Expanding the Lutsotso Clause: A logico- semantic Perspective.

Expanding the Lutsotso Clause: A logico- semantic Perspective.

Caroline A. Amukasa¹, Henry S. Nandelenga² & Joyce I. Wangia¹

¹Department of Literature, Linguistics & Foreign Languages, Kenyatta University, Kenya.

²Department of English, Literature & Journalism, Kibabii University, Kenya.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.807051

Received: 14 June 2024; Revised: 28 June 2024; Accepted: 02 July 2024; Published: 01 August 2024

ABSTRACT

The focus of this paper is the Lutsotso clause complex; in particular, the types of logico-semantic relations of expansions it undertakes in discourse. This is an area that has received less attention from linguistic researchers; especially in Lutsotso. The main objective of this paper therefore, is to discuss the strategies used to expand the message in the Lutsotso clause complex based on the Systemic Functional Theory. The language of study is Lutsotso: a Luhyia dialect majorly spoken in Kakamega central location of Kakamega county, Kenya. The study applies the descriptive research approach. Purposeful sampling was used to collect both spoken and written data which was analyzed using textual and conversational analytical techniques. It was revealed that the Lutsotso clause complex is expanded by elaboration, extension and enhancement. Enhancement was the most common form of expansion used in both oral and written sources sampled. The study also revealed that there are various strategies through which the Lutsotso clause complex can be expanded. It is therefore, upon the language user to choose the form of expansion that enables them convey the intended message. The findings from the study are expected to be useful in contributing to knowledge of clause expansion in the Bantu languages within the Systemic Functional Theory. This study will also benefit linguistic scholars in Lutsotso as it adds to existing data as a point of reference for further research.

Keywords: Clause Complex, Expansion, Extension, Elaboration, Enhancement.

INTRODUCTION

Bearth (2003) observes that there are more studies on the morphological and lexical structures of Bantu languages in comparison to the syntactic ones. Such studies mostly take the formal approach. This observation is true concerning Lutsotso. At the moment, only Osore (2017) has carried out a syntactic analysis of the Lutsotso sentence. The study, however, analyzed the argument licensing in Lutsotso using concepts from Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory and Baker’s Mirror principle. This paper is, therefore, an alternative approach to language study as it employs the Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) approach in investigating the logico-semantic relations (LSRs) of clause expansion in Lutsotso.

Lutsotso (also Olutsotso), the main focus of this study, is spoken by the Abatsotso (tsotso); a speech community of the wider Abaluhya people whose language is Luyia or Oluluyia. Abaluyha are a Kenyan Bantu speech community whose ancestors settled in the western part of Kenya. Consequently, Lutsotso is mostly spoken in Western Kenya; Kakamega County, Kakamega Central location. The Abaluyia, speakers of LuLuhya, are the second-largest ethnic group in Kenya with a population of 6.82 million according to the 2019 census carried out by the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). The statistics also revealed that of the eighteen Luhya dialectsn Kenya.  Lutsotso speakers are at position eleven with a population of 72,687. This vividly shows that Lutsotso is not a dying language.

From the library research done, there is no comprehensive study done on the logico-semantic relation of clause expansion in Lutsotso. Among the studies done in Kenyan Bantu languages, Nicolle (2015) compared complex clauses as used in narrative texts of twelve Bantu languages. Wakarĩndĩ (2018) studied the Gῖkῦyῦ clause complex whereas Wakarĩndĩ, Mwangi and Njoroge (2022) discussed the strategies used to elaborate message in Gῖkῦyῦ. It was noted that the Lutsotso clause complex has not been analyzed semantically. For this reason, further research is required on the syntactic structure of Lutsotso especially in the field of logico-semantics which is largely unexploited in most Kenyan languages.

Language gives us identity as a means through which we express our culture. Justin, Tucker and Vaux (2006) note that fieldwork benefits the speech community under study by showing the language users that other people are interested in their language. In the same breath, Njoroge (2012) observes that every language plays a vital role to the global village in its uniqueness. Hence, losing a language means losing more than just its basic function as a tool of expression. This study is a response to the intellectual advocacy for the study of African languages to preserve, popularize and document these languages. Consequently, this study is intended to offer a basis for future documentation of Lutsotso linguistically. This is also an additional study on Linguistic variety in African languages with reference to sentence structure.

This study is informed by Halliday’s Systemic Functional theory (SFT) in particular; Halliday and Matthiessen (2004/2014). These versions discuss clause complexing in an elaborative, informative and easy to understand manner. Clause complexing is a logical aspect of language whose focus is on the relationships that exist between clauses. This study analyzed data semantically based on the functional rather than formal approach. Attention was not given to the constituents of the clause such as the phrases but on the clause as the principal element of analysis in Functional Grammar (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014: 85). In this case, each clause nexus was analyzed as a unit. The study, therefore, restricted itself to the analysis of the logic behind the combination of the clauses in the clause complex. Consequently, the clause was looked at semantically.

Logico-Semantic Relations

Clauses in a complex sentence relate either syntactically or semantically. Syntactic relations are structural relations of interdependency which can either be of equivalence or non-equivalence (Downing & Locke, 2006: 277). Semantics studies the compositional meaning of a sentence as constructed out of the meanings of its individual component lexemes (Riemer, 2010). A logico-semantic relation (LSR) is the connection between clauses arising from the common sense of natural languages. Clause complex is the term systemicists use for the grammatical and semantic unit formed when two or more clauses are linked together in certain systematic and meaningful ways (Eggins 2004: 255). Syntactic relations link clauses within sentences but semantic relations link clauses within a paragraph and paragraphs within a discourse to represent the way the connection between clauses in a discourse is conceptualized.

Logico-semantic relations are types of meanings that allow adjacent clauses to project or expand each other (Eggins, 2004: 254). A clause complex is, therefore, a logical combination of clauses as a result of an LSR above the clause. The logico- semantic relations are of two broad kinds: expansion and projection. Expansion comprises extension, enhancement and elaboration whereas projection comprises locution and idea (Thompson, 2014: 193).

Bidin and Jomaa (2019) differentiate expansion from projection based on the processes utilized in a given clause complex. They note that expansion utilizes the material, relational, behavioural or existential processes in the primary clause whereas projection involves verbal or mental processes. Halliday and Matthiessen (2014: 509) define projection as an LSR of quoting and reporting speech and thought. The double quotation mark (“) indicates locution – whereas the single quotation mark (‘) indicates ideas. They also propose that clauses can be expanded by elaborating, extending or enhancing the first clause regardless of the position of the subordinate clause in discourse.

In their study on the elaboration strategies used in the Gῖkῦyῦ clause complex, Wakarĩndĩ, Mwangi and Njoroge (2022) note that in the logico- semantic relation of expansion, one of the combined clauses develops the proposition of the other. The task of this study is to find out how the proposition of one of the combined clauses in the LCC is developed by the other through elaboration, extension or enhancement. This study focuses on the LSR of clause expansion in Lutsotso. These relations of expansion are summarized as follows:

In elaboration, detailed information is given about a clause in that a clause expands the other by clarifying, exemplifying, restating, or commenting on it. Elaboration can be made explicit by the use of connectives that restate, exemplify or upgrade the clause before it. Connectives such as: or rather, that is, specifically, namely, as follows restates. For instance, example exemplifies whereas the connectives actually, in fact, indeed signal upgrading. In clarification, the second clause expands the first one by backing it up with some form of explanation or explanatory comment (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 463) Example in English

The family moved from here: that is how we lost track of each other.

The secondary clause that is how we lost track of each other clarifies the effect of the family moving from that place.

Relative clauses and non-finite participle forms –ing and –en elaborate a message by specifying or giving an explanatory comment on it (Downing & Locke, 2006: 264). Appositive finite clauses have no formal link. However, such can be established semantically. In verbal communication, proper intonation can be used though, the colon or semi-colon identifies this in written discourse, (Downing & Locke, 2006: 281).

Example: You must prove you are innocent: no one will believe this.

Extension functions to extend a clause by adding new information to the first clause (Thompson, 2014: 196). The clauses are expanded by the other clauses that give an explanation, variation, alternative or exception. In English, this is signaled by the use of coordination conjunctions such as: and, but, or, nor, yet, also, in addition etc. The connectives instead, in fact and only indicate variation whereas either…or, neither…nor show alternation (Downing &Locke, 2006: 286). Contrast is signaled by: while, whereas, except that, but that, but for the fact that.

Example:  He would have finished the assignment, except that he is very sick.

A clause is enhanced when the other clauses give circumstantial features such as result, cause, reason, condition, place and time to the main clause. It is signaled by connectives such as: now, then, and there, in the same way, (and) in that case, otherwise, still, yet, consequently and as a result (Downing Locke, 2006: 291). Enhancement is the most frequent form of expansion in English (Eggins, 2004). Example: Jane is dependent on her sister, yet she steals from her.  (Concession)

This review informs the current study on the LSRs of expansion studied by clarifying that the focus is on how the Lutsotso clause complex is expanded through extension, elaboration and enhancement.

Functional Grammar looks at grammar in terms of how it is used; grammar is not rule based but a system in which every grammatical structure is a choice to satisfy human needs and human conceptualization of the world but not language itself. The theory is thus free from the constraints of structure (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 52). FG is semiotic; it focuses on making and understanding of meaning. The theory is also syntagmatic as its greatest concern is how language users organize texts to create meaningful units. Different grammatical classes combine into meaningful structures to form texts in line with the principle of constituency which explains how language is organized. In this case, the clause is the structure and text of analysis. It is this meaningful organization of text that is of concern in the current study.

Halliday introduced the meta function approach to language in his view that language has evolved to perform ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. SFG is, therefore, the preferable approach when analyzing text compared to theories such as Traditional Grammar which focuses on the structure rather than the function a text serves. The theory is systemic in the sense that it allows one to explore the systems that account for the relationships that hold in the clause complexes and describe their functions in natural occurring environments. Again, the theory allows analysis of both syntactic and semantically complex structures which include clause complexes and even paragraphs. The theory also allows for the analysis of text in its context making language more meaningful and applicable to the users. The wide scope and practicality of the theory is something that could not be achieved in earlier theories including the traditional grammar theories which narrowed the study of grammar to the structure rather than function.

METHODOLOGY

The descriptive research design with a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach was adopted to enable the researchers collect data in a natural context and exhaustively describe observed patterns in the data. The clause complex (CC) in Lutsotso, joined logically by a type of logico-semantic relation (LSR) of expansion, was the unit of analysis. To get a variety of data for analysis, the Lutsotso clause complexes (LCCs) were purposefully sampled and described according to the LSRs of expansion they exhibit.

The study was conducted among the native speakers of Lutsotso whose ancestral home is in Kakamega central location of Kakamega County in western Kenya. Both the authors of the texts used here and the presenters of the selected radio programs hail from this region. Purposeful sampling was used to pick spoken and written data sources with prose language that would enable collection of a variety of desirable clause complexes. Two Lutsotso books: Akabaluyia Bemumbo (Wako, 1965) and Tsingano Tsia Natulanje (Mukabi, 1980) were used. Akabaluyia Bemumbo (Wako, 1965) is a text that narrates and explains the Lutsotso customs whereas Tsingano Tsia Natulanje (Mukabi, 1980) is a collection of Lutsotso oral narratives narrated by Natulenje. These texts are published in rich and standard Lutsotso. They, therefore the desirable data for analysis. The oral data was collected from Tinyirira (Be strong) and Amacheni ka Mulembe FM (News on Mulembe FM); radio programs aired in Lutsotso on Mulembe FM-a local vernacular radio station in Kenya. Tinyirira is an interactive program in which the participants and the presenters engage in fluent and natural conversation. The participants are listeners who make calls to the hosts to make their contributions to the various topics being discussed on air. At the time of conducting this study, Tinyirira was aired from 10:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. and ran five days a week (Every Monday to Friday). Amacheni ka Mulembe FM was aired at 7:00 p.m. daily. The first researcher is a native speaker of Lutsotso. Consequently, introspection was used to fill in gaps in the data collected.

Twenty-five Lutsotso clause complexes (LCCs) were collected from each of the two sampled radio programs and fifty LCCs were collected from each of the two sampled books. As a result, one hundred and fifty LCCs were sampled. This is drawn from the ‘collective phenomenon’ of language (Kretzschmar, 2009) which proposes that linguistic behaviour tends to be homogenous. Audio recorders were used to collect oral data which was replayed on the computer and transcribed in a field notebook for analysis.  Library research was helpful in gathering secondary data.

The data collected was analyzed by textual and conversational analysis techniques. First, the researchers read the written sources and purposely extracted a hundred LCCs with the desired logico-semantic relations significant to the study. The recorded data from was replayed and carefully listened to until a total of fifty clauses were randomly picked. All the sampled clauses were translated to create data. The researchers identified, described and summarized the LSRs of clause expansion in selected clauses and described them.

Data was presented thematically and analyzed according to the objective of the study. First, the data to be analyzed was given in Lutsotso and written in italics. This was followed by a two-line glossing of data: a word-to-word translation and a possible fine English translation to provide a semantic translation of the Lutsotso clause complexes since a direct (word to word) translation would produce ungrammatical English structures. This choice of glossing is based on the 1^st rule of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Department of Linguistics (2015) Leipzig glossing rules. The rule proposes author’s purpose as one of the factors influencing the selection of details in translation. Since, the study is syntactic, morpheme- by- morpheme glossing was avoided. Afterward, these clauses were examined and classified under the three LSRs of clause expansion. The clauses were further examined to give an analysis of how these expansions are realized in Lutsotso.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.

Expansion is a logico-semantic relation that can occur in both appositive and coordinated clauses. From the study, it has been established that the Lutsotso clause complex (LCC) exhibits all the logico-semantic relations of clause expansion: Elaboration, extension and enhancement. The following is a discussion of these relations as analyzed from the data collected.

Elaboration

In elaboration, the expanding clause only clarifies or restates what is said in the other clause by providing a stronger argument of the thesis presented but it does not add anything new. This is achieved by the same argument being presented in other words, specifying it in greater details, refining it, commenting on it, describing it or exemplifying it. Here is an example of elaboration in which the size of a forest is elaborated through exemplification.

Example 3.0: Chinyala okhuba habundu hakhongo shinga ilokesheni inamba. (Mukabi 1980, p.41)

It can be in a place wide like location whole.

It (forests) can be in a wide place like a whole location.

 Exposition, exemplification and clarification were the strategies used to elaborate the LCC. The types of elaborations found are discussed here.

Elaboration by Exposition

In exposition, the meaning of the first clause is restated in the secondary clause. This relation can be made explicit by conjunctive expressions or lexical semantic links such as lexical repetition, synonymy and antonymy.

In the following clause, Example 3.1

3.1 Nomba okhushira muno obulosi- nibali abamaloko(Wako, 1965, p.3)

Or more to that witchcraft -if they are of witchcraft.

Or more to that witchcraft- if they are witches.

The act of these people practicing witchcraft is restated by repetition in the phrase nibali abamaloko (if they are witches). To emphasize that a girl was not allowed to be married to a man from a lineage that practices witchcraft.

In some cases, the meaning of one clause is restated in the secondary clause in apposition. In writing, this is made explicit by the use of a colon, semicolon or a dash as illustrated in 3.1. The two separate independent clauses in apposition can also have a relationship of elaboration as illustrated in example that follows.

 3.2 Eshialo shiamalia ti. Eshiilima shiali eshinji. (Mukabi 1980, p.24)

The world darkened so. Darkness was so much.

The world became so dark. There was too much Darkness.

The expanding independent clause Eshiliima shiali eshinji (there was too much darkness) is in apposition with the initiating independent clause and it restates the message in the first clause that there was a lot of darkness. In speech, variation in intonation could also signal clauses in apposition. In example 3.3, the radio presenter restates her irritation over the people beeping instead of calling by a change of intonation in the expanding clause.

3.3. Bano na abaandu baflashanga, benya okhukheba amarebo ne baflashanga. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

These are people who are beeping the phone, they want to ask questions but they are beeping.

Sometimes the subject in the primary clause is ellipted in the secondary clause. In the example above, the subject in the initiating clause Bano na abaandu(These are people) is not repeated in the secondary clause but it is signaled by the pronoun be– (they.) In normal conversations, exposition can be realized when the thesis in the primary clause is restated in another language through code-switching or word borrowing as illustrated in example 3.4.

3.4 Shenzia ta, I won’t go, kata nibara khuprogram. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

I will go not, I won’t go, even if they put me on the program.

I will not go, I won’t go, even if I am on the program.

In this context, the radio presenter restates his decision of not attending the burial service by repeating his stand in English. His stand is elaborated by code-switching from Lutsotso to English.

Elaboration by Exemplification

The continuing clause expands the initiating one by citing an actual example of the message presented in the first clause. This can be made explicit by the use of conjunctions e.g. shinga (forexample) or use of parenthesis. For example:

3.5 Abandu aberaane nibalinji abeinzu ndala (shinga abakuka wabwe nimulala) shibarungananga tawe. (Wako, 1965, p. 55)

People who have killed each other if they were of the same family (like those whose grandfather is one) were not paying each other.

If the people who killed each other were of the same family (like those whose ancestor is one) they were not revenging each other.

The thesis in the primary clause Abandu aberaane nibalinji abeinzu ndala shibarungananga tawe(If the people who killed each other were of the same family they were not paying each other) indicates those people whom the culture exempted from compensating each other in case of murder. The expanding clause shinga abakuka wabwe nimulala(like those whose ancestor is one) gives an example of a family relation among the Batsotso who were exempted from such rites. The example reveals that people who have the same ancestral lineage are a family. Consequently, they are exempted from this custom.

Example 3.6 Ameera kekhoonyelwa mubitabu bino shinga khatuyu, wakhungu, Mabuundi, Bwonya, Sunguti nende akandi kario ni ameera ka abaluyia toto. (Mukabi, 1980, p ii)

Names used in books these like Khatuyu,Wakhungu, Mabuundi, Bwonya,sunguti and others like those ones are names of Luhya truly.

Names used in these books like Khatuyu, Wakhungu, Mabuundi, Bwonya, Sunguti and others like those are truly Luhya names.

The secondary clause expands the initiating clause by giving an example of the names of the fictional characters used in books by the same author.

Elaboration by Clarification

In clarification, the second clause backs the first clause with some form of explanation which usually results in a shift in polarity either from positive to negative or from negative to positive as illustrated below.

3.7 Oburuchi shibuli butswa eshisala tawe; no okhukhonya abandu. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

Leadership is not just a seat no; it is helping people.

Leadership is not just a seat; it is helping people.

The primary clause is a negative statement (what leadership is not) where the speaker says that a leader is not just identified by the position he has. In the expanding clause, a positive comment is given by the same speaker highlighting what leadership means; helping the people you lead.

Relative clauses can expand the initiating clause by clarifying what is stated in the first clause as illustrated here:

3.8 Obulwale buno bwaleerungwa nende ebiroboto ebiarulanga khumbebatsifwile. (Mukabi, 1980, p.5)

This disease was being caused by fleas that were coming from rats which had died.

This disease came from fleas that were coming from dead rats.

The expanding clause ebiarulanga khumbeba tsifwile (that were coming from dead rats) elaborates the thesis in the first clause by clarifying where the disease came from.

In spoken language, since the two clauses are simply juxtaposed, clarification can be realized through intonation. In most cases, the intonation is repeated and there is tone concord making elaboration clear as in the example below.

3.9. Bila shaka omurecherisi, ino ni Mulembe FM, iredio itangasia mululuyia. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

Without any doubt listener, this is Mulembe FM, the radio that broadcasts in Luhya.

The change in intonation on the second and last clause makes it possible for the radio presenter to clarify to the listener that they are not listening to any other FM station broadcasting in Luhya but they are listening to Mulembe FM.

In writing, the use of parenthesis could signal the clarifying clause. Consider this example;

3.10 Abalanjirwe nabobekasinjia obulayi nibefwala amaasero amanyushe ketsimosi tsie tsingombe akafumbwa khundulo obulahi (hango abaasaatsa bachendangaranga amaseero ketsimbusi). (Wako, 1965, p.8)

Those invited they were preparing themselves well and they put on skin light of calves of cows which was folded on the hem well (at home, the men were putting on skin of goats)

Those invited could prepare well and put on light calf’s hides that were folded on the edges (at home the men dressed in goat skin).

The clause in parenthesis elaborates on the primary clause by clarifying that the clothing for those invited for the wedding was made from hides of young calves because it was a special dressing. However, normally at home, the men used to dress in clothing made out of goat skin. Lutsotso non-finite clauses, which are an equivalent of the toand –ing English non-finites, elaborate the message in the primary clauseby describing the given situations or circumstances. Example: 3.11. Abanji babo berusie inyinga hino ukhukhaba nyafasi etsio.  (Mulembe FM, 2022).

Many of them came forth today this tovie for positions those.

Many of them came forth today tovie for those positions.

Example 3.12:Nabo ebeshikhulundu bali mumalwa banywa imbakha niyikwa. (Wako 1965, p.9)

Those of the old age were in drinking places drinking as stories came.

The elderly were in drinking dens drinking as they told stories.

The expanding clause in 3.11 clarifies the reason for many people (contestants in this context) coming forth that day. In 3.12, the underlined non- finite describes the circumstances under which the old people were drinking.

Extension

The message in a clause is extended when new information is added to it. This type of relation is manifested through addition, variation and alternation. The additional message can be positive, negative or adversative.

Addition

In addition, both processes of the initiating and continuing clauses are included. In this relation, the extending clause gives something else in addition to the one stated in the initiating clause. This meaning is summarized in the expression ‘X and Y’. This is made explicit by the use of conjunctive adjuncts like nende (and) khandi (again) katanende (even with) and so on.

3.13 Khulabolaamakhubakeneyakonendeakandineakandi. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

We will talk words those ones and more and more.

We will talk about those issues and manyand more.

Lutsotso clauses exhibited instances of double addition as illustrated below.

3.14 Omundu owamukhonyanga okhumanyirisia akomukhaana nende akabebuli bomukhaana kata nenda olunyuma okhukasia amakhuwa hakari wetsimbeka tsino tsibiri yalangungwa mbu Wanjira. (Wako, 1965, p3)

The person who could help him know about the girl and of the parent of the girl even and thereafter to make the issue between sides these two was known as Wanjira.

The person who could help him to know about the girl and her parent and even thereafter to handlethe issue between these two sides was known as Wanjira.

In the two examples above two things are said about the subject of the clause. In 3.13, the two presenters will not only discuss that issue but more others in addition to that one. In 3.14 In addition to ‘Wanjira’ investigating the behaviour of the girl, he also investigates the behaviour of her parents. Moreover, he has another role of ensuring that any issues between the in-laws to be are ironed out. These are examples of positive addition.

Negative addition involves the exclusion of both the thesis in the initiating and expanding clause. In this case, neither of the processes in the given clauses takes place.

Example 3.15: Shenzia ta, shelolekhanakhoyo tawe. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

I will not go, I will not be seen there no.

I will not go, I will not be seen there too.

Two things will not be done by the speaker. One, the process of the speaker going to that place (the funeral in this context) will not take place as stated in the initiating clause shenzia ta (I will not go). Similarly, the process of the speaker not being seen in that place is brought out in the expanding clause Shelolekhanakhoyo tawe(I will not be seen there). This can be translated into an equivalent of; the speaker will neither go there nor be seen in that place.

Variation

In variation, there is either partial or total replacement of something. The variation can either be replacive or subtractive. In replacive variation, the whole message in the primary clause is replaced by the message in the secondary clause bringing the notion of Y instead of X. This has an implication that what is fronted in the thesis in Y is a variation of what is stated in X.

The LCC exhibited a change in polarity value across the clause involved such that one is positive and the other negative. Variation is easily realized in this manner. See example 3.16 below.

3.16 Shiyatsia mushitialo ta nebutswa yatsiaa mumasika. (Mulembe FM. 2022)

He did not go to the ceremony no but went to the funeral.

He did not attend the ceremony but went to the funeral.

However, the ‘but’ here is neither adversative nor concessive.  It does not correspond to hypotactic although and cannot be replaced by yet.

Alternation

The expanding clause is represented as an option of the initiating clause. This implies that only one process in either of the thesis stated can occur. Example:  3.17. Eshindu eshibi shinyala okhuba shinga obulwalwe obulanyala okhuona tawe nohomba okhushira muno obulosi. (Wako, 1965, p.3)

Something bad could be like a disease that could not be healed no or more than that witchcraft.

A bad thing could be like an incurable disease or more than witchcraft.

The second clause is extending the message in the first clause as an alternative. In this case, the two examples of bad things that could hinder marriage are given; either one has an incurable disease or practices witchcraft.

Sometimes, there is ellipsis of the thesis represented in the extending clause. Example: 3.18 Onyala waba noli omwikho nomba? (Mulembe FM, 2022)

Can you be a relative or?

The alternative of being a relative, in this case, is inferred in the dominant clause Onyala waba noli omwikho(Can you be a relative). The auxiliary can presents the possibility that the person addressed is a relative. The second possibility of the addressee not being a relative is presented in nomba (or). The ellipted secondary clause gives suspense and brings out the notion that the speaker sees a high possibility of the addressed being a relative and that it is almost impossible that the addressee is not a relative.

Enhancement

In enhancement, one clause expands the other by qualifying it with some circumstantial features of time, place, manner, cause /condition. The enhancing clause is, in most cases, introduced by a subordinating conjunctive expressing time, place, manner, cause or condition. Enhancement was found useful in the construction of events in a storyline where chronological details are needed.

Temporal Enhancement

The primary clause or element in the primary clause can be expanded to indicate three temporal aspects: same time, different time later and same time earlier.

1. Same Time

The temporal same time enhancements indicate that the processes in the initiating and expanding clauses occur concurrently. It gives the impression of ‘and now’.Thiselationship is illustrated below.3.19Kho achaka okhukhupa olukalakasya nabola ari: nalebe ayinjisiye khandi atsiileere etsindi. (Wako, 1965, p.4)

Therefore she starts making ululations saying that: so and so has overdone it and again should bring others.

She, therefore, starts making ululations saying that: so and so has overdone it and should bring more (cows).

In the Luhya marital customs, when dowry in form of cattle is brought to the bride’s home, there is a woman selected to make ululations to welcome it. The initiating clause Kho achaka okhukhupa olukalakasya (she, therefore, starts making ululations) reveals this. Meanwhile, the words she utters are in the expanding clause nabola ari: nalebe ayinjisiye khandi atsii leere etsindi. (Saying that: so and so has overdone it and should bring more).

The action of making ululations and uttering those words happen at the same time

This expansion also expresses actions accomplished at the same time (extent, point or spread)

Example 3.20: Nibasinjire bario, nyina omusiani yaleeranga amafura amasaambe nende tsinuni. (Wako, 1965, p.8)

While standing like that, the mother to the groom could bring oil melted and sesame.

While standing like that, the mother to the groom could bring melted oil and sesame.

This indicates that one action happens in the process of the other one happening. The extent to which the bride stood outside the house was proportional to the same time the mother took to bring the oil and sesame. However, the process of standing in the first clause and bringing these things to the same place happened at the same time.

3.21 Nibali nibachendanga nibenya okhubukana khunjira, omukhaana oukhwebwa yaukhanga injila alonda ehale. (Wako, 1965, p.4)

Whenever they were walking and almost meeting on the way, the girl being courted could diverge the route and walk far.

Whenever they were walking and almost meeting on the way, the bride-to-be could diverge and follow a different distant route.

Whenever implies a spread timesuch that an action takes place every time another one takes place. Whenever the bride saw that she was almost meeting the groom along the way, she followed a different route. The action takes place at the same time and the bride takes a different path every time the two almost meet.

3.22 Olwa bali nibakalukhanga ingo, balola olucheka lwa makuyukuyu akafwanana kosi. (Mukabi, 1980, p.15)

When were they were returning home, they saw a swarm of butterflies that resembled all.

When/as they were returning home, they saw a swarm of butterflies that resembled.

This is an example of the ‘same time point’ which gives the impression ‘the moment’. In the example above, the children saw a swarm of the butterflies the same moment they were going back home.

2. Different Time Later (And afterward)

It has the meaning of ‘and then’ which implies that the thesis in the continuing clause takes place after the process in the other clause. It is A subsequently B as illustrated below.

3.23 Liali lilako mbu bahebwe eshindu kho benjire. (Wako, 1965, p.6)

It was a rule that they be given something before they got in.

It was customary that they be given something before they went in.

The process of the bride and her entourage going into the groom’s homestead could only happen after the process of receiving something from the groom’s family. The custom demanded that they be given something and afterwards go in.

3. Different Time Earlier

The process in one clause takes place before the process in the other clause. It gives the implication ‘but first’. 3.24Olwa benyanga okhusebulwa nyinabwe naye yatsitsanga ewabo bamusebula nende tsimbusi etsio tsibili kho naye asebula abakhaanabe. (Wako, 1965, p.32)

When they wanted to bid them farewell their mother was going to her home to be bid farewell with those two goats so that she can bid farewell her daughters.

When they wanted to say farewell to them, their mother used to go back to her home to be given a farewell and the two goats so that she bids her daughters bye.

In the Luhya culture, parents were to have a farewell party for their daughters as they left home for marriage. However, if the mother had not had such, she was to go back to her home for it. She was also given two goats which she in turn gave to her daughters at their farewell party. The process of the mother being sent off by her parents takes place first as brought out in the initiating clause nyinabwe nayeyatsitsanga ewabo bamusebula nende tsimbusi etsio tsibili (their mother used to go back to her home to be given a farewell and the two goats) before the process of the mother sending off her daughters for marriage as seen in the expanding clause kho naye asebula abakhaanabe (so that she bids her daughters bye).

Temporal enhancement was found to be the most form of enhancement used in Lutsotso.

Spatial Enhancement

One clause expands the other by giving information about place. The place can be extent, point or spread. A point spatial enhancement has a reference of a concrete place. In English, it is identified by ‘where’. In spread spatial enhancement, the reference is in several places. There is some distance covered in extent spatial enhancement which implies as far as. Consider example 3.25 below:

3.25 Serekaliimarire okhura amakataa kokhulekha okhula ilwanyi khuchaka saa ekhumi na tsibili tsio amukoloba okhula saa ekhumi na tsibili tsia subuhi mukaunti ya Marsabit khumuda kwe tsinyinga amakhumi kataru ketsanga.  Ino ni baada ya obulindi mutsimbeka etsio ukhuba nende haja okhula nende abamaaka balooleshe bali hatari khubandu. (Mulembe FM, 2022).

The government has put in place a curfew of people not going out from six o’clock in the evening until six o’clock in the morning in the county of Marsabit for a period of the next thirteen days. This is after the security in those areas having a need arising from the lawbreakers who have been seen to be dangerous to people.

The government has put in place a curfew prohibiting people in Marsabit County from going out of their houses starting from six o’clock in the evening to six o’clock in the morning for the next thirteen days. This is after the security in those areas having the need which arose from criminals who have been seen to be dangerous.

Mutsimbeka etsio (in those areas) in the extending dependent clause anaphorically refers to the Marsabit County; the same place in the previous clause. Therefore, the spatial point enhancement can be anaphorically referred to in the extending clause. The message here is enhanced by pointing out in which place (same place.) Marsabit County is the point spatial enhancement in this case.

Example 3.26 below illustrates Spread spatial enhancement.

3.26 Abefi bekhukha nibebisa mutsimbeka tsiaukhane khusoko (Mulembe FM, 2022.)

The thieves ran and hid in different places of the market.

The phrase mutsimbeka tsiaukhane khusoko (in different places of the market) implies that there were several hideouts for the thieves.

Example 3.27 below is an illustration of the extent spatial enhancement.

3.27Abaana barula e Natimbukha nibatsia Webuye. (Mukabi, 1980, p.41)

The children left Natimbukha and went to Webuye.

Here the students moved from point A (Natimbukha) as far as point B (Webuye).

Manner Enhancement         

One clause expands the other by giving information on how the thesis in the other clause is realized. This relationship expresses the notion that something happens by means of another thing. This study revealed that this is the least form of enhancement in Lutsotso.

Example 3.28: Abasomi bebula abana ne munjira iyo balekha isikuli. (Mulembe FM, 2022)

Students give birth to children and in that way they leave school.

Students give birth to children and due to that, they leave school.

This reveals how students stop schooling. They do so once they give birth, in other words, dropping out of school is by means of early pregnancy.

Causal Enhancement

The extending clause enhances another clause by either giving the reason, purpose, result or condition of the action in the expanded clause.

1. Reason

Halliday sums the relationship as; because P so Q. In this relationship, one clause carries the cause and the other the effect. Consider example 3.26 below.

3.29. Okhushikha muno omusango kuno kwamalungwa nende abakhasi okhuba kwamalungwa muno mumakhuwa akakalushira mutsimbula. (Wako, 1965, p. 15)

Above all, this ritual was done by women because it was finished mostly in matters related to giving birth.

This cultural practice was mostly carried out by women because it was mostly accomplished in matters related to giving birth.

The primary clause carries the effect of the second finite clause which implies that since this tradition (of child naming) was performed during childbearing, it is performed by women.

2. Purpose

The expanding clause gives the impression that the thesis in the expanded clause is done with the aim of achieving something: Because intention Q action P.

Example: 3.30 Yalanga abakhasibe mbu bamurusie amahwa mumakulu. (Mukabi, 1980. p.31)

He called his wives so that they mayremove thorns from his feet.

The main clause Yalanga abakhasibe (He called his wives) shows the action while the subordinate clause mbu bamurusie amahwa mumakulu (so that they mayremove thorns from his feet) gives the intention of the action of him calling his wives. The purpose was to have them remove the thorns from his feet.

3. Result

The expanding clause gives the results or in other words the effect of a process in the expanded clause. In most cases, the dominant clause carries the cause and the result is presented in the dependent clause. Example 3.31 illustrates this.

3.31. Ifula yakwa inyinji muno ne khulwayako abaandu shibakhekhusiye emiitoka tawe.

It rained heavily such that people could not drive.

4. Conditional

A clause is expanded when the condition of the process entailed in it is given. The condition can either be positive, negative or concessive.

3.32. Nibalolanga shindu shindi halubeka womusiani shibafuchiriranga obwitsa yibwo tawe. (Wako, 1965, p.3)

If they could see something else from the groom’s side, they were not accepting the courtship.

If they saw something else from the groom’s side, they were not accepting the courtship.

In the Luhya marital customs, there are circumstances under which courtship is not allowed. One of the conditions, as stated here, is that the bride’s family would reject a courtship when they discover any negative trait in the groom’s family.

The following table summarizes the logico-semantic relations of expansion as established from the Lutsotso clause complexes collected.

Table: 3.1 Logico- Semantic Relations of Expansion in the LCC.

Source: Data from the field.

From the table above, we conclude that the message in Lutsotso is expanded in various forms depending on the intention of the speaker or writer. The most commonly used form of expansion in the data collected is enhancement at 42.7% followed by elaboration at 32% then extension at 25.35%. In narratives, the message is mostly enhanced to allow the narrator give a chronological account of events in the story. In presenting news, the most frequently used form of expansion was enhancement at 52% followed by elaboration at 40% and extension at 8%. This indicates that text in news items is mostly organized to give more information to account for the news rather than to restate or give additional information. After enhancement, the message is elaborated by restating it in other words.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

This study set out to analyze the logico-semantic relations of expansion in the Lutsotso clause complex based on the Systemic Functional Theory as proposed by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004/2014). The study has confirmed that the clause nexus in the clause complex in Lutsotso is linked by a logico-semantic relation (LSRs) which is vital in the production of a cohesive and flowing text in both verbal and written texts.  It was revealed that LRSs greatly contribute to cohesion in the text making it easier for the language users to resonate with the text. The LRSs should, therefore, be analyzed for a meaningful and correct interpretation of any given text

The research established that the Lutsotso clauses are semantically expanded through the logico-semantic relations of elaboration, extension and enhancement. Enhancement was the most commonly used form of expansion especially in the sampled news items. These findings are similar to a study on clause Complexing in the editorials of the Daily Graphic (Adjei, 2017) which revealed that expansion was the most used form of expansion in the news items sampled. Yuniar (2018) also found out that enhancement was the largest form of expansion used by students in their writings. Although the results are from a small sample of twenty-five clauses, the findings are similar to a study on clause Complexing in the editorials of the Daily Graphic; a Ghanaian public newspaper (Adjei, 2017) which revealed that enhancement was the most commonly used form of expansion in news items of the ‘Daily Graphic’. Yuniar (2018) also found out that enhancement was the most used form of expansion in the students’ writings. In this study, enhancement was closely followed by elaboration and then extension. The findings here, however, differ from Bidin and Jomaa (2019) who looked at the LSRs of citations of P.H.D. students in a Malaysian university and established that extension was the most used form of expansion. They attributed this to the tendency of the students to add information rather than restate or enhance what they had already cited in the first clause. This could lead to the view that the choice of clause expansion is dependent on the purpose of the clause expansion and the competence of the language user.

The study found that the Lutsotso clause complex utilizes several strategies in expanding the message in the clause complex. The relationship of expansion is largely established by the use of conjunctives especially in cases where the clauses are being extended or enhanced. Other strategies identified include: the use of lexical repetition, synonymy, antonymy, apposition, ellipsis, code-switching, word borrowing, parenthesis, non-finite clauses and relative clauses. Occasionally, change in intonation and polarity were used to expand the Lutsotso clause complex.

CONCLUSION

The Systemic Functional Theory has been tested on varied language’s data. Although most of these studies were carried out by scholars outside East Africa, they were still informative because they applied the same theory and methodology of research. Studies close home were found on Gῖkῦyῦ; a Bantu language similar to Luhya.  It has been confirmed that the logico-semantic relations of expansion: extension, elaboration and enhancement exist in Lutsotso. However, the researchers were not able to establish redundancy in the metafunctional structures of Lutsotso as it had been established in Gῖkῦyῦ by Wakarῖndῖ (2018). The research concludes that these relations are pertinent in linking clauses in both verbal and written texts.

The study revealed that Lutsotso expands the message through all the modes as identified by Halliday and Matthiessen (2014): Elaboration, extension and enhancement. Each of the identified modes applies different strategies in expanding the message. Knowledge of the strategies use is pertinent towards correct interpretation of the message in a given clause.

Utterances in Lutsotso, just like in any other language, are influenced by the choice of expansion determined by the language user. The knowledge of how the clause complex can be expanded is vital as it enables one to communicate their intended message minimizing the instances of misinterpretation from the receiver’s end. From this study, it is apparent that a study on the forms and patterns of a language is pertinent to anyone interested in understanding the structure of a given language.

The researchers, therefore, recommend that:

1. More Linguistic research should be carried out in Lutsotso. Lutsotso is an agglutinating Bantu language rich in linguistic data which can be exploited especially by researchers interested in studying African languages.
2. A similar study should be carried out on the other dialects of Luhyia to help establish whether the clausal structure of these dialects contribute in any way to their variation.
3. The study limited itself to the relation of expansion, therefore, the relation of projection in Lutsotso could be looked into.
4. Researchers could also account for the Lutsotso clause using other Linguistics approaches other than the functional approach used here.

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