Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour and Agropreneurial Intention Among Youth

Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour and Agropreneurial Intention Among Youth

Mohd Nur Fikri Waktu Saptu, Sylvia Nabila Azwa Ambad^*

Faculty of Business and Management, University Technology MARA, Cawangan Sabah, 88997 Kampus Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

^*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000204

Received: 28 March 2025; Accepted: 02 April 2025; Published: 06 June 2025

ABSTRACT

This research aims to examine the effect of the dimensions of the extended Theory of Planned Behavior (attitude, perceived behavioral control (PBC), subjective norms (SN), and the perceived availability of government support) on agropreneurship intentions among 382 youth in Sabah, as well as the moderating effects of educational level and gender. The results of the PLS-SEM analysis reveal that attitude towards agropreneurship has the strongest predictor for agropreneurship intention. Additionally, PBC was found to have a positive effect on agropreneurship intention, while subjective norms did not significantly influence youths’ intentions. Regarding moderating effects, the study found that gender did not moderate the relationship between the elements of the Theory of Planned Behavior and agropreneurship intention. However, gender moderated the relationship between the perceived availability of government support and agropreneurship intention. Furthermore, educational level was found to moderate the relationship between attitude towards agropreneurship, subjective norms, and agropreneurship intention. The study also indicates that educational level did not moderate the relationship between PBC, perceived availability of government support, and agropreneurship intention. These findings contribute to the existing body of knowledge and offer valuable insights for policymakers and government agencies in formulating policies and programs to encourage youth participation in agropreneurship. Moreover, this study supports Sabah’s goal of becoming an agricultural hub within the country.

Keywords: Agropreneurship; Agropreneur; agropreneurship intention; Agricultural entrepreneurship; Government support; Gender; Educational level; Theory of Planned Behaviour

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurial business activity in the agriculture sector, or agropreneurship, can be described as primarily concerned with the marketing and processing of numerous agricultural commodities. Agropreneurship or entrepreneurship in agriculture is linked with agricultural inputs. Examples of areas that are synonymous with agropreneurship include oil palm, livestock, fishing, forestry and logging, rubber as well as other agricultural commodities. According to the National Agrofood Policy 2011–2020, the third goal of the policy is to raise agricultural entrepreneurs‘ income levels. The agricultural sector provided more than 444,500 job opportunities in 2015, which rose from 390,708 in 2010 (Department of Statistic Malaysia). Furthermore, according to the Department of Statistics Malaysia, the agricultural sector aims to increase the gross national income by RM28.90 billion to RM49.10 billion by 2020. Notably, Malaysia still relies heavily on food imports showing that Malaysia’s food supply unsustainable in the long term.

In addition to the challenge of an unsustainable food supply, the agriculture sector is increasingly threatened by the declining participation of youth. Encouraging youth involvement in agriculture has the potential to mitigate issues related to food security while also addressing youth unemployment (Henning et al., 2022). Thus, the agricultural sector and youths‘ participation should be at the forefront of policies and development activities, particularly concerning agropreneurship. Therefore, the aims of this study is to examine the effect of  Theory of Planned Behaviour (attitude, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms) and perceived availability of government support on agropreneurship intention among youths in Sabah. The study also investigates the moderating impact of educational level and gender.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theory of Planned Behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) viewed behaviours as a significant influence on human behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). TPB begins by explicitly specifying its goal, activity concerned, the context under which it happens, and the period of the actions of interest then each of these could be interpreted at different specificities or generalities (Ajzen, 2020). The TPB is about a person‘s attitudes towards action, a presumed normal expectation of someone else (such as families, acquaintances, and colleagues) and a perceived behavioural control would establish a desire to grow a business (Ajzen, 1991). Attitude towards conduct refers to how the individual views the conduct of interest as either desirable or undesirable. Besides, it also refers to social expectations influenced by families, acquaintances, colleagues, and community as a whole, which affect a person‘s intent to carry out a particular behaviour or otherwise, as subjective norms. It is an individual‘s sense of confidence towards action and the sense that it is under the influence of the responsible party, which represents the third predictor of entrepreneurial intention (Basu & Virick, 2008). In this research, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is used as the theoretical foundation to examine agropreneurial intention among youth, as TPB is the most widely applied theory in explaining entrepreneurial intention (Ambad, 2022).

The Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour was structured to forecast and clarify the behaviour in a particular context. A fundamental issue in the TPB is the obligation of a person to follow a certain action. According to Ajzen (1991), the purpose represents the desire and commitment to seek a person in his conduct. An analyst stated that the real behaviour of people had been understood through behavioural expectations more instantly (Ajzen, 1991). In fact, the TPB theorised that attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control are the three predictors that influence the behavioural intention.

In order to accommodate the weaknesses of TPB, it has been advised by some researchers that the analytical control of standard TPB can be improved by expanding and developing new variables (Zampetakis, Anagnosti, & Stelios Rozakis, 2013). Furthermore, researchers are encouraged by TPB‘s developer to solidify the desire to execute the research by integrating more predictors into the theory (Ajzen, 1991, 2014). Consequently, various fields of study have been using extended TPB. Thus, it simultaneously proves that the predictive ability of extended TPB is better than the standard version (MacGillivray & Lynd-Stevenson, 2013; Cristea, Paran, & Delhomme, 2013; Chen & Tung, 2014;). Previous studies also found that the implementation of the expanded TPB variant is much more efficient than the standard version.

The Effect of Attitude toward Agropreneurship Intention

Attitude toward agropreneurship refers to an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of engaging in agricultural entrepreneurship, which influences their willingness to pursue agropreneurial activities. Yusoff et al. (2019) carried out an analysis, which found that the entrepreneurial mindset is substantially related to the agropreneurial intention of youth. A recent study found a strong influence of entrepreneurial attitude on entrepreneurial intention among 669 students in Punjab (Taneja et al., 2023). A similar finding was observed among 306 students from different public and private universities in Costa Rica, where attitude was the most significant predictor among all (Silesky-Gonzalez et al., 2024). In the same vein, a study among agricultural students found that attitude towards agropreneurship had the largest effect on agropreneurial intention in India. These findings are in line with a study in Malaysia, which found that positive attitudes of youth towards agropreneurship, such as being enthusiastic and determined, encourage them to participate in agropreneurial activities (Yusoff et al., 2017). It can be concluded that across studies, attitude consistently has the strongest effect on entrepreneurial students. This indicates that if an individual has a positive perception of entrepreneurship, they are more likely to engage in entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, attitude towards agro-entrepreneurship is expected to increase agropreneurial intention. Thus, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H1: Attitude towards agropreneurship positively influences agropreneurship intention.

The Effect of Perceived Behavioural Control on Agropreneurship Antention

Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) refers to an individual’s perception of their ability to perform a behavior, considering both the availability of resources and their confidence in overcoming challenges. In the agropreneurial context, PBC reflects an individual’s control over potential obstacles and their belief in successfully navigating the entrepreneurial process (Ajzen., 1991). Past researchers revealed that a high level of PBC was found among youths with a better perception of business viability (Yusoff et al., 2019). With regards to agropreneurial behaviour, PBC is considered to help establish an agro-based enterprise (Eid et al., 2019). A study was conducted only to four universities in Ethiopia found that PBC has a positive effect on entrepreneurial intention (Aga, 2023). A study form 300 public university students in Malaysia found that PBC has a positive effect on agropreneurial intention (Che Nawi, 2022). Al-Jubari (2019) found evident that, PBC has the second largest effect on entrepreneurial intention after attitude.

Also, individuals who are driven by the potential results of agro-entrepreneurship will be more ambitious and motivated to be involved in agro-entrepreneurship. The outcomes of PBC concerning agropreneurial intention is found to be highly reliable among youth because they are more open to challenging and tough circumstances of the agriculture sector, which seem to inspire those who are keen to participate in agropreneurship (Yusoff et al., 2017). In addition, a significant result of perceived behavioural control regarding entrepreneurial intention has been reported (Urban, & Ratsimanetrimanana, 2019). Thus, the following hypothesis is formulated based on the above argument:

H2: Perceived behavioural control positively influences agropreneurship intention.

The Effect of Subjective Norm on Agropreneurship Intention

In the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), subjective norm refers to the perceived social pressure to engage or not to engage in agropreneurial activities. It reflects an individual’s belief regarding whether significant others, such as family, friends, or societal groups, approve or disapprove of their decision to pursue entrepreneurship in agriculture (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen, 2002; Autio et al., 2001). In other words, subjective norms are positively correlated with entrepreneurial intention, as approval from influential individuals strengthens one’s intention to become an entrepreneur (Nanere et al., 2020). Moreover, subjective norms play a critical role in shaping agropreneurial intentions, particularly among youth (Awang et al., 2016). A study involving 220 final-year students enrolled in an entrepreneurship module at a private university in Malaysia found that higher subjective norms were associated with stronger entrepreneurial intentions (Chin et al., 2024). Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: Subjective norm positively influences agropreneurship intention.

The Influence of Perceived Availability of Government Support on Agropreneurship Intention

The perceived government support refers to an individual’s belief regarding the extent to which government support mechanisms are available for agropreneurial activities and how these mechanisms facilitate the effective execution of agribusiness (Minniti, 2008; Malebana, 2014). To encourage a greater number of young university graduates to venture into entrepreneurship, it has been suggested that the government should place greater emphasis on entrepreneurship development (Darmanto & Pujiarti, 2020). Additionally, limited access to available resources may hinder youths’ entrepreneurial intentions, ultimately reducing their business productivity and confidence (Mustafa et al., 2016). The government must play a crucial role in fostering entrepreneurship among graduates by creating a business-friendly environment with minimal entry barriers (Sadeghi et al., 2013). While government support is undeniably a critical factor, ensuring that information on accessible assistance effectively reaches the intended audience remains a significant challenge. Furthermore, Denanyoh et al. (2015) identified a strong relationship between government and non-government programs, opportunities, and other motivational initiatives in fostering entrepreneurial intentions among college students in Ghana. Likewise, government support has been found to significantly contribute to the growth of female-led businesses in Tshwane, South Africa, thereby positively influencing entrepreneurial intentions (Ntanjana & Mangwane, 2020). These findings suggest that the perception of available government support enhances youth entrepreneurial intentions. In this context, government policy encompasses any intervention aimed at regulating and improving the conditions of SMEs, particularly in areas such as social funding, enforcement, and financing policies. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4: Perceived government support positively influences agropreneurship intention.

Role of Educational Level as a Moderator Between Extended Theory of Planned Behavioural and Agropreneurship Intention

Educational level is one of the factors that determine the individual decision to participate in the agropreneurship. By manifesting the influential factors of agropreneurship intention, the researcher obtains a deeper understanding of the people‘s needs and can more efficiently develop an entrepreneurial intention through education (Pham et al.,2023). García-Rodríguez et al, (2017) further argued that formal education typically fails to support entrepreneurship, as it usually trains graduates for employment in businesses that inhibit entrepreneurship and innovation. According to Ellborg (2018), only after a revolutionary change in its intellectual and education priority will entrepreneurs be created.

H5a: Educational level moderates the relationship between attitude toward agropreneurship and agropreneurship intention. The impact of attitude towards agropreneurship on agropreneurship intention is higher among highly educated youth and lower among less-educated youth.

H5b: Educational level moderates the relationship between perceived behavioural control and agropreneurship intention. The impact of perceived behavioural control on agropreneurship intention is higher among highly educated youth and lower among less-educated youth.

H5c: Educational level moderates the relationship between subjective norm and agropreneurship intention. The impact of subjective norm on agropreneurship intention is higher among highly educated youth and lower among less-educated youth.

H5d: Educational level moderates the relationship between perceived availability of government support and agropreneurship intention. The impact of perceived availability of government support on agropreneurship intention is higher among highly educated youth and lower among less-educated youth.

Role of Educational Level as a Moderator Between Extended Theory of Planned Behavioural and Agropreneurship Intention

Gender is another factor that determines the individual intention to engage in the agropreneurship (Owoade, 2017). Gender remains a field whereby specific business education initiatives may be created to reduce gender influence in the development of new businesses. Besides, Haus et al. (2013) also found that women are far less likely than men to turn their thoughts into action. Additionally, women have always become more difficult to view their world and would, therefore, have little sense of personal influence in business practices than men (BarNir et al., 2011).

H6a: Gender moderates the relationship between attitude toward agropreneurship and agropreneurship intention. The impact of attitude towards agropreneurship on agropreneurship intention is higher among male youth and lower among female youth.

H6b: Gender moderates the relationship between perceived behavioural control and agropreneurship intention. The impact of perceived behavioural control on agropreneurship intention is higher among male youth and lower among female youth.

H6c: Gender moderates the relationship between subjective norms and agropreneurship intention. The impact of subjective norms on agropreneurship intention is higher among male youth and lower among female youth.

H6d: Gender moderates the relationship between perceived availability of government support and agropreneurship intention. The impact of perceived availability of government support on agropreneurship intention is higher among male youth and lower among female youth.

Conceptual Framework

The framework for this study is the extended TPB and the moderating effect of educational level and gender. The agropreneurship intention is the dependent variable. The TPB was preferred because of its success in predicting market expectations and approaches and its capacity to include a consistent empirical context of broad practical application. Consequently, the theory must have been broadened and further improved by introducing additional variables like the perceived availability of government support, which perhaps attempting to follow the recommendation of Zampetakis et al. (2013).

Moderators will alter the relationship between the extended TPB and agropreneurship intention. As indicated by Baron and Kenny (1986), a moderator is strongly suggested when the association between two variables could become ineffective as well as contradictory. Therefore, the educational level and gender are used as a moderator to strengthen the framework in investigating the consequence of the extended TPB on agropreneurship intention.

METHODOLOGY

Population

Respondents for this study are youth within the range of age between 18 and 30 years old, residing in Sabah. Therefore, youths in Sabah, which are mainly students of college and university, unemployed individuals, and individual without a permanent job within the range of age between 18 and 30 years old been are referred to as the population of this study. This definition is based on the new amendment to the Youth Societies and Youth Development Act (Amendment) 2019 (Act 668) in July 2019. Youths are regarded as the most suitable community for the contextualisation of agropreneurship because they are young, qualified, prosperous, and capable of exploiting any possibilities. Youths are the ideal prospects for agropreneurship, which supports the government efforts towards enhancing the community of young agropreneurs throughout Malaysia, specifically in Sabah. The possible explanation of the youth preference as the subject of this study would be their significance in the current development of the agriculture sector. According to Budget 2014: Support for SME plans (2013), the government of Malaysia has invested a total of RM6 billion to incorporated economic concerns by introducing commercialised agricultural programmes that demanding understanding of the sector.

Data Analysis Techniques

For this research, the Partial Least Squares–structural equation modelling (PLS–SSEM) using Smart PLS 3.2.9 was employed to evaluate the precision and legitimacy of the extents that are used in this analysis, as well as to evaluate the theories developed. An analysis of partial lesser squares (PLS) is the alternative to regression, canonical correlation, or structural equation modelling (SEM) based on the covariance of independent system variables and responses. PLS, is sometimes referred to as ―sampling-based SEM, in contrast to the commonly referred ―sem-basic covariance type.

It is gradually distributed in a multitude of areas, particularly business (Sarstedt et al., 2014). Several reasons occur for choosing this tool. First thing first, because of its better prediction capabilities, PLS-SEM will be used in this analysis. Besides that, the PLS-SEM was recognized as the best methodology for evaluating the significance of the plausibility of the exogenous variable on the endogenous, where the conceptual information relating to the theoretical underpinnings influencing the conceptual study framework is quite accessible (Davcik, 2014).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Profile of the Individual Respondents

The majority of respondents were aged between 18 and 20 years old, accounting for 52.9% (202) of the total sample. Among the 382 respondents, 28.3% (108) were between 21 and 23 years old, while 16.8% (64) fell within the 24 to 26 age range. Only eight respondents were aged between 27 and 30 years old. Regarding family involvement in agropreneurship, most respondents (61.5% or 235) did not have family members engaged in the field, whereas 38.5% (147) had family members involved in agropreneurship. In terms of educational background, the majority held a Diploma qualification, making up 52.9% (202) of the respondents. This was significantly higher than those with SPM/STPM/Sijil SKM qualifications, who comprised 27.7% (106) of the sample. Respondents with a bachelor’s degree accounted for 17.3% (66), while those with a Master’s degree and a Doctorate were 1.6% (6) and 0.5% (2), respectively. As for ethnicity, 50.3% (192) of respondents were categorized as “Others,” primarily consisting of native Sabahans. Malays made up 47.9% (183) of the sample, while six respondents (1.6%) were Chinese, and one (0.3%) was Indian.

First Stage: Assessment of Measurement Model

Composite Reliability

This research used only reflective structures. Hair et al., (2014) affirmed that the reliability of measuring items was evaluated for the reflective structure employing composite reliability, especially to estimate the internal consistency of a structure. Hair et al. (2011) proposed that composite reliability is comparable to Cronbach alpha (α), which seems to be the conventional test for internal accuracy that prioritises individual measurements that are more relevant to PLS-SEM. Earlier, Hair et al., (2011) mentioned that the compositional reliability of exploratory and advanced work is adequate at 0.6 to 0.7, as well as 0.7 to 0.9, while reliability below 0.6 implies an inadequate internal consistency. The values of the composite reliability of this study were between 0.854 and 0.952, which suggest that all the measurement items are reliable and consistent.

Average Variance (AVE)

Construct validity is another crucial component that implies the possibility when assessing the measurement model. Construct validity indicates how much the findings derived by using the calculation related to the hypotheses underlying the analysis (Sekaran, 2006). Hair et al., (2014) claimed that both convergent validity and discriminant validity could be used to test structural validity. Hair et al., (2014) implies that throughout PLS-SEM, average variance extracted (AVE) should be used to determine convergent validity. Furthermore, an AVE value of 0.5 or more implies sufficient convergent validity, indicating that the latent variable could represent better than half the variance within the particular predictor. All AVE in this study fulfil the requirements.

Heterotrait-monotrait correlation ratio (HTMT)

A recent validity evaluation criteria established the Heterotrait-monotrait correlation ratio (HTMT), as suggested. The HTMT criteria can be used for the differential validity evaluation in two ways, namely criteria and a statistical test. As recommended by Henseler et al. (2015), the prime consideration for using HTMT as a criterion is that there is a lack of discriminating validity when the HTMT value exceeds 0.85 Thus, based on the given recommendations, this study used the HTMT test to determine the discriminate validity of the construct and the HTMT values for this study is below 0.85

Discriminant Validity

The discriminating validity of the reflective measurement models can also be established through the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT). The discriminant validity evaluation throughout the HTMT criteria can be carried out in two respects, namely, criterion and a statistical test (Henseler et al., 2015). Thus, as suggested by Henseler et al. (2015), HTMT is the condition that the validity of HTMT is not greater than 0.90 so that there should be no distinguishing validity. In this paper, that the highest value is 0.756, which is lower than 0.90.

Hypothesis Testing of the Direct Relationship

Attitudes toward agropreneurship (H1: β=0.488, p=0.000), perceived behavioural control (H2: β=0.282, p=0.000), perceived availability of government support (H4: β=0.178, p=0.001) was positively linked to agropreneurship intention. On the other hand, subjective norms shows an insignificant association with agropreneurship intention among youth (H3: β= 0.024, p = 0.355). Table 1 shows the result of analysis.

Table 1: Direct Hypotheses Results

Hypothesis Testing of the Moderating Effect

The finding in Table 2 shows that educational level significantly moderates the attitudes towards Agropreneurship (t-value: 2.142) and subjective norms towards agropreneurship intention (t-value: 1.68). There is a higher effect of attitude towards agropreneurship and subjective norms on agropreneurship intention among highly educated youth, and a lower effect among less-educated youth. Besides, gender significantly moderates perceived availability of government support towards the agropreneurship intention (t-value: 2.182). The impact of perceived availability of government support on agropreneurship intention is higher among male youth and lower among female youth.

Table 2: Hypothesis Testing of the Moderating Effect

4.6 The Effect Size (f²)

For the evaluation of f2, the rule of thumb suggested by Cohen (1988) was applied to determine the results. The f2 values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are, according to the source, a measure of a low, medium, and high results. The ƒ² values of attitude (ƒ²=0.231), PBC (ƒ² = 0.088), subjective norm (ƒ² = 0.001) and perceived availability of government support (ƒ² = 0.038) suggested that perceived availability of government support has a high effect size, and attitude has a medium effect size. Both PBC and subjective norm have small effect size on agropreneurship intention.

CONCLUSION

Agriculture has indeed been vigorously supported for attempting to change conventional agricultural practices, even though it has a significant influence on the development and sustainability of the agriculture sector (Verhees et al., 2011). This paper focused on the extended Theory of Planned Behaviour by introducing more further variables to determine the intention of agropreneurship, particularly among youth in Sabah. The research objective aims to examine the impact of the variables of the extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (attitudes towards agropreneurship, perceived of behavioural control, subjective norms, and perceived availability of government support) on agropreneurship intention. It also observes the moderating role of educational level and gender in agropreneurship intention amongst youth in Sabah.

Every component of this research was used in the zero rotation analysis to determine whether the factor analysis is focused on a specific factor, or whether more than 50% of the co-variation is a general factor. The variability recorded was 44.19%; therefore, the problem with common method variance did not exist severely in this study.

The results demonstrate that the PLS-SEM analysis confirmed attitude towards agropreneurship has the strongest relationship and effect on agropreneurship intention. This research also showed that PBC has a positive impact on agropreneurship intention. On the other hand, subjective norms did not influence youths’ agropreneurship intention. Next, the perceived availability of government support has a positive impact on the agropreneurship intention among the youth in Sabah. In terms of moderating effect, the result of this study unveiled that gender did not moderate the relationship between elements of the Theory of Planned Behaviour and agropreneurship intention. Besides, the findings found that gender moderates the relationship between the perceived availability of government support and agropreneurship intention. The study’s findings also show that educational levels moderate the relationship between attitudes towards agropreneurship, as well as subjective norms and agropreneurship intention. The result further revealed that educational levels did not moderate the relationship between PBC and perceived availability of government support and agropreneurship intention.

The present study offers valuable theoretical, practical, and technical contributions for researchers, educators and policymakers. It also presents the study limitations and recommendations for future studies’ consideration. Meanwhile, the study’s findings show the feasibility of agropreneurship; hence, supporting the necessity to enhance the level of agropreneurship intention among youth in Sabah. Government and policymakers could use interventions by arranging more productive activities and programmes involving youths and certain successful agropreneurs with their broad network in Sabah. Furthermore, the government could assure more attractive fundings for agropreneurship programmes involving youth in Sabah in addition to the existing funds. Additionally, better dissemination of information on the numerous government incentives towards agropreneurship is essential to boost youths’ perception of government support that could strengthen agropreneurship intentions.

Practically, youths’ involvement in agropreneurship is rather small as they consider the agriculture sector as a hopeless field more suitable for the aged. Apart from that, the study also emphasises the influential role of the youth in the economy. The study’s findings could also assist the government and its agencies as well as policymakers in formulating policies and programmes related to agriculture industries especially on attracting more youth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by the FRGS-RACER grant (Ref: RACER/1/2019/SS03/UITM//3), Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

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