Influence of Head-Teachers’ Instructional Supervision Practices on Teacher Performance in Primary Schools in Ghana: An Integrated Theoretical Model

Influence of Head-Teachers’ Instructional Supervision Practices on Teacher Performance in Primary Schools in Ghana: An Integrated Theoretical Model

Robert Akpalu¹, Jeanette Owusu², Emmanuel Ayisi Asare³, Peter Agyekum Boateng⁴

^1,3School of Education, Valley View University, Ghana

^2,4School of Business, Valley View University, Ghana

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0012

Received: 01 January 2025; Accepted: 04 January 2025; Published: 03 February 2025

INTRODUCTION

Instructional supervision is a cornerstone of educational leadership, playing a vital role in shaping teaching quality and enhancing student outcomes. In Ghanaian primary schools, head-teachers bear the critical responsibility of supervising classroom instruction, mentoring teachers, and ensuring adherence to educational standards. These duties require head-teachers to be both instructional leaders and managers, balancing administrative responsibilities with efforts to foster professional growth among their staff (Ampofo et al., 2019). Effective instructional supervision has been linked to improved teacher performance, which directly impacts student learning and achievement (Namudhiba & Ssendagi, 2024).

Despite its importance, the implementation of instructional supervision in Ghana faces significant systemic challenges. Resource constraints, such as insufficient instructional materials and overcrowded classrooms, hinder head-teachers’ ability to conduct meaningful supervision. Additionally, limited professional development opportunities for head-teachers undermine their capacity to adopt modern supervisory practices that could elevate teaching quality (Kusi et al., 2019; Mensah et al., 2020). The lack of consistent policy frameworks further exacerbates these issues, leaving head-teachers without the necessary guidance and support to execute their roles effectively (Msuya & Mwila, 2023).

Research underscores the need for a more structured approach to instructional supervision, particularly in resource-constrained contexts. Studies in Ghana have revealed that head-teachers often prioritize administrative tasks over instructional leadership due to their overwhelming workloads (Dewodo et al., 2020). Furthermore, some head-teachers struggle with building trust among teachers, as supervision is sometimes perceived as a fault-finding mission rather than a collaborative effort to improve teaching practices (Mensah et al., 2020). This perception creates a disconnect between supervisors and teachers, limiting the effectiveness of supervision in enhancing teacher performance.

Globally, effective instructional supervision has been shown to foster a culture of continuous improvement in schools. In contexts similar to Ghana, head-teachers who employ participatory and supportive supervisory practices have seen significant improvements in teaching quality and student outcomes (Baafi, 2020). These practices include frequent classroom observations, constructive feedback, and the facilitation of professional learning communities. Adopting such practices in Ghanaian primary schools could address existing challenges and bridge the gap between current supervision practices and desired educational outcomes.

This study situates these challenges within the broader educational landscape of Ghana, aiming to explore how head-teachers’ instructional supervision practices influence teacher performance. By examining the interplay of systemic, motivational, and leadership factors, this research seeks to propose actionable strategies that align with both local educational priorities and global standards, particularly Sustainable Development Goal 4, which advocates for inclusive and equitable quality education (Dewodo et al., 2020; Ampofo et al., 2019).

Teacher performance in Ghanaian primary schools is hindered by challenges such as limited feedback mechanisms, inadequate professional development opportunities, and a lack of instructional resources. Studies highlight the need for head-teachers to adopt targeted supervisory practices that address these issues and align with both local and global educational priorities (Ghanney & Nuobalee, 2021; Namudhiba & Ssendagi, 2024). Additionally, the absence of a cohesive theoretical framework that integrates supervisory practices with motivational and systemic factors has left a gap in understanding how to optimize teacher performance effectively (Kusi et al., 2019).

This study aims to explore the influence of head-teachers’ instructional supervision practices on teacher performance in Ghanaian primary schools. By incorporating Systems Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, it seeks to develop an integrated model that addresses the systemic, motivational, and leadership dimensions of instructional supervision. The study will analyze key supervisory practices, such as lesson observations and teacher mentoring, to propose actionable strategies for enhancing teaching effectiveness and student outcomes.

The findings of this study are expected to contribute significantly to the field of educational leadership by providing a multi-theoretical perspective on instructional supervision. The study will offer practical recommendations for policymakers and educators to strengthen supervisory practices, thereby improving teaching quality and student achievement. Furthermore, the research aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 4, which aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education, and supports Ghana’s educational reforms to enhance teacher performance (Dewodo et al., 2020; Ampofo et al., 2019).

This study employs a theoretical and conceptual approach based on a systematic review of peer-reviewed journals, case studies, and policy documents. The research integrates Systems Theory to analyze systemic interdependencies, Transformational Leadership Theory to examine leadership behaviors, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory to explore teacher motivation. These frameworks will provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between instructional supervision and teacher performance in Ghanaian primary schools.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for this study integrates three core theories: Systems Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, to provide a robust lens for examining head-teachers’ instructional supervision practices and their influence on teacher performance in primary schools in Ghana.

Systems Theory emphasizes the interdependence and interconnectedness of various components within an organization (Khuzwayo, 2020). In the context of primary schools, this theory underscores how head-teachers’ supervision practices interact with other elements such as teacher behavior, school policies, and community dynamics to influence educational outcomes (Bui & Galanou, 2022). The theory’s core concepts, including feedback loops, adaptability, and systemic interrelations, offer a holistic perspective on the school environment. It highlights that any inefficiency in supervision practices can disrupt the entire system, affecting both teacher performance and student outcomes. Systems Theory facilitates an understanding of how head-teachers can align their practices with broader systemic goals, ensuring cohesive and efficient functioning (Carr-Chellman & Chellman, 2020).

Transformational Leadership Theory focuses on the role of visionary leaders in inspiring and motivating their teams to achieve shared goals (Sharpe & Cobb, 2020). In education, head-teachers who embody transformational leadership qualities create an empowering environment that fosters teacher motivation and professional growth. By providing mentorship, recognizing achievements, and establishing a culture of continuous improvement, head-teachers can significantly enhance teacher performance. Research suggests that transformational leadership is particularly effective in resource-constrained environments, as it relies on intrinsic motivation and innovative problem-solving rather than material resources (Khuzwayo, 2020; Zhang & Zhao, 2022).

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory differentiates between intrinsic motivators, such as recognition and achievement, and extrinsic hygiene factors, like working conditions and policies (Sepúlveda et al., 2022). This theory provides insights into how instructional supervision practices influence teacher satisfaction and retention. For example, constructive feedback and opportunities for professional development serve as motivators that improve teacher engagement and performance. On the other hand, poor supervision, lack of support, and inadequate resources act as hygiene factors that contribute to dissatisfaction and hinder performance. Integrating Herzberg’s theory into this study allows for a nuanced analysis of the psychological dimensions of teacher motivation (Bui & Galanou, 2022).

Rationale for Theoretical Integration: The integration of these theories provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the multifaceted nature of instructional supervision. Systems Theory offers a macro-level view of the school as an interconnected system, while Transformational Leadership Theory focuses on the leadership practices of head-teachers. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory adds a psychological dimension, emphasizing the role of motivation and satisfaction in shaping teacher performance. Together, these theories address the systemic, leadership, and motivational aspects of instructional supervision, enabling a deeper understanding of its impact on educational outcomes.

Proposed Integrated Theoretical Model

The proposed integrated theoretical model combines Systems Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory into a cohesive framework for enhancing head-teachers’ instructional supervision practices in Ghanaian primary schools. This model emphasizes the dynamic relationships between systemic structures, leadership practices, and motivational factors, offering a holistic perspective on their collective influence on teacher performance and educational outcomes. Systems Theory highlights the interconnected nature of school environments, where components such as policy frameworks, resource allocation, and community engagement shape the effectiveness of instructional supervision. Changes in one area, such as resource availability, can create ripple effects throughout the system, influencing teacher and student performance. Addressing systemic challenges, such as resource shortages and policy gaps, is essential for fostering an environment conducive to effective supervision.

Transformational Leadership Theory underscores the role of head-teachers as change agents who inspire and empower teachers. Practices such as mentoring, providing feedback, and recognizing teacher achievements foster professional growth and instructional quality. These leadership strategies also mitigate systemic challenges by creating a supportive culture that promotes collaboration and innovation, which directly enhances teacher motivation and engagement. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory adds a psychological dimension to the model, focusing on how intrinsic factors, like recognition and achievement, and extrinsic conditions, such as working environments and policy support, influence teacher satisfaction. A supportive supervisory environment that addresses both intrinsic and extrinsic needs ensures that teachers remain motivated and effective in their roles.

The model’s components are interconnected through feedback loops that highlight the dynamic and reciprocal relationships between systemic, leadership, and motivational factors. For example, resource shortages can reduce leadership effectiveness and teacher engagement, while strong leadership can address systemic gaps and foster motivation. These loops illustrate how targeted improvements in one area can amplify positive outcomes across the system.

Fig. 1 features three overlapping circles representing Systems Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. The overlaps depict the interactions between systemic factors, leadership practices, and motivational dimensions, with the central overlap highlighting teacher performance as the ultimate outcome. Feedback loops, represented by connecting arrows, further emphasize the interplay between these components.

Practically, this model provides a roadmap for identifying leverage points within the school system. It highlights actionable areas such as improving leadership training, addressing systemic barriers, and fostering teacher motivation. By aligning leadership, policy, and community efforts, this framework equips stakeholders to implement effective instructional supervision practices, ultimately leading to sustainable improvements in teacher performance and educational outcomes.

Fig. 1: Proposed Integrated Theoretical Model

LITERATURE REVIEW

Instructional supervision encompasses practices aimed at enhancing teaching quality and improving learning outcomes. These practices include classroom observations, mentorship, provision of constructive feedback, and performance evaluations. Globally, the role of instructional supervision has shifted from authoritative oversight to collaborative support that fosters professional development and instructional excellence (Ampofo et al., 2019). In Ghana, however, supervision often remains traditional, emphasizing compliance rather than teacher empowerment (Kusi et al., 2019). Limited training for head-teachers and resource constraints further hinder the implementation of effective supervision practices, especially in rural areas (Namudhiba & Ssendagi, 2024). Regional trends in Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that head-teachers who employ participatory supervision approaches see improved teacher engagement and classroom practices (Ibyimana et al., 2023). These approaches include mentoring programs and peer observations, which foster mutual learning among teachers. Despite systemic challenges, instructional supervision remains critical to addressing teaching inefficiencies and enhancing educational outcomes in Ghanaian primary schools (Dewodo et al., 2020).

Teacher performance is a multifaceted construct encompassing instructional delivery, classroom management, and professional growth. These metrics are essential for assessing the effectiveness of instructional practices and identifying areas for improvement. Globally, performance measurement relies on tools such as classroom observations, student surveys, and value-added models, which evaluate the impact of teaching on student outcomes (Bacher-Hicks et al., 2019). In resource-constrained settings like Ghana, challenges such as large class sizes, limited resources, and insufficient training complicate accurate performance assessment (Wu, 2020). In Sub-Saharan Africa, frameworks for teacher performance often emphasize practical competencies, such as lesson planning, instructional clarity, and classroom interaction (Shindo et al., 2023). Moreover, technological tools, including data mining algorithms and sentiment analysis of student feedback, have emerged as innovative approaches to evaluating teacher effectiveness (Bhowmik et al., 2024). Despite advancements, the integration of cultural and contextual factors remains critical to developing comprehensive and equitable metrics that align with local education priorities.

Head-teachers play a pivotal role in shaping teacher performance through effective instructional supervision. Their responsibilities include observing classroom teaching, providing feedback, facilitating professional development, and ensuring adherence to curricular standards (Salundaguit & Peñas, 2019). Effective supervision practices have been linked to improved teaching strategies, enhanced classroom management, and better student outcomes (Go & Eslabon, 2023). In Ghana, head-teachers often face challenges such as inadequate training, limited resources, and excessive administrative duties, which hinder their ability to perform supervisory roles effectively (Ampofo et al., 2019). Leadership styles, such as transformational leadership, empower teachers by fostering motivation, recognition, and a culture of continuous improvement (Eyana et al., 2024). Participatory approaches, where head-teachers collaborate with teachers in decision-making, have been shown to improve job satisfaction and instructional quality (Zikanga et al., 2021).

Studies in Sub-Saharan Africa reveal that head-teachers who prioritize professional development through mentoring and workshops significantly enhance teacher competencies (Muchiri, 2020). However, systemic barriers, including policy constraints and funding limitations, necessitate a balance between administrative responsibilities and instructional supervision to sustain improvements in teacher performance (Hayati et al., 2023).

Empirical research has consistently highlighted the importance of head-teachers’ supervision in enhancing teacher performance and academic outcomes in primary schools. Studies conducted in Kenya and Rwanda have demonstrated significant correlations between head-teachers’ supervisory practices, such as classroom observations and feedback, and improved teacher instructional strategies and student performance (Mutambuki & Njuguna, 2022; Nsengimana et al., 2024). Head-teachers’ involvement in monitoring lesson plans, syllabi coverage, and instructional materials was found to directly influence teachers’ classroom management and teaching effectiveness (Habiyeze & Ngabonziza, 2024).

In Ghana, recent research has shown that head-teachers’ leadership in supervision substantially impacts teachers’ job satisfaction and role performance, especially in under-resourced schools (Ampofo et al., 2019). Furthermore, a study from Tanzania reported that supervisory practices, such as timely feedback and collaborative goal-setting, contribute to professional development and better learning outcomes. Similar findings in Rwanda revealed that supervision positively impacts teacher competence and student achievement, emphasizing the need for frequent evaluations and robust feedback mechanisms (Baafi, 2020). These studies underscore the critical role of head-teachers as instructional leaders, advocating for targeted training and resource allocation to enhance their supervisory capacity. Future research should focus on integrating technology to optimize supervision practices and bridge gaps in resource-constrained settings.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section examines the findings of the study, highlighting effective instructional supervision practices, their impact on teacher performance, the barriers faced in their implementation, and a systemic analysis using Systems Theory.

Key Instructional Supervision Practices and Impact

The study identifies several effective instructional supervision practices, including real-time feedback, collaborative lesson planning, and peer mentoring. Real-time feedback enables teachers to refine their instructional techniques promptly, enhancing classroom engagement and student learning outcomes. For instance, teachers who receive actionable feedback are better equipped to adapt to diverse classroom challenges, leading to improved teaching quality (Ampofo et al., 2019; Kusi et al., 2019). Collaborative lesson planning fosters alignment between head-teachers and teachers on curriculum goals, ensuring consistency in instructional delivery. This approach also promotes the sharing of best practices, which can elevate overall teaching standards (Mensah et al., 2020). Peer mentoring further supports professional growth by encouraging knowledge exchange and the adoption of innovative pedagogical methods, making teachers more effective and resilient in their roles (Namudhiba & Ssendagi, 2024). Despite these benefits, implementation is often hindered by resource constraints, such as insufficient teaching aids and limited access to professional development programs. These limitations reduce the efficacy of even the most well-designed supervision practices (Msuya & Mwila, 2023).

Impact on Teacher Performance

Instructional supervision directly influences teacher performance by enhancing instructional quality, classroom management, and professional development. Teachers under consistent and supportive supervision exhibit improved lesson planning, effective classroom control, and greater engagement with students (Dewodo et al., 2020). Conversely, a lack of consistent supervision or the use of punitive approaches negatively impacts teacher morale and job satisfaction, ultimately reducing overall performance (Ghanney & Nuobalee, 2021). Transformational leadership practices adopted by head-teachers, such as mentoring and recognizing achievements, have been associated with higher teacher motivation and a willingness to adopt innovative teaching methods (Ibyimana et al., 2023).

Barriers to Effective Supervision

The study highlights several structural and systemic barriers to effective supervision. High student-to-teacher ratios make it difficult for head-teachers to provide personalized feedback and support. Inadequate instructional materials further compound these challenges, as teachers often lack the basic tools necessary for effective teaching (Kusi et al., 2019). Systemic issues, such as insufficient training for head-teachers and gaps in policy frameworks, exacerbate these problems. Many head-teachers lack the expertise required to implement modern supervisory practices effectively, limiting their ability to positively influence teacher performance (Msuya & Mwila, 2023).

Application of Systems Theory

Using Systems Theory, the study analyzes the interplay between instructional supervision practices, teacher performance, and systemic constraints. Feedback loops within the school environment demonstrate how changes in supervision practices can ripple through the system, influencing teacher behavior and, subsequently, student outcomes. For example, resource shortages create bottlenecks that undermine supervision effectiveness, while strong leadership practices can mitigate these systemic challenges. Addressing such bottlenecks requires coordinated efforts from policymakers, educators, and community stakeholders (Carr-Chellman & Chellman, 2020).

Holistic Insights and Recommendations

The findings underscore the critical role of instructional supervision in fostering a supportive environment for teachers. Effective supervision practices, when combined with strategic interventions to address systemic challenges, create a conducive atmosphere for professional growth and enhanced teaching quality. The holistic application of Systems Theory highlights the importance of integrating leadership, motivational, and systemic dimensions to achieve sustainable improvements in teacher performance and educational outcomes. While this study provides a robust theoretical framework, its findings would be greatly enhanced by empirical research. Conducting surveys or case studies with head-teachers and teachers could validate the proposed model and offer practical examples of its application. Such evidence would strengthen the model’s relevance and provide actionable insights into its effectiveness in real-world settings.

Implications

The findings of this study have far-reaching implications for educational leadership, policy development, teacher professional growth, and community engagement in Ghanaian primary schools. These implications are rooted in the intricate relationships between head-teachers’ instructional supervision practices, teacher performance, and the systemic and structural challenges outlined in the findings.

Educational Leadership: In terms of educational leadership, head-teachers play a central role in shaping environments that prioritize teaching excellence and continuous professional growth. The study underscores the importance of transformative leadership practices, such as mentoring, real-time feedback, and collaborative problem-solving. To implement these practices effectively, leadership development programs should be designed to equip head-teachers with advanced supervisory skills. For example, training workshops focusing on data-driven feedback, peer mentoring, and conflict resolution could enhance their ability to address the complex challenges within their schools. The success of such initiatives can be evaluated by assessing improvements in head-teachers’ competencies through pre- and post-training evaluations.

Policy Development: From a policy perspective, the study highlights the need for standardized frameworks that promote uniform and effective instructional supervision across schools. These policies should address disparities in resource allocation and prioritize professional development for head-teachers. Policymakers must ensure that educational budgets allocate sufficient funds for training and equipping head-teachers with essential tools. Additionally, developing comprehensive policy manuals that outline best practices in instructional supervision would provide head-teachers with clear guidelines. Monitoring the implementation and impact of these policies through regular reviews and audits can help maintain accountability and alignment with national educational goals.

Teacher Professional Development: Teacher professional development emerges as a key area influenced by effective instructional supervision. Structured feedback mechanisms and peer mentoring programs are critical for fostering teacher growth and improving classroom practices. Schools should establish professional learning communities (PLCs) to encourage collaboration among teachers, enabling them to share best practices and receive constructive guidance from head-teachers. These communities would foster a culture of continuous improvement and innovation in teaching. The effectiveness of these initiatives could be measured by observing improvements in teaching practices and corresponding gains in student learning outcomes over successive academic terms.

Community Engagement: Community engagement is another crucial implication of the study. Local stakeholders, including parents, educational advocacy groups, and non-governmental organizations, have a vital role in supporting schools. Community-driven initiatives, such as volunteer mentorship programs and fundraising for teaching materials, can help bridge resource gaps. Schools should also establish advisory committees that include community members, fostering a sense of shared responsibility for educational outcomes. Success in community engagement can be gauged by the level of participation in school activities and the volume of resources contributed to supporting instructional supervision efforts.

Research and Innovation: The implications extend to future research and innovation in instructional supervision practices. There is a need for continuous exploration of how technological tools can optimize supervision and bridge gaps in resource-limited settings. For instance, the use of mobile apps for real-time feedback and virtual mentoring programs can complement traditional supervision methods. Additionally, longitudinal studies examining the long-term impacts of supervision on teacher performance and student outcomes can provide deeper insights, enabling policymakers and educators to refine existing practices further. To build on the theoretical contributions of this study, future research should prioritize empirical validation of the integrated model. Surveys or case studies conducted across diverse educational settings could provide critical data to assess the model’s practical utility and address gaps in understanding its effectiveness.

Addressing the challenges and opportunities highlighted by this study requires a multi-faceted approach that integrates leadership development, policy reforms, teacher training, and community engagement. Such an approach not only enhances the effectiveness of instructional supervision but also aligns with broader educational objectives, ultimately contributing to the achievement of quality education for all.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the critical role of head-teachers’ instructional supervision practices in enhancing teacher performance in Ghanaian primary schools. Effective practices such as real-time feedback, collaborative lesson planning, and mentorship demonstrate significant potential for improving teaching quality and fostering professional growth. However, the systemic challenges of resource constraints, inadequate training, and inconsistent policy frameworks continue to hinder the full realization of these benefits.

The integrated theoretical model presented in this study provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the interplay between instructional supervision, teacher motivation, and systemic constraints. By combining Systems Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory, and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, the model offers actionable insights into addressing these challenges. Specifically, it emphasizes the interconnected nature of school environments, the role of visionary leadership in motivating teachers, and the importance of meeting both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational needs.

To strengthen the study’s findings and validate the proposed model, future research should focus on empirical investigations. Surveys or case studies could provide concrete evidence of the model’s applicability and effectiveness in real-world contexts. These empirical efforts would not only affirm the theoretical propositions but also offer practical examples of successful implementation, enriching the discourse on instructional supervision.

Addressing the structural and systemic barriers identified in this study requires a multi-faceted approach that integrates leadership development, policy reforms, teacher professional development, and community engagement. Such an approach aligns with the global commitment to achieving inclusive and equitable quality education as outlined in Sustainable Development Goal 4. Stakeholders are urged to adopt the recommendations provided and prioritize empirical validation to ensure sustainable improvements in Ghana’s educational outcomes.

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