Gender Perspectives in Kalanga Oral Literature

Gender Perspectives in Kalanga Oral Literature

Hlalani Ndhlovu-Ncube

Midlands State University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90400377

Received: 28 March 2025; Accepted: 10 April 2025; Published: 17 May 2025

ABSTRACT

Gender studies are contemporarily viewed as cross-cutting issues affecting humanity interaction. The divisions are not fixed in biology, but relations are constructed in terms of power and dominance that structure the life of men and women based on socio-cultural values. Feminism is one of the perspectives that serve as lens in viewing gender relations though it is widely regarded as alien to African traditional societies. However, the infiltration of feminist ideas continue to impact on traditional societies leading them to view their cultural practices with a second eye. The study acknowledges that there are variations in how men and women are viewed in Kalanga communities. Scholarly activities opened a window on gender equality, gender equity and gender-based violence. These different views, somewhat negative towards women affect male-female behaviour patterns displayed in all spheres of life. The behaviour variations are conveyed to the two social groups through forms of folkloric wisdom. It is also in these apparent dissimilarities that women are regarded as weaker, physically and emotionally and incapable of rationally contributing to the building of the Kalanga culture. The study employs content analysis of purposively selected examples of folktales, proverbs, taboos and traditional songs. Semi-structured interviews, document analysis and oral-literary work were used to solicit information that explain the different practices between men and women. Africana womanism theory guided the discussion. The ideology applies to all women of African descent since it is grounded in African culture. The findings confirmed that women have a lot to overcome to be recognized in societal activities of a high level. However, adopted from the demands of Africanness, the study concluded that Kalanga traditional women and men are social counterparts working in distinguished areas of society to complement each other in order to sustain familyhood ties.

Keywords: complementary roles, familyhood, folkloric wisdom male-female behaviour patterns,

INTRODUCTION

Gender disparities are common features in most African societies despite the 21st century call for gender equity. Previous literature was mostly informed by feminist theories that portray gender in duality, binary and hierarchical nature as imposed by culture, religion or other societal pressures. There are images which othered women and subordinated them to men that are drawn from literature (Gaidzanwa 1985, Taringa and Chirongoma, 2023). Oral literature is a relatively new field of study used by feminists to confront gender issues. The BaKalanga gender terrain as portrayed in their oral literature is yet to be explored hence the significance of this article. In fact, it may seem it is in traditional settings that clear and strong manifestation of patriarchal dominance and other cultural customs which push women to the periphery are found. Biblically, 1 Corinthians 11: 8&9 explicitly states that woman was created for man and henceforth is for man and not vice-versa. BaKalanga have a unique culture embedded in their oral literature and in some of these biblical translations. Thus, they also naturally distinguish between males and females. This paper examines images of women created through oral literature by making random selections from Kalanga three folktales, three proverbs, three taboos and three songs.  It seeks to explore portrayal of women with specific examples taken from an African culture system and in particular BaKalanga oral literature. From a sociological point of view, the reality that men and women co-exist in a patriarchal society translates to women generally taken as the weaker sex. Murdock speaks of superiority of men and the weaker woman in terms of physique hence leading to sexual and division of labour (Haralambos and Holborn, 2013). Culture is the frame of reference that serves as a moral campus from which participants create and recreate their social reality (Taringa & Chirongoma, 2023). The Kalanga culture is a framework for all ethnic group members and views their women as of a weaker nature in terms of physique and intellect than men. BaKalanga regard tradition as the main predictor of male-female differences although they neither see these differences as oppression nor negative in their everyday life.

Gender among Kalanga people

Gender relations are part of human and cultural discourse. It signifies constructed differences that may sometimes be unrelated to the human biological make-up however, follow gender role arrangements of communities. Hence, it builds on the physiology and anatomical setup depending on gender role arrangements of the community (Taringa & Chirongoma, 2023). In oral literature, gender perspectives refer to those categorizations of persons, artefacts, events and sequences which draw upon sexual imagery and how the distinctiveness of male/female characteristics make concrete people’s ideas about the nature of social relationships (Arola, 1998). Kassam (1996) and Arola (1998) concur that gender divisions are not fixed in biology, but relations are constructed in terms of power and dominance that structure the life of men and women based on socio-cultural values. Culture influences the behaviour patterns of male and females to match the creation mode as Genesis 1:27 states that male and female he created. This biblical representation/ culture orientation of males and females influence differences in thinking, language and behaviour. From this influence and in almost all societies while women are present in most social situations, they are hardly visible in state arenas (Agyepong, 2001). Globally, Feminism unveiled the enlightenment doctrine of human rights and voiced women’s rights such as those for property and ownership and education among others (Nurhayati, 2019). Proponents of this view argue that it is through culture conveyed in oral literature among other things that women find themselves placed in the invisible positions of society. They also believe that this attitude gained entry into African literature in terms of how women are portrayed as subjects of literary texts which are mainly male-oriented and male-created. They also strongly believe that culture/ traditions and religion of a people are inseparable. For Angelica-Nocoleta (2015), culture influences differences in thinking, language and behaviour. Gender cultural frameworks of reference act as a guide on right and wrong gender interactions. Kalanga culture like most patriarchal societies the world over, influences the pattern of male-female behaviour and hence treat the existence from creation differently. Taking from Murdock’s observation they view women as either weaker or softer than men. Men preside over hard work and important decisions, while women take care of issues that call for patience. Folktales, proverbs, taboos and songs set standards for life and serve as community tools that gender humanity in line with agreed norms. Referring to the Shona people, Taringa & Chirongoma, (2023) proclaim that community’s standards of wo/manhood are instilled and reinforced through operationalization of the tools.  This article is written against the background that globally, people are grappling with gender-related challenges which they were socialized into largely through religion and oral literature. The position of many scholars on gender issues posit that African women suffer all kinds of suppression and domination and it is true that women feel they are overshadowed by their male counterparts the world over. However, this article sets to uncover the intersectionality of gender, religion (both African Traditional Religion and Christianity) and gender-based violence (GBV) ‘pandemic’. It is herein called a ‘pandemic’ because the violence does not affect Kalanga community alone but all communities the world over.   The perpetrator of GBV ‘pandemic’ are the community designed tools that exert a hidden controlling hand that denies two gender complementarities. For example, Christianity through 1 Timothy 2:11 strongly recommends that a woman should learn quietly (from a man of course) with all submissiveness.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Gender studies are contemporarily viewed as cross-cutting issues affecting the way men and women relate to each other. This study employed the African relational ontology and the Africana Womanist theories to study the differences between men and women. The African relational ontology theory overrides on Ubuntu and states that humanity, living and non-living things descend from single parenthood (the creator). The theory clearly spells out that there are indispensable inter-relationships between male-female, living and non-living. The perspective relates to Africana Womanism a historical global perspective for women of African descent originating from the works of Hudson-Weems started in 1981. The perspective is family-centred and it declares that wo/manhood are complementary rather than competing entities.  In essence, it understands experiences

and struggles of African societies including BaKalanga. It confirms that men and women through oral literature are viewed differently, and women are relegated to domestic and minor arenas of society. The vivid differences were essential in marking the expectations of traditional roles men and women should do to assist each other in life though the gender boundary is fading in contemporary communities. If the two sexes were to do same work, then society would not be normal.  Hudson-Weems (2020) draws society to the attention of eighteen major tenets that revolve around the woman’s ethnicity and the desire to maintain familyhood ties. Whilst all tenets lay a foundation for male-female social relationships, for this discussion the following; family-centred, a flexible role-player, respectful of elders, recognized, mothering, nurturing, ambitious and in concert with the Africana man in struggle among others will shape the paper. The woman appreciates her different work and becomes a flexible role-player who works with ambition, respect and authenticity. The person notices the other as a necessary corollary of her/his being. Being descendants of one parenthood should nurture quality relationships defined by respect for familyhood ties.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Data was collected qualitatively through the use of semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Six elderly women and six men participants were selected to allow for active involvement in open oral literary discussions. The researcher assumed that their knowledge and life experiences were adequate and relevant to the topic under discussion. The women were selected for their folkloric wisdom and art of storytelling. Participant observation also complemented these identified methodologies since most Kalanga literature is still oral. The researcher participated in the daily life of the Kalanga community to gather detailed distinct insights of their practices orally.

Document analysis of written literature was done on the few documented folktales, proverbs, taboos and songs of BaKalanga in comparison with other African traditional societies within Zimbabwe and beyond. It is worth noting, however, that there is limited documentation of oral literature in Kalanga mainly because the Kalanga populace was taught Ndebele and they now regard Ndebele folktales, proverbs and traditional songs as theirs too. Those documents or extracts of literary work used by Kalanga to tame and shape their culture were analyzed too in this study. One of the greatest advantages of this method is that documents are non-obstructive and non-reactive.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

The study uncovered vivid male-female behaviour patterns through content analysis of Kalanga folktales, traditional songs and proverbs. Various examples and extracts from these were shared only to guide the discussion and expose apparent gender dissimilarities. Selected folklore defines and cements some behaviour characteristics between men and women among BaKalanga.

Women are portrayed as powerless and less intelligent

Females become helpless when they echo ideas that have no one to listen to. At most times they become helpless because of fear. Continued arguments usually end up being violent and punishable. It is a woman who is always a victim. This article refutes such gender-specific punishment that tends to naturalize traditional gender roles and constraints on women, and by placing ‘crime and punishment’ in the supernatural realm (Nurhayati, 2019). Besides the physical power associated with men, men are also accorded a higher status in knowledge creation. Luhulo strongly believed in what men think of women when they say women are incapable of sublime thoughts and high creativity too. From the folktale scenario, Kalanga men perceive good guidance and advice as that of other men and not females especially their wives.

Luhulo wakawana Jongwe wakanginisa n’holo mukati usingabon’we. Eba ebhuzwa kuti, “Kwatatjini Jongwe usina n’holo nasi.”

Jongwe: Usitjename Luhulo butjilo gwedu iswi boJongwe tokhona tuma miholo yedu equatorial mihingo kule neswi. Ndizo newangu wanohuhhila bana kafu.

Luhulo wakakuwana thama kwenkwinya kuli mano akanaka anohakabo.

Unoswika nekuswa hanhu eti kunkadzi; “undithubule n’holo wangu ndohaka wuntuma kun’hingo saJongwe”.

“Yemewhe! nohakofa kwatini? Jongwe oathable n’holo ndizo wayelebeleka nawe,” kujalo nkadzi. Luhulo wakamon’wa ekabudza nkadzi kuti ate kulikumbila.

Nkadzi wakatola hanhu ekathubula  n’holo, Luhulo kafa.

(folktale narrated by one participant: Luhulo naJongwe)

[Luhulo the hare finds Jongwe the cock without his head. He asks him, “What happened to your head?

Jongwe: Do not be surprised Luhulo, we Cocks can send our heads to run errands away from us. Henceforth, my head has gone to fend for the children

Luhulo found his friend’s deed a good idea to do too.

When he gets home, he sharpens his axe and tells his wife, “chop my head off; for I want to send it to work just like Jongwe’s”.

“Why do you want to die? Jongwe did not cut his head that’s why you spoke to him,” says his wife. Luhulo got agitated and tells her that it was not a request.

The wife took the axe and chopped off Luhulo’s head and he died.

Luhulo’s wife became powerless and killed her husband because she feared the consequences of not doing as commanded to which at most times is misconstrued as insubordination, disobedience or disrespectful. Nnamani, Uche and Otagaburuagu (2023) claim that women are regarded as less intelligent too.  From the folktale scenario, Kalanga men perceive good guidance and advice as that of other men and not females especially their wives. Kachel, Steffens and Niedlich (2016) also agree that power is associated with men. Therefore, Luhulo’s wife had no place to contradict with men’s ideas. The interviewees concurred that at times men ignore women’s ideas in public to protect their status quo. Talking about the Shona people, Makaudze (2015) states that the family’s food bank is the kitchen and the manager is the woman who decides on what to cook and on what has to be eaten by who. Henceforth, there is no woman who can oversee a food bank without food. In this regard, a woman is an economist hence cannot be less intelligent. Running of states the world over, is basically through the planning of intelligent economists. Male participants showed that women’s ideas are constructive even though they are used as afterthought ideas. One elderly man mentioned that men are emotionally weak and public arguments with women especially their wives attack their manhood and respect. This is why men react harshly to women so that they keep quiet.

Women are viewed as naturally inferior to men

Folktales largely reveal that women and men have different life experiences and roles which define male-female behaviour patterns as superior and inferior. Feminists’ ideas back the argument that the status of being a woman condemns her to domestic chores that are usually associated with a low socioeconomic status (Makaudze, 2015). Therefore, while men must work and earn a living to fend for their families, women looked after the homes and children. In this regard, it can be argued that being a wife entails that a woman bonds herself to a man and becomes subordinate to him. According to Nurhayati (2019), research holds that residing in the domestic sphere has been argued to block women from improvement that will only undermine women’s position. However, the question that arises in society is that if the two sexes have distinct roles, do they really manage to perform their duties to full satisfaction of the other? The other question, is that, if the woman becomes a complete subordinate without a role to play in socioeconomic circles, can a man fully fend for a passive woman to an extent that she lacks nothing? The study unveiled that in as much as men might want to fend for their families there is always need for a helping a hand. Hudson-Weems (2008) expects men and women to pair up and work in unison for the benefit of the family and this she called male compatibility. In fact, she claims that both sexes should be flexible role-players and mutually support the relationship. By doing this, there is a reduction of conflicts and problems. Interview discussions unpacked that if men are overwhelmed with household chores and regard themselves as failures, they make hasty and mostly wrong decisions. Luhulo’s reaction to having a restful day while someone is fending for the family showed that the role he played as head of family needed time off. The below extract speaks to this need to have assistance.

Jongwe: Usitjename Luhulo butjilo gwedu iswi boJongwe tokhona tuma miholo yedu ikatitila mihingo kule neswi. Ndizo newangu wanohuhhila bana kafu.

Luhulo wakakuwana thama kwenkwinya kuli mano akanaka anohakabo.

[Jongwe: Do not be surprised Luhulo, we Cocks can send our heads to run errands away from us. Henceforth, my head has gone to fend for the children.

Luhulo found his friend’s deed a good idea to do too.]

Earlier on, Opoku-Agymeng (1999) argued that an ideal wife is a good homemaker, selfless and hardworking, all in a quest to provide for the sustenance of the family. Contemporary society see a woman as an active contributor to the economic life of the family. The male participants also elaborated that generally, through socialization and from the global view of power concept, men are shy to share their failures with women.  They want to maintain their titles of heads of families and doing the most for family sustenance always. However, Hudson-Weems (2020) describes this man’s behaviour using her tenet of nurturing, where she expects both parties to do what must be done for family survival. She claims that this is a commitment grounded in and realized through a sense of history, familyhood and security. In this regard, such folktale literature needs to be rewritten to spread modern reality where a woman is an active helper. In Genesis 2:18 God saw it important to find man a helper called woman. Contemporary folktale need to acknowledge this role with active participation of a woman instead of a passive recipient of the men’s sweat.

Women viewed as objects of violence and/or as property

Characters in folktales encounter conflicts of various degrees and therefore, require making difficult decisions to resolve the conflicts. At times when men fight it will be protecting their territories and properties. Each man views his wife as a valuable property to fight for in case someone speaks ill of her. The folktale extract below explains one such scenario; Gudo the baboon and Luhulo the hare make comments over their wives’ expertise of beer brewing such that they end up fighting.

Luhulo: Tongondibudza yee!, nkadzikulu uwo wakazwaligwa kwagusingakulungiwe kani?

Gudo: Nobva neni! Unokubhaya ukawana nlumetate abetjirutaruta nelubakana.

Luhulo: Kati ngono wadanilani MaGwebu hapa enatjilumbi tjakajalo? Ibhilima loga nthariyo yaanobhikila banhu MaKhabo uwo.

Lakaloba likabhaya likapubula mumoyo waGudo.

Bakaswika bakadzimayi beseka zwabo…Luhulo wakati eti aguwabilile Gudo eba elabuka enatula nkabo ukasabhatika, yezo phaha pasi… Wakati tjopo Luhulo ekanoti nkaa nemeno patjinyala tjikulu tjaGudo. Iye … ekawakala luhaya gwaLuhulo nempama akayihhula yose. (as narrated by the folktale teller in ‘Kumbizi yaGudo’)

[Luhulo: Tell me!, was your wife born in a home where beer was not brewed?

Gudo: Why do you say so? She brews beer that can make a man drunk in no time.

Luhulo: Then why did she call my MaGwebu if she is that celebrated? She brews bad beer.

This annoyed Gudo greatly. The women arrived and laughingly …Luhulo tried to take the beer gourd… Gudo swiftly tried to snatch it unfortunately, he missed it. It fell and splashed beer…Luhulo stood up and bit Gudo’s big toe, who with pain slapped Luhulo very hard.]

This refutes African Relational Ontology and African womanist and confirms feminism’s gender animosity, hence derail the projected gender equality by 2030.  The excerpt contradicts reality in contemporary life in that, the woman is expected to be glamorous, behave kindly and gently and highly skilled in almost all domestic areas. Makaudze (2015) argues that the woman is looked upon as having the finest skills in almost all feminine duties that include cooking and home maintenance. There is no one who can be a jack of all trades, hence this is, non-existent in life’s normal settings, people depend upon one another for various trades even within a home setup. This expectation of perfection also led to some women pretending they are the best even when they were not, in fear of humiliating their husbands. Luhulo bluntly told Gudo’s wife that they are fighting over her and then asks MaKhabo to declare her secret of incompetence.

Bakadzikulu bakatjenama… Bakamimila kan’ompela … Bakalamugwa… Luhulo ekaba eti,”Togwila iwe MaKhabo, budza Gudo kuti gwabhikiwa nani busukwa igogu gwatjitebuka…

[The women were perplexed…They wailed loudly…The fight was stopped…Luhulo then said, “We are fighting for you MaKhabo, tell your husband, who brewed this beer we have just spilled…”]

Such an act humiliated the husband, and the woman could be subjected to physical abuse thereafter. The male participants confirmed that beer brewing was an important skill needed amongst all Kalanga women. Beer was a source of income, entertainment and most importantly used for appeasing the gods.  It was the responsibility of every man to see that good homemade beer was served before the gods and shared by family defined by totemic nature. In his fight Gudo was acting if he was protecting his wife’s skills and that he did not want her to be downgraded, yet in actual fact, it was his ego that he was protecting. The fight is against the 21^st century modernity goal which acknowledges that an individual who is not competent in a certain skill can seek the assistance of another or Google in order to perfect the skill needed. When work is done well, the individual retains the praise and not Google or the assistants. Gudo’s wife used Luhulo’s wife’s skills to retain her art of brewing and name which according to Africana Womanism is not wrong, what was wrong was Luhulo’s selfishness and jealous behavior.

Like an object for sell, the folktale reveals that woman’s expertise lends her beautiful names that make her famous, but it is still in these names that she is cheated of her fame by the same man who praises her. The wife is praised for cooking good meals, brewing beer, and cleanliness but all this praise is attached to his husband. It is the husband who has the name in the below example of a figuratively expressed praise comment; Nkadzi waLuhulo unogubhika gunotuta nyota yebanhutana (Luhulo’s wife brews beer that quenches the elderly men’s thirst). Mentioning Luhulo’s name first, attaches the woman to the man meaning that the wife cannot be praised outside Luhulo. Gudo was fighting for his fame too and not that of his wife. The above sentiments claim that all work done regarded as hard work and dignified is that done or attributed to a man. Luhulo wanted acknowledgement of his wife’s efforts in beer brewing which could also have led to his own fame too. This is what feminist proponents regard as the global cry of female oppression that leads women to the centre of the storm. Female identity crushed to celebrate male identity. Sustainable Development Goal 5.4 requires that women’s unpaid care and domestic work be valued and shared responsibility within the household and family be promoted. It takes an enlightened community, where each person notices the other as a necessary corollary of his being.

The men interviewed acknowledged this as tradition recognised at creation that property including wives belonged to men. However, they unanimously explained that this has nothing to do with degrading women’s efforts. They identified females who have defied normative codes and built very beautiful homes in Kalanga areas nowadays. The development is against the dominant trend of property ownership which Taringa and Chirongoma (2013) view as a new phenomenon of patriarchy since property that is not kitchenware was perceived to be of the husbands. The participants did not deny the fact that as parents they wished such home improvements to be co-owned by couples. One female participant indicated that this association or attachment to a man led to women making wrong choices. For most women stay up in non-beneficial unions for community respect attached to marriage. All participants confirmed that marriage showed commitment to familyhood even though changes in the institution are now embraced and adapted too, by both men and women. The tenet of adaptability is alluded to here. It explains that demands of the 21^st century require no separate space for a woman to nourish her needs and goals but that men and women must modify their lives together as a family. Henceforth, where there is no man in the family, it is not a crime for a woman to nourish those goals all by herself. Kalanga people have adapted to the reality that their unmarried daughters who are single mothers can compete with men in the construction of beautiful homes, despite the fact that, it is still every mother’s wish to see her daughter married one day. They have also adapted to the fact that good work is also collaborated work. The woman with or without a man can be glorified without destroying each other’s dignity, despite the fact that BaKalanga still believe a complete home has a mother, father and children. What is left is to change the narratives in the folktales so that women are also owners of the homesteads.

Women kept away from leadership positions

Senkoro (2005) argues that folklore of a people enables us to observe and behold varied people’s patterns of beliefs and customs. A people’s philosophy of life is revealed by way of folkloric wisdom. It is easier to see how people yield to certain pressures of life and how they solve certain socio-cultural conflicts respectively. He states that the voices of characters in folktales provide the means for us to share moral principles guiding a people’s social interaction. Unfortunately, women characters and ideas are not active in leading roles just like men’s, qualifying what according to Simone de Beauvoir (1989), is taking women as the ‘second sex’ or the ‘other’. It is in this light, that contemporary women view norms, values and traditions of the dominant patriarchy as imposed on them and everyone who lives on the periphery. Women are deliberately, kept away from participating in political and religious leadership, rituals and in prestigious roles. In the political sphere, women cast more votes for male nominees than for women. Kalanga contemporary women find themselves in the same dominated periphery, and despite being first borns, the male heir is always preferred.

Comparatively, Kabaji (2005) in his study of Maragoli folktale in Nigeria notes that little appreciation of the role of women in culture production is experienced. He views the idea that women are custodians of culture as mythical since there is no way women can uphold guardianship of a culture that they are not producing. The same can be said of a Kalanga woman especially in undertaking of rituals; it is the role of men to call upon the family ancestry and not the women. It is not surprising though that a Kalanga woman may age out and yet not know how to appease the ancestral spirits of her children because such practices segregate her.  All this can be shown in the extract below:

Lakati latewuka hhuba bekawhakala Tate Mihha bedanilila ose makombalume on’ha nebana kose nezwitodlana zwinoyila hhowu bekatungamila zila yekudala. Batategulu ndibo baka bakasenga tjoba lemwise waBhulomu yakati yabigiwa Batategulu Human’wa ikabhayiwa nebugwele ikafa banhu besakalingilila. Koyendiwa kudala wale kwenobhuzwiwa kuti kwakayenda tjini. Baka babva baloba pasi neswimbo Batategulu kuti uwhoyu un’hingo usingahake ntaya. Konopigwa midzimu neben’ha koga …

(Yakwagwa selebgwa kwayo naK. Sibanda ‘Whombalume Ludzi’)

[Late afternoon, Tate Mhihha was heard calling all the clan’s men and children whose totem is the elephant. He led them to the traditional ancestry spot. Grandfather was carrying Bhulomu’s tail-end who at being anointed Grandfather Human’wa died mysteriously. They are going to the ancestry spot to find answers. Grandfather had emphasised that this function needed no strangers. It was a moment of appeasing the spirits as clansmen only…]

The extract shows that in serious matters of ancestry rituals, the married woman is regarded a stranger at a function presided by her husband and with her children as participants. Her work ends at brewing beer and cooking for the function. Hence, Kabaji (2005) states that although the African woman appears worshipped and put on a pedestal as Mother Africa, mother earth, the goddess of love, the woman is not accorded enough opportunity to participate in the production of culture. Some human rights are violated hence the gendered impact of marginalisation on females. The woman’s voice is suppressed, and her greatest participation is limited to domestic space. A married woman is neither a participant of cultural nor ritual practices carried out at both her matrimonial and biological home because of surname loss and yet even the new surname she adopts does not warrant her participation in rituals. From a Christian background however, the 21^st century has seen women going against the men of the cloak. Ladies in selected denominations are also sworn in or ordained as ministers.

Women as mothers, traitors or lazy

Another folktale was of a married woman who worked hard in the fields but could not yield bumper harvests because of some evil bird. This made her husband very angry concluding that the woman tilled little land because of laziness. One day he accompanied her to the fields not to help her but to validate the mystery bird story. Nyoni ntjantjaza is the folktale showing the need to respect a woman who works hard to benefit the family. The husband had failed to get any employment in the city and as he re-joined his wife back home, celebrated with her the fortunes she gathered during his absence. For despite being discouraged by the bird, the woman tirelessly saved the little that she harvested for the whole family to enjoy which is evidence of resilience. When the mystery bird was caught and however, cunningly escaped, the tribulations the woman suffered from both his husband and her in-laws did not correspond with the moral attributes of the story. African daughters-in-law commit to hard work to serve the whole family.

Kalanga women strongly believe that husbands should work in the cities while they remain in rural homes accumulating wealth through tilling the land and other domestic chores. However, in the folktale, the man views himself as having the right to all property accrued by the wife during his absence hence, he strongly blames his wife for the bird that escaped. The woman at the same time felt betrayed by her husband who after catching the evil bird secretly hid it from her. The man used the bird for his benefit since from it, he got sour milk which he sold.  However, when his wife learnt of the truth and mistakenly freed the bird, she was severely punished. The family members did not support her. It is from the story that the woman’s role is relegated to domestic chores. The man disregards his wife’s worthiness to look after the whole family through tilling the land, yet the folktale explicitly states that the woman managed to put together a lot of crops despite that the evil bird would come and destroy some of her good work overnight. The produce she got was shared with everyone and even when the husband came back home empty handed she did not complain.

Traditionally, men must exude physical, emotional and financial strength of the family. However, according to Hudson-Weems (2008), they must not misuse the physical prowess to inflict violence on their female counterparts. The folktale resembles Kalanga life where some men migrate to neighbouring countries or to the Diaspora, spend more than ten years only to come home or be deported empty-handed. The men with the help of relatives and neighbours find faults with their wives who during their absence held the family together as symbolised by the evil bird excreting sour milk. The petty fights end up destroying the peace the home should experience. While folktales of this nature condemn behaviour patterns of men over women, they warn families of gender-based violence instigated by external forces that destroy family unions.

Fonchigong (2006) argues that traditional and Biblical representation of the Adam-Eve metaphor is one aspect where oral literature emanates and gains its patriarchal domination. A woman is an adjunct to a man rather than an existential entity in her own right. This is the interface of folklore and Christianity. The 21^st century families are into Christianity. Therefore to him, belief in folklore teachings also gets its strength from such interfaces according. In this way, women are denigrated through beliefs and mythical representations.

Women as evil, untrustworthy or witches

In African societies, proverbs serve two distinct functions, the superficial and the deeper and philosophical meanings which although sometimes related might relay very parallel meanings to different people. Ngugi wa Thiongo and wa Mirii (1980) used proverbs to downgrade women’s efforts. For example, the proverb ‘Two women are two pots of poison’ speaks on the character of a woman. From a general point of view, one can view a woman’s contribution as poison rather than as constructive. Poison kills, therefore equating what a woman contributes as a killer explicitly portrays her negatively as a partner of culture production. The idiomatic expressions ‘Women cannot keep secret’ and ‘A woman’s word is believed after the event’ portray women as untrustworthy. Men are even bluntly told not to take woman talk seriously. People who cannot keep secrets are gossip mongers who spearhead trouble. In this vein, therefore, a woman is depicted as a piece of trouble. Such proverbs disempower women as equal human beings with men yet SDG5 yearns for the attainment of gender equality by 2030. Women are viewed as witches who can easily poison and cause trouble. The interviewees unanimously agreed that proverbs are used to tame the tongue and safeguard societal secrets and not necessarily to disempower females despite the emotional stress they deposit on the woman of whom they are used on.

Kalanga proverbs also do not spare the woman’s character as bestowed to her by the male world. One proverb that attack the woman’s beauty and disempower her is ‘Damba lakanaka lakabola’ (A beautiful (ripe fruit) damba is rotten) or synonymously equated to the English proverb ‘All that glitters is not gold’. Beauty amongst women in the African context is glorified. The women’s pride and joy lie in their beauty that is why they straighten and plait their hair, paint their lips, and apply whitening creams on their faces. This proverb when told teaches men not to go after such ornamental beauty when courting for marriage. In this way, the woman who paints herself for beauty is disempowered since her intentions are construed as those of a prostitute.

Other examples of proverbs that discredit women are: ‘Swimbo yakanaka inotemewa kuhango dzikule’ (A good knobkerrie is that which is got from faraway places), ‘Ndoti imbizi ndabona mabala’ (I will say it’s a zebra after seeing its colours). The first proverb tells the men to forego all ladies in their locality if they desire to marry since nothing good can come out of their locality. Boys thus, will test their virility using local girls but marry from elsewhere. The second one protects the man who has impregnated a woman out of wedlock or before marriage and does not want to take responsibility. He thus says he will confirm the pregnancy if at birth the infant resembles him. Both proverbs leave a woman at the mercy of man. There is no guarantee that the child should always resemble the father at birth. The position refutes relational ontology and Africana Womanist theory and poses women as sex objects with no value in themselves unless they have children. The interviewees had varying views on the philosophical meaning of the proverbs. However, with close analysis and taking it from the tenet authentic, proverbs assist in behaviour moulding and in this case they reduce premarital sex. When a girl thinks of who is of marriage material to the local boy, she will then say ‘No’ to premarital sex.

The traditional wedding songs Londolozela and Simthethe are songs adopted by Kalanga people for traditional weddings. The songs speak to the woman character too:

Londolozel’ umama                                         Praise ye mother

Uma eloya abuye                                            If she is a witch bring her back

Sizomlaya kabutsha                                        To counsel her again

and

Simthethe ebunyameni                                    We have taken her from darkness

Samletha ekukhanyeni                                     And brought her to light

The wedded woman is feared of witchcraft at her in-laws, an action that might see her returning to her parents’ home for counselling. The songs also speak of marriage as an elevation of the woman’s status that is, removed from darkness to light. In other words, marriage is like graduating from poverty to civilisation. The driving force of BaKalanga marrying their daughters into polygamous marriages was the man’s kraal. The number of cattle the man had, counted more than the love he could have for their daughter. In this light, with all these powers bestowed on the man, the woman is still seen as an object that can be manipulated by man. Having noted that ‘married women lack decision making power over their sexual and reproductive health and right’, SDG5.2 aims to eliminate such forms of violence that exploit women sexually in a quest to undertake reforms that empower women in all spheres. Through the songs, the woman indeed expected new and sophisticated lifestyles through marriage as shown below:

Kwayi tobona pagele mwana              We have come to see where our daughter stays

Kene wakabhika kene wakaluba        Whether she is indeed married or a passerby

Kene unzi kene unzana                       Whether it’s a real or mediocre home

A rich home assured families of an everlasting marriage of their daughters. Semi-rich homes were associated with instability. BaKalanga share in the belief that most disputes are financial that is, if couples are broke they tend to fight more. Traditional Kalanga men hence deny giving their daughters in marriage to any home or men not economically strong in terms of money or cattle. The participants shared in that marriage is a positive relationship where each party should feel secure and worthy. They said the drift shared in the songs is to create humour for celebration. All the participants however, denied that wealth should be the yardstick for a sufficient and prosperous marriage especially in these modern years where women have the autonomy to go to work and be salaried just like men.  Hudson-Weems (2008) claims that men and women need each other for a number of attributes that benefit the whole family.

Taboos are also one form of oral literature used to tame behaviours between women and men. Gyekye (1997) explains taboos as any sort of prohibitions regarding certain times, places, actions, events and people. In the African context (Kalanga people included) taboos are embedded in the African traditional religion and culture whose violation had punishment often linked to the Supreme Being. Taboos formed the local knowledge and remain the most sacred part of traditional societies for moral uprightness.  However, with closer analysis, it was the behaviour of the woman that was guided by men since most of them ridiculed woman’s behaviours as if they are the only ones with wayward behaviours. The following taboos had various limitations on women behaviour. They also exposed her womanhood which is supposed to be her secret hence disarming her of her public confidence.

Koyila palama pakati kwen’ombe wakazwisenga [It is forbidden to go across a herd of cattle while pregnant].

Koyila mbala tjiyambalo tjenlume usinlume. [It is forbidden to wear clothes designed for men (trousers)].

Koyila bhikila banhu zodliwa ulimulubaka/Koyila yenda kutshipi ulimulubaka. [It is forbidden to cook food for the family while menstruating./ It is forbidden to go to church while menstruating].

The taboo system permeated all spheres of human endeavour leading to some mission schools still feeling wearing of slacks for girls is inappropriate in the 21^st century. Some churches for example the Zion Apostolic churches still regard a lady on her menstrual cycles unclean to do work both at work and at home. This disempower a woman physically and emotionally. The participants alluded to such practices taking it from Biblical laws for example; a woman is forbidden to wear men’s garments (Deuteronomy 22:5). Menstruating women are also considered ritually impure (Leviticus 15:19-33). However, some of these practices have been modified save for rigid mission schools and churches according to the participants’ views and field observations.

Kalanga folklores in the 21^st Century

The Kalanga community is not stagnant given gender reforms that affect men and women the world over. Folktales, proverbs, taboos and songs should be open to adaptation and evolution for them to be relevant and effective in the 21^st century. If the aim of their use is for society coherence, then there is need to critically analyse them so that they help preserve heritage and transmit positive values always rather than detrimental gender stereotypes. Education has increased people’s awareness especially on shared responsibilities within the home setup. Despite the folktales relegating women to the home set up, women are nowadays entrepreneurially oriented, those who are not gainfully employed are seen doing income generating projects. Widows are not remarrying to prove that they can resource themselves. These activities denote a change in traditional Kalanga practices that were perpetuated through oral literature. Triandis (1995) also talks of a great shift from collectivism to individualism leading to more independence for women. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979) and the National Constitution for Zimbabwe (2013) hold various rights that empower both women and men in terms of education, property rights, marriage rights and many more. Zimbabwe is a signatory to many global humanitarian reforms on gender equality which do not spare the Kalanga folkloric wisdom. UNICEF’s Girls Education Initiative called Girl child movement aims to promote girl’s empowerment at tender ages. The research participants confirmed that while Kalanga folkloric wisdom shape gendered behaviours vivid moderations are noted. Rather than the Nyoni ntjantjaza woman working tirelessly and single-handedly in the fields for the benefit of the whole family and her efforts not fully recognised, modern men and women are working in unison. The participants also highlighted that the contemporary Kalanga community has modernised their weddings and the derogating traditional songs are rarely sung for the 21^st century couples. On taboos, rural life is fast taken up by urbanisation. The young stock mainly stays in towns hence some taboos no longer solely speak to the life they mingle with. They need to intertwine preindustrial society values and modern to hold together the young and the old.

Learning Points

Taking oral literature indiscriminately is dangerous arrogance that is likely to reverse gender milestones achieved so far. Therefore, there is documentation cry of marginalised languages’ oral literature. The raw stories as told from creation cannot continue to be told in their original form Therefore, education rather than radical movements is crucial to the liberation of women’s lives in terms of culture and power. It is necessary to show this aspect in literature since writers can use it as a powerful tool to educate the perceptive reader. Education liberates women from snares of culture that is followed without question, not analysed and reviewed despite the consideration that culture is dynamic. It enables males and females to recognise that roles in society need not to contrast but work in harmony for the betterment of society. Nyoni ntjantjaza portrays the woman as a symbol of power and control. It is not many women who can endure such treatment but because she remained respectful of the elders and family tempers gradually cooled down. Such stories can be cemented with various practical illustrations to show change in emotions and not disrespect.

Some of the materials that are prescribed as course books and set books in the schools with scenarios in them serving as role models perpetuate negative gender role models for learners. Non-conformity is lack of Ubuntu, yet Ubuntu has a key principle of respect which is often violated through undermining womanhood. The hidden hand of culture is continuously causing a dilemma as shown mostly in the progress report of sustainable development goal number 5 updated 2022. The report explicitly states that the world is not on track to achieve gender equality by 2030. For example, it states that there is 286 years to go to close gaps in legal protection and remove discriminatory laws. This shows that culture and religion are still tools governing the discrimination between males and women. The discrimination according to this article which is recorded as complementary rather than competing roles. It is therefore necessary for oral literature, guided by modern education, urbanisation and global practices to be tailor-made to suit these complementary roles.  Oral literature of every traditional society is its intangible heritage not to be lost however, it should be continuously adapted so that it does not become obsolete amongst younger generations.

CONCLUDING ANALYSIS

The article uncovers portrayal of gender, culture, African Traditional Religion and Gender Based Violence ‘pandemic’. The dignity of women is constantly under attack despite the run-up to projected deadline of SDG goal 5 of Gender equality by 2030. According to African culture, power in women is deemed unbecoming and so aspirations for status are deemed unladylike. Kalanga gendered oral literature aim to align and fix duties for men and women. Folktales and songs are perceived not as folksy domestic entertainment but rather as sites from which performers articulate a commentary upon power relations in marital relationships. In this way, the woman forfeits personal empowerment in order to be seen as conforming to cultural expectations of her community to be accepted. Although, proverbs are distinct and differentiate women’s characters and behaviours from men, they are used for guidance and counselling to safeguard gender relations in operation between men and women. Taken from Taringa and Chirongoma (2023), gender aspects despite being in violation of human rights sometimes often endure because they are neither questioned nor challenged. In this regard, they are viewed as natural and biological yet they are creations of the mind.

 Oral literature is presented in terms of cultural images and/or symbolic representations that mirror social realities of traditional societies. One’s place, one’s space and one’s role is explicitly defined in oral literature. It was and remains oral literature’s duty to uphold sexual differences as spelt out by the societal value system. Various ethnic groups in Zimbabwe including Kalanga still value oral literature. Achieving a high level of education and understanding of male-female social relationships by both Kalanga women and men will reduce the impact of competition that the context of climate change have described as male-female oppression  dominance in all spheres of human life.

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