same Department  for their individual efforts  in the collection of few of the studied  macrofungi from the University of Ibadan  campus

REFERENCES

1. Adeoye-Isijola MO, Jonathan SG,  Coopoosamy  and  OO Olajuyigbe (2021)Molecular Characterization, Gas Chromatography mass spectrometry analysis, phytochemical screening and insecticidal activities of ethanol extract s of Lentinus squarrosulus …Molecular Biology Reports, 1-15
2. Agbaje AO & Aina DA & Jonathan SG, 2024. “Evaluation of Physicochemical Quality of Habanero Pepper Preserved with Powder of Annona Muricata (Linn.),” International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation vol. 9(5),   276-283.
3. Alexopolous CJ,MimsCW and Blackwell M.(1996). Introductory Mycology (4th edition). New York John Wiley
4. AnakaaTM,  Olawuyi OJ and JonathanSG (2025). Genetic Response of Solanum lycopersicum L. (Tomato) to Phytophthora infestans and Aspergillus niger. International Journal of plant Biology 16 (35):pg1-25
5. Arnold, A. E., & Lutzoni, F. (2020). Diversity and evolution of fungal symbionts in the face of global change. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 51(1), 561-583. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-011720-1155
6. Asemoloye MD, Sunmola N, Jonathan SG, Chikwem J (2022). Mycochemical screening reveals exopolysaccharide secretion, antioxidant and larvicidal activities of three oyster mushrooms Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 102 (5), 2120 -2126
7. Baldrian, P. (2017). Basidiomycete wood decay in forest ecosystems: The role of bracket fungi. Fungal Biology Reviews, 31(2), 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2017.03.001
8. Bessette, Alan E., Bessette, Arleen F. and Lewis, David P.(2019). “Appendix B. Chemical Reagents and Mushroom Identification”. Mushrooms of the Gulf Coast States: A Field Guide to Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, New York, USA: University of Texas Press, 2019, pp. 569-570. https://doi.org/10.7560/318157-031
9. Brundrett, M. C., & Tedersoo, L. (2018). Evolutionary history of mycorrhizal symbioses and global host plant diversity. New Phytologist, 220(4), 1108–1115. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15119
10. Chang, S. T., & Wasser, S. P. (2017). The role of mushroom cultivation in improving rural livelihoods and promoting circular economies. Fungal Diversity, 80(1), 1-17.
11. Chikwem J,  Jonathan G, Hull A, Asemoloye  M,  Omuero R and  Tanny PC (2019). Comparative studies on antimicrobial potentials of Daedalea quercina and Tramates pubescens. IHE: Lincoln University Journal of Science. 8: 22-29
12. Hibbett, D. S., Sugiyama, J., & Jaramillo, C. (2017). DNA sequencing and the study of fungal biodiversity. Fungal Diversity, 81(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-017-1250-y
13. Hughes, D. P., (2019). Fungal and fungal-like organisms in urban environments: Implications for human health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(14), 2497.
14. Hyde, K. D., Bahkali, A. H., & Moslem, M. A. (2019). Fungal diversity and ecological roles in nutrient cycling. Fungal Diversity, 97(2), 1-22.
15. Hyde, K. D., Xu, J., Rapior, S., Jeewon, R., Lumyong, S., et al. (2019). The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially. Fungal Diversity, 97(1), 1-136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-019-00430-9
16. Jonathan SG, Nwokolo VM, Ekpo EN(2013). Yield performance of Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fries.) quelet, cultivated on different agro-forest wastes in Nigeria. World Rural Observations ;5(1):22-30
17. Jonathan SG  Ganiyat B. Abdulrauf  Oluwatosin B. Ogunsanwo  and Michael D. Asemoloye( 2023)..Influence of pepper additive and packaging styles on Nutrient, Fungi and aflatoxin Compositions of Stored ‘Robo’ (Deffatted Melon Snack) Journal of  Nutrition  Food Science and Technology 4 ( 3 ) 1 – 13
18. Jonathan Segun G., Onile Olanrewaju G., Asemoloye Michael D. and Omotayo Omolola O. (2018a). Effect of storage time on nutrient, bio-deteriorating fungi and aflatoxin contents of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) and jute (Corchorus olitorius). J Microb Biochem Technol 10:244- 248. doi: 10.4172/1948-5948.1000372
19. Jonathan SG Omotayo OO; Baysah GI, Asemoloye MD and Aina DA(2018b) Effects of Some Preservation Methods on the Nutrient and Mineral Compositions of Three Selected Edible Mushrooms. Journal of Microbial & Biochemical Technology 10;(4): 106-111
20. Jonathan SG(2019 ).Fungi Here, Fungi There, Fungi Everywhere: Unique And Unparalleled Contributions Of Fungi To Environment, Food Production And Medicine-. Inaugural lecture. University of Ibadan.Ibadan .Nigeria .ISBN978-978-8529-88-0. (91 Pages).
21. Jonathan,SG, Okpewho,OP. Nwaokolo,VM,Wood, TT ,Ogunsanwo ,O (2024). Mushrooms of University of Ibadan Botanical Gardens ( 1) International Journal of Innovative Food, Nutrition & Sustainable Agriculture.12(3)1-13
22. Jonathan SG, Omeonu FC,, Ajeigbe AM, Nwokolo VM, Babatunde Okunola, Adegoke BA(2025a) Biodegradation of agro-industrial wastes by fungi in Nigeria: A Review. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS).9(3):pg880-889. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9030007
23. Jonathan SG, Eguavon MI, Omeonu FC, Ade-Ogunnowo FE, Olabanji IT, Oladayo IA(2025b). Fungi associated with the deterioration of Zea mays L. (Maize) from market stores in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science (IJRIAS) 10:(3):pg836-843 . DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.1003063
24. Karasawa, T., Kobayashi, T., & Nishimura, R. (2016). The role of dung fungi in nutrient recycling in temperate forests. Mycological Progress, 15(4), 307-319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-016-1182-4
25. Karim, S. S., Zhang, J., & Li, J. (2017). Estimation of discovered macrofungal species and their significance in global biodiversity. Mycological Progress, 16(3), 185-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-017-1265-4
26. Kauserud, H., Heegaard, E., Semenov, M. A., Boddy, L., Halvorsen, R., et al. (2018). Climate change and fungal ecology: Effects on decomposition, symbiosis, and pathogenesis. Fungal Ecology, 34, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2018.06.006
27. Læssøe, T., and Petersen, J. H. (2019). Evolutionary trends in fungal taxonomy. Fungal Biology Reviews, 33(4), 213-228.
28. Liu, J., Zhang, X., & Chen, L. (2018). Edible mushrooms: Their antimicrobial potential and applications. Food Microbiology, 72, 43-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2018.01.011
29. Lücking, R., Hodkinson, B. P., & Leavitt, S. D. (2017). The taxonomy of lichens: An update with a focus on species concepts. Fungal Diversity, 84(1), 21-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-017-0386-3
30. Martínez, I., Rojas, F., & González, J. (2019). Climatic factors influencing the sporocarp development in macrofungi. Fungal Diversity, 58(1), 25-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-019-01412-x
31. Omotayo OO; Giwa  MT ; Jonathan, SG ;Ade-Ogunnowo FE ; Olanipekun ER and  Olaoye EO (2025) Effect Of Wrapping Leaves On Fungal growth, Proximate Composition And Shelf Life Of Solid Pap In Ibadan, Nigeria . International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science (IJRIAS).10(3):pg648-660DOI: https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.1003004
32. Okpewho OP,Jonathan S.G.,NwaokoloVM.,Asemoloye,MD,Fashae,KF.(2024).Influence of storage temperature on the proximate composition and aflatoxin contents of ‘dankwa. International Journal of Innovative Food, Nutrition & Sustainable Agriculture 12(2):90-97
33. Otunla C.A, Idowu O.O,Jonathan SG and Olawuyi O.J (2017).Influence of three composting Intervals on the growth and yield of Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.Fr) Kumm Oyster mushroom on mango sawdusts. Proceedings of 35th .Annual Conference of the Horticultural Society of Nigeria
34. Peay, K. G., Schubert, M. G., & Davies, T. W. (2016). Metagenomics for fungal diversity and ecological studies: A review. Fungal Ecology, 17, 13-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2015.12.003
35. Singh, P., et al. (2021). Untapped potential of fungi in biotechnology. Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology, 48(2), 175-190.
36. Taylor, D. L., Porter, T. M., & Bennett, J. A. (2017). Advancing fungal diversity research through metagenomics. Mycological Research, 121(2), 169-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycres.2016.12.004
37. Tedersoo, L., Abarenkov, K., & Nguyen, N. H. (2018). Advances in DNA sequencing technologies for macrofungi biodiversity studies. Fungal Ecology, 34, 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2018.02.001
38. Vargas, R., Murat, C., & Cejudo, F. (2015). Phylogenetic analysis of Tuber species and the evolution of mycorrhizal symbioses. Mycorrhiza, 25(4), 315-330.