Effectiveness of Clustering Water Utilities on Water Service Delivery Case Study in Iringa Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (IRUWASA)

Effectiveness of Clustering Water Utilities on Water Service Delivery Case Study in Iringa Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (IRUWASA)

Baraka Mwago, Dr. Agness Nzali, Dr. Sosthenes Ruheza

University of Iringa, Iringa, Tanzania

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8110178

Received: 06 November 2024; Accepted: 11 November 2024; Published: 14 December 2024

ABSTRACT

Reliable and high-quality water service provision is essential for public health, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. However, urban and peri-urban water utilities face significant challenges, including inefficiencies, fragmented service delivery, and limited capacity. This study explores the effectiveness of clustering water utilities in enhancing service delivery, focusing on the Iringa Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (IRUWASA) in Tanzania. Although clustering has been proposed as a solution, empirical evidence on its impact, particularly on institutional capacity, water quality, and customer satisfaction, remains limited. The objective of this study is to evaluate how clustering can improve water service delivery by analyzing operational data, governance structures, and customer feedback within IRUWASA’s expanded service areas. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from IRUWASA staff, community leaders, and service users to measure performance metrics such as operational efficiency, cost recovery, and customer satisfaction. Findings indicate that clustering has contributed to operational improvements, expanded service coverage, and better water quality. However, financial sustainability remains a concern, as revenues from the newly clustered zones do not fully meet the operation and maintenance costs. The study recommends additional strategies, including targeted subsidies and capacity-building initiatives, to support the long-term success of clustering. The research provides practical insights for policymakers and water utility managers, suggesting that while clustering can enhance service delivery, complementary measures are necessary to sustain its benefits. These findings contribute to the broader field of urban water management and provide a basis for further exploration of clustering as a model for water utility reform.

Keywords: clustering water utilities, water service delivery, customer satisfaction.

INTRODUCTION

Clustering water utilities is essential in improving service delivery, particularly in enhancing customer satisfaction for the Iringa Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (IRUWASA). Through Tanzania’s Water Supply and Sanitation Act of 2019, the Minister responsible for water is empowered, under Sections 9 and 73, to consolidate smaller water authorities into larger, commercially viable entities. The clustering can occur at either the district level (model one) or the regional level (model two). Additionally, the Minister may dissolve a water authority and expand another’s service area to include the dissolved entity’s jurisdiction, a measure aimed at increasing operational efficiency and customer service effectiveness.

Clustering has gained momentum worldwide as a strategic approach to address urban service and environmental challenges, especially in growing towns and cities. In Africa, the trend over the past decade has shifted from fragmented, standalone utilities to regional models that cluster nearby towns, fostering economies of scale and improved resource allocation. This regional approach not only enhances technological efficiency but also aligns with sustainable practices, benefiting customers through improved access and quality of service.

In the United States, water infrastructure has been strained by aging facilities, population growth, and increasing environmental demands, leading to supply shortages and disparities in water quality. Clustering utilities has been identified as a strategy to overcome these inefficiencies, coordinating resource allocation and improving resilience to infrastructure challenges (Gleick, 2003). Similarly, India’s expanding urban areas and growing industrial needs create pressures on water resources and infrastructure, affecting service delivery. Clustering, as recommended by Shah et al. (2012), has the potential to increase funding, foster city collaboration, and expand water access to underserved communities, ultimately improving customer satisfaction.

Closer to Tanzania, Kenya’s urbanization and climate challenges have led to water scarcity and inefficiencies within independent water utilities. Experts Muga and Onyango (2018) argue that clustering could mitigate these issues, enhancing service delivery through shared resources and standardized management practices. In Tanzania, limited financial resources and aging infrastructure hinder effective service provision, especially in rural areas. According to Kulabako et al. (2010), clustering could streamline resource management, support integrated planning, and improve water service delivery, resulting in greater customer satisfaction.

In the Iringa region, the clustering of the then-Ilula Water Supply and Sanitation Authority and the then-Kilolo Water Supply and Sanitation Authority into the Iringa Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (IRUWASA) presents a unique opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of such an approach in water supply service delivery. Despite the theoretical benefits of clustering, the practical implications, and outcomes of clustering in water service delivery (customer satisfaction) remain underexplored.

Research Objective

The study thought to assess the following objectives;

To analyze the effectiveness of clustering water utilities to customer satisfaction to IRUWASA.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Expectancy-Disconfirmation Model

The Expectancy-Disconfirmation Model (EDM), introduced by Richard L. Oliver in 1980, is a widely recognized framework for understanding customer satisfaction. The model posits that customer satisfaction is influenced by the comparison of pre-purchase expectations with post-purchase perceptions of performance. It is based on the idea that consumers form expectations about a product or service before purchasing it, and their subsequent satisfaction is determined by how well the actual performance meets or exceeds these expectations.

The Expectancy-Disconfirmation Model (EDM) is highly pertinent in comprehending the effectiveness of clustering on customer satisfaction levels with the services rendered by IRUWASA. Before the clustering of Ilula and Kilolo water supply and sanitation authorities into IRUWASA, customers had specific expectations about water service delivery based on their past experiences and the information they received. By comparing customers’ perceptions of water services post-clustering with their pre-clustering expectations, the researcher may gauge the degree of dis-confirmation. Positive disconfirmation, occurring when perceived performance surpasses expectations, may result in heightened satisfaction levels, while negative dis-confirmation, where perceived performance falls short of expectations, may lead to decreased satisfaction levels. Understanding these dynamics will furnish IRUWASA with valuable insights for managing customer satisfaction, allowing for targeted enhancements in service quality and satisfaction.

EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Effectiveness of Clustering Water Utilities on Customer Satisfaction

Rahman and Islam (2023) analyzed the effectiveness of clustering water utilities on customer satisfaction within the service area of water and sewage authorities in the United States. The study employed mixed-methods research design, combining quantitative analysis of customer satisfaction surveys and qualitative interviews with water utility managers and customers. Data was collected from 500 customers served by water and sewage authorities located in clustered districts and 500 customers served by authorities in non-clustered regions. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 50 water utility managers and 50 customers. Quantitative analysis revealed that customers served by water and sewage authorities in clustered districts reported higher levels of satisfaction with water services compared to those in non-clustered areas. Factors such as streamlined service delivery, improved infrastructure, and collaborative governance structures were identified as contributing to enhanced customer satisfaction in clustered regions. Qualitative findings emphasized the importance of effective communication, responsive complaint resolution mechanisms, and community engagement in fostering positive customer experiences. The study concludes that clustering positively affects customer water services within the service area of water and sewage authorities in the United States. Collaborative approaches to service delivery and proactive customer engagement strategies are essential for ensuring high levels of customer satisfaction and trust in water utility services.

Abubakar and Aliyu (2023) analyzed the impact of clustering on customer water services in rural regions of France. The research employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of water quality data and qualitative interviews with residents and water utility officials in clustered and non-clustered rural communities. Water quality data from 50 rural communities in clustered districts and 50 communities in non-clustered regions were analyzed. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 20 residents and 20 water utility officials from each group. The quantitative analysis revealed that rural communities located in clustered districts consistently demonstrated higher water quality indicators and service reliability compared to those in non-clustered areas. Qualitative findings highlighted the role of collaborative governance structures, community-driven initiatives, and shared resource management practices in ensuring sustainable and resilient water services in clustered rural communities. The study concludes that clustering positively affects customer water services in rural regions of France by fostering community cooperation, resource optimization, and collective problem-solving approaches. Effective collaboration among stakeholders and participatory decision-making processes are critical for addressing the unique water management challenges faced by rural communities and ensuring the provision of safe and reliable water services.

A study by Martinez (2023) assessed the effectiveness of clustering on customer water services in peri-urban areas of Brazil. The research utilized a case study approach, focusing on peri-urban communities located within clustered and non-clustered districts in a Brazilian metropolitan region. Data collection involved survey questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with residents, community leaders, and water utility representatives. The study included 10 peri-urban communities from clustered districts and 10 communities from non-clustered areas. The findings revealed that peri-urban communities in clustered districts exhibited higher levels of access to piped water, improved sanitation facilities, and more reliable water supply compared to those in non-clustered regions. Collaborative initiatives, such as community-managed water systems and joint infrastructure investments, were identified as key drivers of enhanced water services in clustered peri-urban areas. The study concludes that clustering positively impacts customer water services in peri-urban areas of Brazil by promoting collective action, resource pooling, and local empowerment. Community-led approaches to water governance and infrastructure development play a crucial role in addressing the water-related challenges faced by peri-urban populations and improving their overall quality of life.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Ndunguru (2018) defines a conceptual framework as a collection of research concepts and variables along with their logical relationships, typically depicted in various graphical or mathematical forms such as diagrams, charts, graphs, or flow charts. In the context of this study, the independent variable was the clustering of water utilities, the Intermediate variable was Institutional Capacity and Governance – (changes in institutional capacity, including technical expertise and managerial capabilities, governance structures and their effectiveness in maintaining accountability and transparency), while the dependent variables are water quality (turbidity, microbial contamination, and taste): and Customer Satisfaction (consumers experiencing better service delivery, quicker response times, and improved customer support).

The relationship of the intermediate variable- Institutional Capacity and Governance, and dependent variables availability of water quality and Customer satisfaction to the independent variable of clustering water utilities is as follows; –

Institutional Capacity and Governance – Clustering water utilities can directly impact institutional capacity and governance structures. Clustering smaller utilities into larger entities can lead to improved resource allocation, better management practices, and more robust governance frameworks which results in improvement in water quality. The clustered utilities may have economies of scale that allow for better investment in water treatment technologies and infrastructure. This could lead to improved water quality. Customer Satisfaction – Clustering water utilities can directly affect customer satisfaction by potentially improving service reliability, respond to issues, and overall service quality. Larger utilities formed through clustering might have the resources and organizational capacity to address customer concerns more effectively.

METHODOLOGY

Urban, Kilolo, and Ilula townships. This population totals 282,838 people, according to the EWURA report for the 2022/23 fiscal year. The area of study is IRUWASA’s jurisdiction, covering Iringa Municipality and surrounding areas, where the organization provides potable water and sanitation services in line with Tanzanian government standards. The region lies in southwestern Tanzania, characterized by a mean annual temperature of 19℃, average rainfall of 700 mm, and an altitude ranging from 1,500 to 2,000 meters. Since its establishment in 1998, IRUWASA has aimed to meet local water, and sanitation needs while complying with regulatory standards set by EWURA and the Ministry of Water.

A cross-sctional research design was chosen to examine the effectiveness of clustering small-town water utilities under IRUWASA’s administration. Using Yamene’s sample size formula, the target sample was calculated at 400 but reduced to 200, a decision supported by Kothari’s guideline for achieving statistical significance. This sample was selected through purposive and stratified random sampling, ensuring representativeness across Iringa, Kilolo, and Ilula. Data collection encompassed both primary and secondary sources, including surveys, interviews, EWURA and IRUWASA reports, and Geographic Information System (GIS) data. Various methods, such as structured surveys, focus groups, and key informant interviews, captured both quantitative and qualitative data to understand customer satisfaction, service quality, and operational challenges within the clustered utilities.

Data analysis was performed using SPSS for quantitative data, focusing on descriptive statistics like frequencies and means, while qualitative content analysis helped identify patterns in non-numeric data from interviews and discussions. To ensure validity and reliability, the study incorporated triangulation by cross-verifying data from multiple sources and conducting follow-up interviews. Ethical considerations were prioritized, with informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation emphasized to uphold participant rights. By maintaining rigorous standards in data collection, analysis, and ethics, the study aims to provide meaningful insights for decision-makers and stakeholders on improving water service delivery within the IRUWASA region.

DATA ANALYSIS

Effectiveness of clustering water utilities on Customer Satisfaction

To evaluate customer satisfaction with IRUWASA’s customer service, respondents were asked to rate their experience. The quality of customer service is a critical factor in analyzing the effectiveness of clustering water utilities on customer satisfaction.

The study findings in table 13 indicate that 88% of respondents are either Very Satisfied or Satisfied with the customer service provided by IRUWASA, reflecting a high level of overall satisfaction. This majority highlights the utility’s effectiveness in addressing customer concerns, providing adequate support, and maintaining effective communication.

Table 1 Satisfaction rate of customer service provided by IRUWASA

Source: Research finding 2024

The findings align with the World Bank (2020) report indicated that effective communication and responsive customer service lead to increased customer satisfaction in water utilities. Similarly, a study by Simba & Marandu (2019) found that utilities prioritizing customer service improvements reported higher customer satisfaction rates, echoing IRUWASA’s positive results.

Timely Complaints Resolution

In order to understand and analyze the effectiveness of clustering water utilities on customer satisfaction, the respondents were asked if they had filed any complaints regarding IRUWASA’s water service delivery.

The findings in table 2 revealed that 55% (109 respondents) reported having filed a complaint while 45% (91 respondents) reported not filing any complaints.

Table 2 Complaints Filed

Source: Research finding 2024

Nature of Complaints

The study findings in table 3 reveals that the most common concerns being billing issues (39%), water quality (36%), and service interruptions (25%). These findings indicate that while IRUWASA’s services are generally effective, recurring issues are significant enough to prompt formal complaints from a notable segment of the customer base.

Table 3 Nature of Complaints

Source: Research finding 2024

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF COMPLAINTS

The study further examined how quickly complaints were acknowledged, figure 1 shows that the majority of complaints were acknowledged promptly, with 57% being recognized immediately and 19% within 24 hours. However, 8% of complaints that took more than 48 hours to acknowledge, along with the 6% of customers who reported not receiving any acknowledgment, highlight critical areas for improvement in IRUWASA’s customer response systems.

Figure 1: Acknowledgement of complaints

Source: Research finding 2024

The study in table 4 reveals that the methods of acknowledgment were also varied in which 63% of respondents were phone call notifications emerged as the most common form of acknowledgment, utilized by 63% of respondents, reflecting a reliance on digital communication methods to keep customers informed.

Table 4 Method of acknowledging Complaints

Source: Research finding 2024

Timely Complaints Resolved

Regarding the time taken to resolve complaints, table 5 shows the resolution time for most complaints was generally satisfactory, with 87% being resolved within 1-3 days, indicating a strong commitment from IRUWASA to address issues swiftly. However, 38% of respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the resolution time, pointing to variability in the speed and effectiveness of resolutions, particularly for complaints that took longer than a week to resolve.

Table 5 Complaints Resolution time

Source: Research finding 2024

Resolution Time Satisfaction

In terms of satisfaction with the resolution time the study findings in Table 6 shows that 62% (124 respondents) were satisfied with the time taken to resolve their complaints, 38% (76 respondents) were unsatisfied with the resolution time.

Table 6 Resolution time satisfaction rate

Source: Research finding 2024

These findings align with IRUWASA’s Customer Service Charter of July 2022, which commits to resolving all customer complaints within five days of acknowledgment. This correlation underscores IRUWASA’s efforts to meet its service standards and ensure timely responsiveness to customer concerns.

This study finds similarly related findings to other study of Sullivan & Michalena (2020) noted that effective communication and timely acknowledgment of customer complaints are vital for building trust and satisfaction. They reported that utilities with robust acknowledgment systems experienced lower rates of complaint escalation. However, a study by Adinolfi et al. (2021) revealed that many utilities struggled with complaint resolution times, with an average of 30% of complaints remaining unresolved beyond the expected timeframe. This highlights that while IRUWASA performs relatively well, other utilities face more significant challenges.

Service Coverage (Accessibility of water in households)

The study investigated the effectiveness of clustering water utilities on service coverage, and collected data on the length of time customers had been receiving services from IRUWASA. This metric shed light on the relationship between clustering strategies and the consistency of service coverage over time.

Table 7 below indicates that 63% of respondents have been with IRUWASA for at least four years and more than 6 years, suggesting that most participants have a long-standing relationship with the utility. This extensive experience strengthens the credibility of their feedback, as they are well-situated to assess the service coverage. Respondents with longer service durations can provide informed perspectives on IRUWASA’s water service coverage since the clustering.

Table 7 Duration of Service coverage from IRUWASA

Source: Research finding 2024

To understand the effectiveness of clustering water utilities on customer satisfaction, the study examined whether customers can easily access water services in their households (service coverage) following the clustering of Ilula and Kilolo Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities with IRUWASA. The service coverage is a critical measure of customer satisfaction and overall water service delivery.

The study findings revealed that 91% (182 respondents) reported that they can easily access the water supply from IRUWASA in their households, while 8% (16 respondents) said they sometimes have access to water, and 1% (2 respondents) reported having no access at all. This indicates a high level of satisfaction among the majority of respondents with IRUWASA’s water distribution system.

Table 8 Proportion of people with service coverage

Source: Research finding 2024

The overwhelming majority, 91% having easy service coverage in their households, suggests that the clustering initiative has positively impacted household water accessibility. This reflects the successful integration of the water supply systems, implying that the clustering of Ilula and Kilolo with IRUWASA has not hindered service coverage; rather, it may have enhanced it for most customers.

The study findings align with the EWURA Water Utilities Performance Review Report for 2022/23 that indicates IRUWASA 92% proportion of people living in areas with water networks and 91% proportion of population served with water

Similar findings have been documented in other studies. For instance, a report by the World Bank (2020) indicates that utility clustering can lead to improved service accessibility, with studies showing enhanced customer satisfaction due to more efficient resource allocation and infrastructure development. Additionally, Simba & Marandu (2019) found that clustered water utilities in Tanzania reported significantly higher rates of service coverage, contributing to overall customer satisfaction with water service delivery.

In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that the majority of IRUWASA customers are satisfied with service coverage in their household. Nonetheless, attention should be given to improving service consistency for the minority of customers who experience challenges, ensuring equitable access to water services across all households. This holistic approach can further enhance customer satisfaction and the overall effectiveness of the water utility’s delivery system.

Timely delivery (hours of service)

To analyze the effectiveness of clustering water utilities in customer satisfaction, this study examined IRUWASA’s service consistency specifically focusing on the timely delivery (hours of service) following clustering of the Ilula and Kilolo water utilities into IRUWASA. Table 9 shows a positive trend, with 59% of respondents (119 individuals) reporting an improvement in timely delivery (hours of service). Meanwhile, 10% (19 respondents) reported no improvement, and 31% (62 respondents) were uncertain about any changes. These findings suggest that clustering has had a beneficial impact on timely delivery (hours of service), aligning with IRUWASA’s goal to enhance customer satisfaction through increased hours of service (timely delivery)

Table 9 Noticeable Improvement in Timely delivery (hours of service)

Source: Research finding 2024

The study has revealed that the hours of service in Kilolo and Ilula have significantly improved, along with a reduction in Non-Revenue Water (NRW). Staff have also benefited from enhancements made to the former Ilula and Kilolo utilities, including better working conditions such as the provision of motorbikes, essential tools, and improvements to their workspace. Additionally, collection efficiency has increased, and staff are now working towards clearly defined Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). All these improvements have contributed to enhanced operational efficiency that led to timely delivery (hours of service) following the clustering of the Ilula and Kilolo water utilities.

One interview respondent highlighted the benefits of clustering in timely delivery, stating:

“…. Now, we no longer need to store large amounts of water in buckets or tanks because we can rely on the consistent, timely delivery of water from IRUWASA. Even during water shortages, we know that any disruption will be resolved within 24 hours.”

During the interview with key informants on timely delivery (hours of service), stated:

“Staff now work under specific Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) with close supervision from zonal managers and headquarters. If they don’t meet these standards, they must provide clear reasons and seek further assistance. This commitment to accountability and support is why IRUWASA stands as the overall leader in water service provision in Tanzania and ranks second in East Africa.“

This high level of water service timely delivery aligns with the EWURA Water Utilities Performance Review Report for 2022/23, which reports that IRUWASA provides an average of 22 hours of water service per day across its service areas. This consistent access underscores IRUWASA’s commitment to reliability under the clustered utility model.

The findings align with UNICEF (2019) report found that clustering led to more improvement on hours of services due to improved centralized infrastructure management. Similarly, World Bank (2020) showed that clustered utilities benefited from coordinated infrastructure investment, leading to stronger, more reliable water service (timely delivery) across service areas.

The study further investigated the effectiveness of clustering water utilities in customer satisfaction. This study examined IRUWASA’s service consistency specifically focusing on the timely delivery (hours of service). The findings, illustrated in table 10, reveal high customer satisfaction with 87% of respondents (174 individuals) rating IRUWASA’s water service as “very reliable” or “reliable” hence theirs efficiency in timely delivery of water services.

Table 10 Service reliability

Source: Research findings 2024

These findings are consistent with other studies on clustered water utilities. Simba, & Marandu (2019), found that clustering reduced service disruptions and standardized service hours across regions, which significantly enhanced water service delivery timely (reliability). Similarly, the World Bank (2020) report found that clustered utilities benefited from centralized maintenance teams and shared

Infrastructure, allowing for improved resource

allocation and greater system resilience. Collectively, this study and supporting literatures confirms that clustering can significantly enhance the timely delivery of water services. By leveraging centralized resources and coordinated infrastructure planning, IRUWASA and similar utilities can meet customer expectations more effectively, delivering consistent, high-quality water services that reinforce customer satisfaction. The clustered utility model proves to be an effective approach for sustaining reliable water service delivery.

Experienced issues with IRUWASA water service

To evaluate the effectiveness of clustering water utilities on customer satisfaction, the study explored common issues that respondents have encountered with IRUWASA’s water services. Understanding these challenges provides insight into areas where improvements are necessary.

The study findings reveal, as shown in Table 11, that the two most common issues reported by respondents are high water bills (52%) and water shortages (47%), together accounting for a combined 99% of the issues selected. Addressing these concerns through more transparent billing practices and improving the consistency of the water supply could significantly enhance customer satisfaction. Additionally, efforts to reduce delays in service restoration and improve water quality will further strengthen IRUWASA’s service delivery

Table 11 Experienced issues in water services provided by IRUWASA

Source: Research findings 2024

Note: The responses to this question were collected using a multiple-choice format, allowing respondents to select more than one option. As a result, the total frequency exceeds the sample size.

However, in discussions with key informants and IRUWASA staff (triangulation of data) regarding high water bills, the researcher learned that IRUWASA implements a system for issuing mock bills prior to the official monthly billing. These mock bills provide customers with their current meter readings and highlight any discrepancies compared to the previous month’s readings. This system allows customers the opportunity to review and rectify any issues before the final bills are issued, which helps to reduce billing errors and improve customer satisfaction.

Research indicates that transparency in billing practices and effective communication are critical factors in enhancing customer satisfaction with water utilities, for example A study by Rao et al. (2019) found that effective customer communication, particularly regarding billing transparency, significantly reduces complaints and improves satisfaction levels among water utility customers and another study by World Bank (2020) emphasized the importance of proactive billing management and customer education as essential strategies for reducing customer grievances and enhancing satisfaction in water service delivery.

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of clustering water utilities on water service delivery is multifaceted and context dependent. When properly planned and executed, clustering can lead to significant improvements in the Institutional Capacity and Governance, the availability of water quality and Customer Satisfaction. However, the process requires careful management of integration complexities, substantial investment in capacity building and infrastructure, and robust governance frameworks to ensure equitable and sustained benefits. Robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are essential to track progress and make necessary adjustments to achieve desired outcomes.

RECOMMENDATIONS

From the study findings in chapter four and conclusions made above, the following recommendation regarding clustering water utilities on water service delivery:

The study findings revealed that a significant portion of customer complaints are related to billing issues. Although IRUWASA provides mock bills to allow customers to review meter readings and address any queries before the actual bill is issued, many customers are not fully aware of the importance of acting promptly on these preliminary statements. Improving communication regarding the purpose and timing of mock bills could reduce billing-related complaints by up to 39%, as customers would have the opportunity to correct discrepancies in a timely manner. Additionally, IRUWASA should enhance its communication strategy during service interruptions. By proactively informing customers of any planned or unexpected service disruptions, customers can take necessary precautions, such as storing adequate water. Enhanced communication in this area could reduce service interruption complaints, which currently stand at 25%, by ensuring customers are better prepared.

Furthermore, the study reveals that while IRUWASA has made strides in improving water service delivery in Kilolo and Ilula, these areas remain financially challenging. The revenue generated from these zones does not sufficiently cover operation and maintenance costs, creating a financial burden for IRUWASA. To address this, the Ministry of Water and other key decision-makers should consider alternative strategies for enhancing water service in district and small-town water utilities. Rather than merging smaller utilities into larger, regional entities, which may increase operational burdens, resources could be directed toward targeted interventions to strengthen these local utilities. Potential options include providing tailored training and resources to empower district and small-town water utilities to manage their operations more effectively, allocating subsidies to offset operational costs, enabling smaller utilities to become financially sustainable and offering ongoing technical assistance to ensure that district and small-town utilities can address maintenance and operational challenges proactively. By implementing these approaches, the Ministry of Water can help reduce the financial strain on regional utilities like IRUWASA and ensure that district and small-town water utilities are better equipped to deliver quality water services within their jurisdictions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We extend our deepest gratitude to the Almighty God for providing us with the strength, guidance, and perseverance needed to complete this study. We are particularly thankful to the organizations involved for their invaluable contributions, which made this research possible.

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