Migration and Religion in Africa

Migration and Religion in Africa

Oko Ume Okorie Ph.D

Lecturer Department of Sociology and Anthropology Abia State University Uturu & amp; Minister in the Presbyterian Church of Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000449

Received: 14 May 2025; Accepted: 20 May 2025; Published: 21 June 2025

ABSTRACT

Migration is an expression of the human aspiration for dignity, safety and a better future. It is part of the social fabric, part of our very make-up as a human family. Human movement has played vital role in improving individual wellbeing. In Africa, migration from one place to another cannot be over emphasized, it is now in the forefront of socio -religious discussions, especially in those countries where people have been displaced through conflict, climatic change, or where people move in search of economic and social opportunities that do not exist in their countries of origin. Migration and religion are intertwined phenomena in Africa, shaped by historical, social, and economic factors. Migration within and from Africa is a complex phenomenon deeply twisted with religious beliefs and practices. This study observes carefully the ways in which religion shapes the experiences of migrants in Africa, and how migration, in turn, influences religious beliefs and practices. Other areas considered are: Religious motivations for migration, Religious support and challenges for migrants, The role of religion in migrant integration and the impact of migration on religious landscapes. The paper was anchored. The paper adopted Social Network Theory, propounded by Mark Granovetter in 1973. Using a mixed-methods approach, this research draws on data from Nigeria to explore the role of religion in migrants and decisions to move, their experiences of displacement and resettlement, and their interactions with host communities. The findings highlight the significance of religion as a source of comfort, identity, and community for migrants, as well as its role in shaping migrations; relationships with their host societies. This study contributes to our understanding of the intersections between migration and religion in Africa, and has implications for policymakers, practitioners, and scholars seeking to promote inclusive and sustainable migration practices.

Keywords: Migration, religion, Africa, identity, community, displacement, resettlement.

INTRODUCTION

Migration has been a defining characteristic of human societies for centuries, and in Africa, it has profoundly influenced the social, economic, and cultural landscapes. A range of factors, including political instability, economic hardship, climate change, and the pursuit of better opportunities, drives contemporary African migration.[1] The movement of people, both within and outside the continent, carries substantial implications for individuals and communities alike. Although economic and political aspects of migration are widely studied, the influence of religion remains a less explored, yet critical, component.[2]

Religion has historically played a central role in shaping the cultural and social identity of Africans. The spread of Christianity, Islam, and indigenous religions has not only shaped belief systems but also influenced migratory behavior. Some migrants are motivated by the opportunity to practice their faith more freely or to engage in religious missions.[3] Even today, religious factors continue to shape migration decisions, whether due to the desire for religious freedom, to flee persecution, or to connect with religious communities.[4]

Beyond influencing the decision to migrate, religion plays an integral role in how migrants adapt and integrate into new environments. Migrants frequently depend on religious communities for social support, community networks, and a sense of belonging in foreign settings.[5] Religious organizations often provide vital resources such as shelter, employment, and spiritual guidance—elements that ease the burdens of displacement. However, migration may also present challenges to religious practice, as migrants must adjust to new and sometimes unfamiliar religious landscapes.

Furthermore, migration can reshape religious identity. Migrants may find themselves negotiating their beliefs and affiliations to fit new cultural and spiritual contexts. This negotiation process often results in transformations of religious practice and affiliation. Studying these transformations sheds light on how migrants maintain their faith while adapting to their new societies. This research explores the intricate relationship between migration and religion in Africa. It examines religion as a motivator, a support mechanism, and a transformative force in the migration journey. Thus, by addressing these dimensions, this study contributes to scholarship on the intersection of migration and religion, offering insights relevant to academics, policymakers, and practitioners concerned with migration management and social integration.

Statement of the Problem

Migration in Africa is a multi-layered phenomenon, shaped by a range of social, economic, political, and environmental factors. While significant attention has been paid to the economic and political drivers of migration, the religious dimension remains an underexplored but essential aspect of migration patterns in the African context. As migration continues to reshape the continent, it becomes increasingly important to understand how religious motivations intersect with other drivers such as economic hardship, conflict, and environmental change to influence migration decisions and experiences.[6]

Religious migration in Africa is fueled by various motives, including the pursuit of religious freedom, the desire to join faith-based communities, and escape from religious persecution or conflict. Historically, religion has acted as a catalyst for migration, both within the continent and beyond.[7] Despite this significance, scholarship on how religious beliefs and practices shape migration decisions and integration processes remains limited.[8]

A further complication lies in understanding how migrants maintain their religious practices and identities when adapting to new social and religious contexts. Migrants often encounter religious environments that differ markedly from their own, prompting challenges related to negotiation, adaptation, and sometimes conflict. Integration into host societies becomes especially difficult for migrants belonging to religious minorities or those facing discrimination based on their religious affiliation.[9]

Although religious networks are acknowledged as essential sources of social support, their dual potential to facilitate or hinder integration, especially in urban settings, remains insufficiently examined. These networks may provide housing, employment, and emotional support, but they can also reinforce social boundaries and promote exclusion.[10] A deeper, critical inquiry is needed into how religious institutions interact with migrant communities and the struggles faced by religious migrants in preserving faith traditions while assimilating into new environments. This research seeks to fill these critical gaps by exploring the influence of religion on African migration. It focuses on how religion shapes the decision to migrate, affects migrant experiences in host countries, and challenges migrants in maintaining religious practices and identities amid transition and adaptation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Migration and religion are two interrelated phenomena that shape social structures, identities, and community dynamics. As migration patterns evolve across Africa, the role of religion in this process has also shifted. Key variables in this intersection include religious motivations for migration, the structure and function of religious networks, and the influence of religious identity on the integration of migrants.

Migration refers to the movement of people from one location to another—regionally or internationally—often driven by economic, social, or safety-related factors. It may be voluntary or forced, and can involve temporary or permanent relocation.[11] Religion, meanwhile, is a structured system of beliefs, rituals, and practices centered around the worship of a divine power, shaping moral and cultural identities.[12] It plays a crucial role in personal values, social norms, and institutional life.[13]

Religious Motivations for Migration:

Religion often acts as a compelling driver for migration. In many African societies, individuals migrate to escape persecution, seek religious freedom, or join larger faith communities.[14] Migration for religious opportunity or to participate in missions is historically well-documented. Christianity and Islam, in particular, have spread throughout Africa through missionary work and religious mobility.[15] Individuals who perceive their local religious environments as restrictive often seek more vibrant and supportive settings for spiritual growth.

Religious Networks and Social Support:

Religious networks play a crucial role in facilitating migration and integration. These include both formal institutions—such as churches, mosques, and temples—and informal support systems like faith-based organizations and religious community groups. They provide essential assistance, including housing, employment, legal aid, and psychological support.[16]

In addition to practical aid, religious networks help preserve migrants’ cultural and spiritual identities. Faith-based communities offer familiar rituals and values, mitigating the alienation often felt in new environments.[17] Religious institutions may also provide language training and advocacy services that assist in adapting to the host society.[18]

Empirical studies reveal that religious networks can both facilitate and hinder integration. While some groups encourage intercultural dialogue, others may insulate members from broader society.[19] For example, African religious migrants in Europe often benefit from religious organizations as bridges to opportunity—but also risk social segmentation due to in-group consolidation.[20] These networks also support transnational ties through remittances, digital worship communities, and overseas missions.[21] Religion thus becomes a channel not only for integration but also for maintaining ties to migrants’ countries of origin.

Religious Identity and Integration:

The role of religious identity in integration is nuanced. On one hand, it provides a stable base of values and social networks in times of uncertainty. On the other, it may present integration challenges in secular or religiously different societies.[22] Migrants often face tension between maintaining their faith traditions and adapting to the dominant practices of their host communities.[23]

Religious identity can promote integration when migrants leverage faith-based communities to access housing, employment, and legal resources.[24] These networks also serve as advocacy channels, promoting migrant rights. However, when religious minorities face intolerance or are perceived as culturally distinct, identity may become a barrier to inclusion.[25] Religious identity also affects intercultural dialogue. In some cases, it fosters conflict and resistance to assimilation. In others, it encourages mutual understanding and peaceful coexistence.[26] Policymakers are thus encouraged to craft inclusive frameworks that respect religious diversity while promoting civic unity.

Theoretical Framework

Social Network Theory, proposed by Mark Granovetter in 1973, serves as the theoretical foundation of this study by explaining how social ties influence migratory behavior. Granovetter’s influential concept, The Strength of Weak Ties, asserts that individuals’ social networks significantly affect their decisions and life trajectories—including decisions to migrate. One of the theory’s principal assumptions is that social relationships serve as channels for critical resources.

In the context of migration, these resources—such as housing, employment, emotional support, and cultural continuity—are often accessed through religious networks, including churches, mosques, faith-based NGOs, and community associations. Strong and diverse interpersonal ties are believed to reduce the uncertainties and risks involved in migration, thereby enhancing migrants’ capacity to integrate into host societies.

However, critics of Social Network Theory—particularly those aligned with structural and rational choice frameworks—argue that macro-level determinants like economic conditions, labor markets, and immigration policies have greater explanatory power. According to this perspective, while social networks provide micro-level support, they are insufficient to explain migration flows without integrating broader socio-economic and policy contexts.

Nonetheless, Social Network Theory remains highly relevant to this study, particularly because of its emphasis on interpersonal relationships and resource flow. When applied to religious migration, the theory offers valuable insights into how faith-based institutions operate not only as support systems but also as cultural anchors that facilitate adaptation, identity preservation, and long-term integration. In this way, the theory helps illuminate the complex mechanisms through which religion shapes migrant experiences.

METHODOLOGY

This research adopts a mixed-methods approach to investigate the intersection of migration and religion. It combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to provide a comprehensive analysis. Thematic analysis will be employed to examine narrative data collected from migrant testimonies and interviews, identifying recurring themes related to religious motivation, spiritual resilience, and integration experiences. Content analysis will be used to interpret existing literature, policy documents, and media sources that address the religious dimensions of migration. By coding and categorizing recurring concepts, this approach allows for a systematic evaluation of how religious frameworks influence migration discourse and practice. The dual application of thematic and content analysis ensures a holistic understanding of the relationship between religion and migration. This methodology supports the triangulation of data, enhancing the study’s reliability and offering nuanced insights into both individual experiences and structural dynamics shaping religious migration in Africa.

Data Presentation and Discussion of Findings

This section analyzes the findings based on the objectives of the study, drawing on qualitative interviews, survey data, and empirical research. The discussion is organized by major thematic objectives related to the role of religion in African migration.

Religious Motivations for Migration

The first objective examines the religious motivations behind migration, particularly how religious factors influence the decision to relocate. Interviews with African migrants revealed that many individuals moved either to escape religious persecution or to seek greater religious freedom.[28] For instance, many Nigerian migrants relocated to predominantly Christian countries to avoid violence from extremist groups. This finding aligns with Brettell and Hollifield’s research, which identifies religious persecution and the pursuit of spiritual liberty as primary migration drivers in regions of heightened interreligious conflict.[29]

Survey data from the Migration Policy Institute reinforces these observations, revealing that 38% of migrants cited religious persecution as a key motivator. This trend was most pronounced among individuals from Nigeria, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Table 1: Religious Motivations for Migration

Beyond persecution, some migrants view relocation as a spiritual calling. For example, participation in pilgrimages to Mecca or missionary work is seen as both a religious obligation and an opportunity to strengthen one’s faith. According to thematic analysis, individuals from more conservative religious backgrounds perceived countries with stronger religious networks as spiritually safer environments.[30]

The Role of Religious Networks in Supporting Migrants

The second objective evaluates the function of religious networks in migrant integration. Empirical research affirms that religious organizations significantly enhance both the economic and social dimensions of migrant resettlement.[31] In a notable study, Boccagni found that migrants in Italy frequently relied on churches and mosques for housing assistance and legal advocacy.[32]

Figure 1: Role of Religious Networks in Migrant Integration

A similar empirical study focused on Somali migrants in Kenya revealed that Islamic institutions played an essential role in providing employment, healthcare, and educational support.[33] Survey results indicate that 42% of migrants cited religious networks as their primary support system. These networks provided housing (30%), employment (35%), and legal/social services (20%).

Table 2: Support Provided by Religious Networks

These findings confirm that religious networks are not only sources of immediate aid but also foster long-term stability and integration.[34] They serve as critical mediators in preserving cultural identity while enabling migrants to navigate the complexities of host societies.[35] Koser and Lutz argue that migrants depend heavily on these institutions to adapt culturally and economically.[36] Additionally, recent findings from the Pew Research Center show that migrants overwhelmingly view religious communities as essential for social cohesion.[37]

Impact of Religious Identity on Social Integration

The third objective addresses how religious identity affects the social integration of migrants in host countries. As Brettell and Hollifield explain, religious identity plays a dual role—facilitating both inclusion and exclusion.[38] For many migrants, religious affiliation provides immediate access to social capital and protection in unfamiliar environments. Interviews with migrants revealed that those with a strong religious identity gravitated toward faith-based communities that offered both emotional support and a shared sense of belonging.

Koser and Lutz found that Muslim migrants in Europe used their religious identity to form close-knit groups, which helped them navigate linguistic and cultural barriers.[39] A survey among African migrants in the United Kingdom revealed that 45% of respondents credited their religious communities with aiding their social integration by fostering cultural exchange and inclusion.

Table 3: Role of Religious Identity in Social Integration

These findings reinforce the idea that religious identity strengthens community ties and fosters understanding across cultural lines.[40] Migrants with clearly defined religious identities were more likely to form supportive communities.[41] Religious identity also combats social exclusion by offering a cultural anchor, enhancing resilience against marginalization.[42] Boccagni has shown that while religious affiliation can at times resist assimilation, it often supports coexistence and sustained diversity.[43] Pew Research Center data further confirms that many migrants rely on religious identity to establish resilience against marginalization.[44]

Role of Religious Institutions in Providing Economic Opportunities

This objective explores how religious institutions contribute to migrant economic empowerment. Empirical research shows that churches, mosques, and faith-based organizations often serve as informal employment hubs. For example, African migrants in the United States frequently accessed job opportunities through church networks. Interviews with Ethiopian and Nigerian migrants indicated that religious institutions provided job leads within both formal religious structures and the informal economy.

Figure 2: Religious Institutions as Sources of Employment Opportunities

Religious institutions often serve dual functions—spiritual guidance and socio-economic integration.[45] In times of hardship, churches and mosques function as economic safety nets, particularly when migrants face institutional barriers in the formal job market.[46] Adepoju emphasizes that these institutions provide networks crucial for survival and adaptation.[47]

Table 4: Employment Opportunities via Religious Institutions

Boccagni notes that religious NGOs also provide vocational training and entrepreneurship support, enhancing migrant stability.[48] Koser and Lutz affirm that religious institutions not only provide direct employment but also cultivate microeconomic initiatives among migrant groups.[49] Hagopian underscores how such networks accelerate labor market integration by fostering trust, access, and credibility.[50] Pew Research Center data affirms the consistency of these findings across varied contexts.[51]

CONCLUSION

This study has examined the complex relationship between migration and religion, highlighting how religious motivations influence migration decisions, the role of religious networks in facilitating integration, and the impact of religious identity on migrants’ social and economic outcomes. Through qualitative and quantitative data, the research has demonstrated that religion serves as both a motivating factor for migration and a crucial support structure for migrants in host countries.

The findings indicate that a significant number of migrants, especially from regions affected by religious conflict or persecution, view migration as an opportunity to escape religious oppression or seek religious freedom. Religious networks play a critical role in providing social, economic, and emotional support, helping migrants establish stable lives in their new environments. Furthermore, religious institutions not only assist migrants with practical needs such as housing and employment but also foster community belonging and cultural exchange. The data also underscores the significant influence of religious identity on the integration process. While religious communities offer crucial support, they can sometimes serve as barriers to full cultural assimilation, as migrants tend to form close-knit communities within religious settings. However, these networks also facilitate access to essential services and employment opportunities, enhancing the migrants’ capacity to succeed in their new countries.

In conclusion, the intersection of religion and migration is multifaceted, with both positive and challenging aspects. Religious institutions, networks, and identities have a profound impact on the migration experience, shaping both the motivations and outcomes for individuals involved in the migration process.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance the experiences of migrants and improve integration strategies:

• Strengthen Religious Networks for Migrant Support: Governments and organizations should collaborate with religious institutions to expand their role in assisting migrants. Religious groups can help provide not only emotional and spiritual support but also practical services such as legal advice, employment resources, and language classes. This partnership will foster smoother transitions for migrants into their new communities.
• Promote Interfaith Dialogue: Encouraging interfaith dialogue and cooperation among religious communities can help reduce social tensions and enhance understanding between migrant and host populations. Initiatives aimed at fostering tolerance and respect for diverse religious beliefs will facilitate better social cohesion and integration.
• Enhance Legal Protections for Religious Migrants: Governments should implement stronger legal frameworks to protect migrants facing religious persecution. This can include providing expedited asylum procedures for individuals fleeing religious violence and ensuring that migrant religious communities have equal access to support services and protections.
• Develop Inclusive Integration Programs: Integration programs should be inclusive, recognizing the role of religious identity in the integration process. These programs can provide opportunities for migrants to practice their religion freely while also facilitating their participation in broader society. Creating spaces for religious dialogue within community programs can help bridge the gap between migrants and host communities.
• Support Research on Migration and Religion: Further research is needed to explore how religion continues to shape migration patterns, particularly in an era of increasing religious diversity and migration flows. Academic and governmental institutions should invest in studies that examine the intersection of migration, religion, and integration.

REFERENCES

1. Adepoju, Aderanti. Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2004. https://www.migrationpolicy.org.
2. Beyer, Peter. Religion and Modern Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
3. ———. Religion in the Context of Globalization: Essays on Concept, Form, and Political Implication. New York: Routledge, 2013.
4. Boccagni, Paolo. Migration and the Search for Home: Mapping Domestic Space in Migrants’ Everyday Lives. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
5. ———. “Religious Transnationalism and Migration: The Case of Latin American Catholics in Europe.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 43, no. 5 (2017): 743–761. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1294486.
6. Brettell, Caroline B., and James F. Hollifield. Migration Theory: Talking Across Disciplines. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2014.
7. Casanova, José. Public Religions in the Modern World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.
8. Castles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. 4th ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
9. Connor, Phillip. “Contexts of Immigrant Receptivity and Immigrant Religious Outcomes: The Case of Muslims in Western Europe.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 33, no. 3 (2010): 376–403.
10. Durkheim, Émile. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Translated by J. W. Swain. New York: The Free Press, 1915.
11. Ebaugh, Helen Rose, and Janet Saltzman Chafetz. Religion and the New Immigrants: Continuities and Adaptations in Immigrant Congregations. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2000.
12. Elwert, Georg. “Religious Reasons for Migration: Evidence from Africa.” Journal of African Migration Studies 2, no. 1 (1998): 45–62.
13. Foner, Nancy, and Richard Alba. “Immigrant Religion in the U.S. and Western Europe: Bridge or Barrier to Inclusion?” International Migration Review 42, no. 2 (2008): 360–392.
14. Granovetter, Mark. “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 6 (1973): 1360–1380.
15. Hagopian, Frances. “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration of African Immigrants in the United States.” International Migration Review 47, no. 4 (2013): 937–963. https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12052.
16. ———. Religious Pluralism, Democracy, and the Catholic Church in Latin America. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2013.
17. Hirschman, Charles. “The Role of Religion in the Origins and Adaptation of Immigrant Groups in the United States.” International Migration Review 38, no. 3 (2004): 1206–1233.
18. Koser, Khalid, and Helma Lutz. “The Role of Religion in the Migration Process: A Case Study of Somali Refugees in the UK.” Sociology of Religion 59, no. 2 (1998): 173–188. https://doi.org/10.2307/3712437.
19. Levitt, Peggy. God Needs No Passport: Immigrants and the Changing American Religious Landscape. New York: The New Press, 2007.
20. Migration Policy Institute. Religious Motivations for Migration Survey Report. Washington, DC: MPI, 2020.
21. Pew Research Center. The Role of Religion in Migration and Integration: A Global Perspective. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2019. https://www.pewresearch.org.
22. Van Dijk, Rijk. “Religion and Transnational Migration in the New African Diaspora: Evangelical Pentecostalism in Southern Africa and Europe.” Journal of Religion in Africa 31, no. 2 (2001): 180–206.
23. Aderanti Adepoju, Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2004).
24. Caroline B. Brettell and James F. Hollifield, Migration Theory: Talking Across Disciplines, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2014).
25. Frances Hagopian, “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration of African Immigrants in the United States,” International Migration Review 47, no. 4 (2013): 937–963.
26. Georg Elwert, “Religious Reasons for Migration: Evidence from Africa,” Journal of African Migration Studies 2, no. 1 (1998): 45–62.
27. Paolo Boccagni, Migration and the Search for Home: Mapping Domestic Space in Migrants’ Everyday Lives (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
28. Brettell and Hollifield, Migration Theory, 3rd ed.
29. Adepoju, Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.
30. Elwert, “Religious Reasons for Migration.”
31. Boccagni, Migration and the Search for Home.
32. Hagopian, “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration.”
33. Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, 4th ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).
34. Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, trans. J. W. Swain (New York: The Free Press, 1915).
35. Peter Beyer, Religion and Modern Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
36. Elwert, “Religious Reasons for Migration.”
37. Adepoju, Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.
38. Brettell and Hollifield, Migration Theory.
39. Peggy Levitt, God Needs No Passport: Immigrants and the Changing American Religious Landscape (New York: The New Press, 2007).
40. Charles Hirschman, “The Role of Religion in the Origins and Adaptation of Immigrant Groups in the United States,” International Migration Review 38, no. 3 (2004): 1206–1233.
41. José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).
42. Nancy Foner and Richard Alba, “Immigrant Religion in the U.S. and Western Europe: Bridge or Barrier to Inclusion?” International Migration Review 42, no. 2 (2008): 360–392.
43. Rijk van Dijk, “Religion and Transnational Migration in the New African Diaspora: Evangelical Pentecostalism in Southern Africa and Europe,” Journal of Religion in Africa 31, no. 2 (2001): 180–206.
44. Phillip Connor, “Contexts of Immigrant Receptivity and Immigrant Religious Outcomes: The Case of Muslims in Western Europe,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 33, no. 3 (2010): 376–403.
45. Hagopian, “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration.”
46. Foner and Alba, “Immigrant Religion in the U.S. and Western Europe.”
47. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World.
48. Levitt, God Needs No Passport.
49. Peter Beyer, Religion in the Context of Globalization: Essays on Concept, Form, and Political Implication (New York: Routledge, 2013).
50. Adepoju, Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.
51. Brettell and Hollifield, Migration Theory, 3rd ed.
52. Hagopian, “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration.”
53. Ibid.
54. Paolo Boccagni, Migration and the Search for Home: Mapping Domestic Space in Migrants’ Everyday Lives (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
55. Ibid.
56. Brettell and Hollifield, Migration Theory.
57. Boccagni, Migration and the Search for Home.
58. Khalid Koser and Helma Lutz, “The Role of Religion in the Migration Process: A Case Study of Somali Refugees in the UK,” Sociology of Religion 59, no. 2 (1998): 173–188.
59. Pew Research Center, The Role of Religion in Migration and Integration: A Global Perspective (2019), https://www.pewresearch.org.
60. Brettell and Hollifield, Migration Theory.
61. Koser and Lutz, “The Role of Religion in the Migration Process.”
62. Ibid.
63. Adepoju, Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.
64. Hagopian, “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration.”
65. Boccagni, Migration and the Search for Home.
66. Pew Research Center, The Role of Religion in Migration and Integration.
67. Brettell and Hollifield, Migration Theory.
68. Ibid.
69. Adepoju, Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.
70. Boccagni, Migration and the Search for Home.
71. Koser and Lutz, “The Role of Religion in the Migration Process.”
72. Hagopian, “The Role of Religious Networks in the Integration.”
73. Pew Research Center, The Role of Religion in Migration and Integration.