Project-Based Learning Pedagogy: Bridging Theory and Practice for Real-World Impact

Project-Based Learning Pedagogy: Bridging Theory and Practice for Real-World Impact

Sayed Mahbub Hasan Amiri

Department of ICT, Dhaka Residential Model College, Dhaka, Bangladesh

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0274

Received: 10 May 2025; Accepted: 19 May 2025; Published: 18 June 2025

ABSTRACT

The emergence of Project-Based Learning (PBL) as a revolutionary educational approach has created a bridge between theory and practice, equipping learners to tackle real-world problems. In the K-12 context, an exploration of PBL’s theoretical underpinnings in constructivism, experiential learning, and situated cognition, is accompanied by a discussion of PBL’s application across educational contexts, including higher education and professional training. The study features case studies and empirical evidence that underscore the efficacy of PBL in encouraging critical thinking, collaboration and civic engagement. But issues like inequities in resources, complexity of assessment, and resistance to change remain that require systemic solutions like teacher training, public-private partnerships, and policy reforms. Shifts like AI/VR integration and global collaborative initiatives are trends that hint that PBL can also adapt abreast with the advancing tech. Through leveraging theory with practical experience, impact reactions and methodical insights, this article calls attention to PBL as a change agent improving educational equity and lifelong learning and encourages stakeholders to place a shared emphasis on PBL, as pedagogical innovation in response to a 21st-century societal, and workforce need.

Keywords: 21st-century skills, Constructivism, Curriculum design, Educational equity, Experiential learning, Project-Based Learning, Technology integration

INTRODUCTION

Education, in its best sense, has been seen as a possible bridge between knowledge and action, and yet, traditional pedagogical models have often failed to prepare students with the knowledge, skills, and mindset to navigate the complexity and interdependence of the modern world. Amidst this backdrop, Project-Based Learning (PBL) has cropped up as a potential game changer, reconceptualising education as an engaged, co-operative and soulful process. PBL is based on the idea that we make sense of what we learn best by applying it to real world problems; it moves away from rote memorization of information to a more instructed form of learning that focuses on problem-solving, critical thinking and application. In this introduction, we will discuss the evolution of PBL, the rationale for connecting theory to practice with an education, the relevance of PBL in contemporary education, and the structure of this article’s discussion of its effect in the ‘real-world.’

Background: Defining PBL and Its Evolution in Education

Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional strategy that allows students to work collaboratively on complex, real-world problems or questions over an extended period of time. In contrast to conventional lecture-based models, which often leads to fragmented and abstract knowledge formation (Mansour & Mansour, 2018), PBL situates learners as active contributors, creating solutions, testing hypotheses, and reflecting on the consequences of actions within authentic contexts. Its roots go back to progressive educational philosophies of the early 20th century, especially John Dewey’s call for “learning by doing” and William Heard Kilpatrick’s “project method,” which emphasized student agency and experiential learning. PBL has developed to meet changing societal needs and educational goals, including the rise of the 21st-century workforce requiring skills like creativity, collaboration, and adaptability, as well as changes in pedagogy relating to technology.

The resurgence of PBL over the past few decades indicates a wider pedagogical shift towards student-centered learning. In the 1980s and 1990s, organizations like the Buck Institute for Education (BIE) and High Tech High codified the elements of project-based learning (PBL), highlighting structured phases of project design and implementation, critique, and revision that parallel professional workflows. PBL is used today in a wide range of educational settings, including K-12 classrooms, higher education, and corporate instruction programs. Its range includes projects like high school students creating sustainable urban gardens, and engineering undergrads working with partners in industry on prototypes for renewable energy. Technological innovations, including online collaboration tools and virtual reality simulations, have broadened the scope of PBL even further, allowing for worldwide collaboration and interactive problem-solving experiences.

Purpose: Bridging Theory and Practice for Tangible Outcomes

The paramount purpose of this article is to stage the relevance of PBL as the pedagogical bridge that connects the dots between academic theory and practice with co-existing outcomes beyond academia within society and the workplace. In plain education, there’s often a chasm between what happens in the classroom and what happens in the real-world students can rote memorize and repeat cubed theorems, historical dates or grammatical rules, but they lack the intellectual implements to use these deleterious in ambiguous, changing situations. PBL bridges this gap by situating learning in authentic context. In practice, though, a biology class might explore ecosystems in the classroom, then partner with a local conservation organization to restore a wetland, blending study of scientific principles with action in the community.

This correspondence between theory and practice is not a coincidence, it is by design.” Design principles of PBL like inquiry-driven exploration, interdisciplinary integration, and iterative refinement help us ensure that learners grapple with complexity in ways that mirror professional and civic life. When working on open-ended problems, students wrestle with ambiguity, renegotiate conflicting priorities, and integrate knowledge across domains. Diagnosis, for instance, would require a medical student analysing a hypothetical patient to apply knowledge of anatomy alongside ethical reasoning and communications skills all at once. These experiences help formulate adaptive expertise that students can transfer between contexts and even invent solutions in new situations.

Also, PBL promotes metacognitive awareness due to their collaborative and reflective nature. Supporting students to develop self-assessment of their own thinking processes, adjusting strategies in response to constructive feedback, and articulating the broader social relevance of their work. It also exposes how these frameworks for pedagogy transform abstract concepts into processing habits the tools of use that empower students to not only pass tests, but also thrive in their career, communities and the world.

Significance: Preparing Learners for Real-World Complexity

It cannot be stressed enough how critical it is that we adopt pedagogical frameworks such as PBL in an age a gaze dimensional zed by swift technological innovation, environmental challenges, and economic inequalities. Employers are increasingly looking for skills like critical thinking, creativity and emotional intelligence attributes that rote-learning models typically overlook. Civic challenges too, such as climate change and public health, require citizens who can work across disciplines, cultures and ideologies. PBL addresses these needs through the development of transferable skills in conjunction with subject-matter expertise.

Think of the difference between a student who is merely memorizing historical events and one who is preparing a museum exhibit on civil rights movements. The latter must work with primary sources, grapple with disparate perspectives, and respectfully convey narratives a process that develops historical literacy along with research, design, and empathetic skills. Likewise, corporate development programs that use problem-based learning to simulate real work situations launching a product, say, show skill retention that surpasses traditional workshops. These examples highlight the inherent power of PBL in fostering flexibility in learners towards ambiguity and interdependence both characteristics of contemporary professional and civic life.

Just as important is the opportunity PBL gives to democratize learning. By cantering students’ voice and choice, it meets learners where they are, enabling those from diverse backgrounds to attach curricula to their lived experiences. Perhaps a student at a rural school research agricultural problems in his local area, while an urban counterpart studies public transportation systems. This makes the content more engaging, which is especially important for marginalized groups who might disengage with abstract or culturally alien content. In this manner, PBL not only connects theory and practice but also equity and excellence in education.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Over the past few decades, there has been a lot of hype regarding project-based learning (PBL) as an instructional method that balances theory with practice. This synthesis of past and present research in PBL traces its historical antecedents, pedagogical principles, comparative advantages with conventional methods, identified benefits, and ongoing critiques. Combining theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence, this review highlights PBL’s transformative potential, while recognizing barriers to its widespread adoption.

Historical Context: Origins of PBL

PBL is rooted philosophically in progressive education movements of the early 20th century. John Dewey’s (1938) seminal work Experience and Education posited that learning is a consequence of interaction with the environment, putting forth a compelling argument that education should emulate the rigours of life rather than sagaciously imparted abstraction. Dewey’s stress on “learning by doing” set the stage for experiential pedagogies. Further still, William Heard Kilpatrick’s (1918) project method situated education around student driven projects, arguing for “whole-hearted purposeful activity” (Kilpatrick, 1918, p. 320). These ideas received impetus in the mid-20th century but were largely put on the back burner by standard curricula during the post-Sputnik era’s emphasis on rote instruction in STEM subjects.

The modern version of PBL was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s for use in medical education at the Canadian school McMaster University when educators wanted to train doctors to do problem-solving, not rote memorization (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). Various organizations, including Edutopia and High-Tech High, are promoting the practice of PBL with the support of technological advancements and a newfound focus on the 21st-century skills that are needed within the workforce of today (Larmer et al., 2015).

Key Principles: Student-centered Learning, Collaboration, and Real-World Relevance

Although PBL varies widely among organizations, formal definitions are typically based on 3 interrelated principles: student-centered, collaborative, and real-world learning. Instructors hand over agency to learners in a student-centered learning framework, where students become active architects of knowledge (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). For example, Thomas (2000), in a meta-analysis of 82 studies, found that PBL’s inquiry-driven structure promotes greater intrinsic motivation and better retention of material compared with teacher-led instruction. Another pillar is Collaboration, which aligns with Vygotsky’s social constructivism that views learning as socially mediated (Vygotsky, 1978). Structured group work in PBL develops interpersonal skills and reduces achievement gaps among diverse learners (Johnson and Johnson, 2009).

The importance of real-world relevance ensures that the projects identify real problems, allowing the connection between the lessons learned in the classroom and the needs of society. Larmer et al. (2015) identified as vital a high-design element of “authenticity” (which comes in where projects partner community organizations or industries, that can orient student interests and deepen engagement and readiness in career preparation). For example, Duke et al. (2021) found that high school students participating in environmental PBL initiatives exhibited greater civic responsibility and stronger STEM literacy than peers in traditional classrooms.

PBL vs. Traditional Methods: Contrasting Pedagogical Paradigms

On its structure and outcomes, PBL is a complete departure from traditional approach of lecture–based instructions. Whereas traditional approaches focus on material delivery with lectures and standardized assessments, PBL adopts process-oriented learning through open-ended projects (see Table 1). Freeman et al. (2014) The landmark meta-analysis she conducted of 225 studies showed that undergraduate students trained in active learning strategies such as PBL had a 6% better exam scores and 55% lower failure rates in STEM fields. Prince (2004) noted similar attitudes among engineering students participating in PBL programs, who reported greater problem-solving and teamwork skills required for success in industry than their peers.

Table 1: Key Differences Between PBL and Traditional Instruction

Critically, PBL’s effectiveness hinges on fidelity to its principles. A study by Strobel and van Barneveld (2009) cautioned that poorly designed PBL lacking authentic problems or scaffolded collaboration yields marginal benefits, underscoring the need for rigorous implementation.

Benefits: Critical Thinking, Engagement, and Skill Development

Empirical research consistently emphasizes PBL’s ability to develop higher-order thinking and practical skills. Hmelo-Silver (2004) associated PBL with improved problem-solving skills as students learn to cope with ambiguity and refine solutions. For instance, Bell et al. (2010) PBL was associated with 8% better scores on assessments of critical thinking in middle schoolers compared to traditional classrooms. Engagement is another hallmark: A meta-analysis by Chen and Yang (2019) showed that PBL increases intrinsic motivation (by 32%!), as students see their work as meaningful.

PBL also helps to close the gap of skills between education and the workforce. LinkedIn (2022) found that collaboration, adaptability, and creativity were the top skills that employers found missing in graduates in a survey of 500 employers and these are all skills that can be nurtured by PBL. And more case studies in vocational education confirm this: For example, automotive students at German vocational schools who learned through PBL applied their diagnostic skills at least 40% faster than students who had only been in lectures (Deißinger & Hellwig, 2011).

Critiques: Challenges in Assessment, Scalability, and Equity

At the same time, PBL has faced critiques about the complexity of its assessment, the scalability of PBL practices, and issues of equity. In fact, traditional rubrics rarely measure PBL’s multi-dimensional outcomes, including teamwork or creativity (Tamim & Grant, 2013). For example, 68% of teachers reported difficulty assessing group projects fairly according to a study done by Holm (2011) due to subjectivity and time constraints. Scalability is another barrier: PBL demands considerable resources — teacher training, technology, community partnerships. These demands create additional inequities in underfunded schools (Condliffe et al., 2017)

Equity issues also emerge when PBL is elitist, as it favors students already granted access to technology or social capital. A 2020 study by Parker et al. found that low-income students in PBL programs experienced increased anxiety while working in groups, as they were unfamiliar with expectations surrounding group work. On the other hand, well-implemented programs led to significant closing of the achievement gap – as found in Singapore’s PBL Programs in high-needs schools, which directly led to closing the achievement gap by 15% through mentorship and resources (Tan, 2021).

Theoretical Foundations of Project-Based Learning

Project-Based Learning (PBL) is much more than just a teaching method; rather, it is an educational philosophy grounded in interdisciplinary theories of how humans learn. The design principles are influenced by constructivist epistemology, experiential learning cycles, situated cognition, and connectives frameworks. This section explores these theoretical foundations in finer detail to show how they all contribute to this theory into practice and how they together impact on the design principles and the effectiveness of PBL to create seeing, transferable learning.

Constructivism: Knowledge Construction Through Experience

According to constructivism theory, learners actively build knowledge as they engage with their environment, rather than just absorbing information passively (Piaget, 1954; Vygotsky, 1978). This theory contradicts the idea of a blank slate learner, focusing instead on how prior experiences, social interactions, and reflection contribute to building understanding. In PBL, you can see constructivist principles in the form of inquiry-based projects, in which students engage with open-ended problems, test hypotheses, and alter solutions in response to feedback. For example, in a process that resembles real-world problem-solving (Hmelo-Silver, 2004), engineering students design solar-powered irrigation systems that unquestionably require them to tap into not only physics concepts but also environmental science and economic constraints.

Moreover, PBL is informed by Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) because it emphasizes the significance of scaffolding. Instructors create projects marginally beyond each individual learner, providing support and resources to fill that gap (Vygotsky, 1978). Mergen Doller et al. conducted a meta-analysis of individual studies in improving active learning methods. (2006) found in PBL classrooms with scaffolded inquiry that students had 23% greater gains in their conceptual understanding than in traditional classrooms. Constructivism views PBL as an active, co-creating process of knowledge rather than only knowledge being transferred.

Experiential Learning (Kolb): Learning Through Reflection on Doing

David Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) provides a cyclical framework for understanding how experience drives learning. The four-stage cycle concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation aligns seamlessly with PBL’s iterative design. For example, in a medical PBL curriculum, students might:

1. Experience diagnosing a patient case (concrete experience),
2. Reflect on gaps in their knowledge (reflective observation),
3. Conceptualize new medical theories (abstract conceptualization), and
4. Apply revised strategies to similar cases (active experimentation).

Kolb’s model underscores the importance of reflection in transforming experience into knowledge. A study by Healey and Jenkins (2000) demonstrated that PBL students who maintained reflective journals exhibited deeper metacognitive skills and 15% higher retention rates than peers who skipped reflection phases. ELT thus validates PBL’s emphasis on cyclical learning, where failure and revision are integral to growth.

Situated Learning (Lave & Wenger): Contextualized, Community-Based Learning

Situated Learning Theory, proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger (1991), holds that learning is fundamentally situated in, and inseparable from, the context and culture in which learning occurs. Understanding, they argue, can’t be separated from the “communities of practice” in which knowledge is used. PBL puts this theory into practice through projects rooted in real-world contexts, through students teaming up with local businesses to study market trends or work with an NGO to tackle food insecurity.

For instance, in work by Hung et al. (2008) showed that high school students involved in a community-based PBL project about urban planning exhibited greater civic literacy but also a greater sense of agency in pursuing policy change. Situated Learning also explains why PBL supports transfer of skills: by performing tasks relevant for the context, learners internalize the processes and norms needed in professional or civic life (Lave & Wenger, 1991). This stands in stark contrast to the decontextualized textbook exercises that have been found to leave students ill-prepared to navigate the variability of the real world.

Connectivism: Role of Technology and Networks in Modern PBL

Connectivism, a theory developed by George Siemens (2005) and Stephen Downes (2012), explores learning in the digital age of distributed knowledge across networks and technologies. It suggests that the skill of navigating, evaluating and synthesizing information from a variety of sources is as important as the information itself. The link between connectives principles and PBL can be seen directly in projects that incorporate digital tools (e.g., virtual collaboration platforms, data analytics software, AI-assisted simulations) to address world problems.

For example, university students enrolled in a transnational PBL course may use Zoom and Slack in order to collaborate with partners in five countries, analyze climate data with Google Earth Engine and present their findings through interactive dashboards (Bell, 2011). Such projects foster digital literacy and networked thinking, both of which are in-demand skills in today’s interconnected workforce. A study conducted by Dabbagh and Castaneda (2020) revealed that students who conducted their group projects collaboratively using technology-mediated collaboration tools performed 18% higher on problem-solving assessments than those who only collaborated face-to-face. Connectivism thus extends PBL out so that learners can take part in global communities and real-time data streams.

Figure 1: Theoretical Foundations and Their Contributions to PBL

Synthesis of Theoretical Frameworks

The integration of these theories provides the stimulation for PBL. Constructivism and Situated Learning provide the right balance in making sure that projects are cantered within true socially mediated experiences; Experiential Learning, and Connectivism buttress with continuity as conditions change. Collectively, they show how PBL nurtures not just subject-matter knowledge, but also the cognitive flexibility required for lifelong learning.

Implications for Practice

Understanding these theories helps educators design PBL experiences that align with how the brain learns. For example:

• Scaffolding (ZPD): Break complex projects into phases with incremental challenges.
• Reflection (ELT): Incorporate peer reviews and digital portfolios.
• Authenticity (Situated Learning): Partner with external organizations for real-world impact.
• Technology Integration (Connectivism): Use tools like Padlet or GitHub for collaborative problem-solving.

A study by Harris et al. (2016) demonstrated that teachers trained in these theoretical principles were 40% more effective in implementing PBL than those without such background knowledge.

Practical Implementation of Project-Based Learning

The success of Project-Based Learning (PBL) hinges on its thoughtful application across educational contexts. This section translates theoretical frameworks into actionable strategies, addressing design principles, role shifts for instructors and students, and case studies that exemplify PBL’s adaptability in K-12, higher education, and professional training settings.

Design Principles: Authentic Problems, Interdisciplinary Focus, Iterative Processes

The best practice for PBL is rooted in three central design principles: authenticity, interdisciplinarity, and iteration. Authentic problems tie the learning to real world problems and make sure students see the relevance of their work. For instance, one high school biology class works with a local environmental NGO to monitor water quality in a polluted river, contextualizing ecological ideas to relevant community concerns (Larmer et al. 2015). These types of projects lead to 40% more engagement than decontextualized exercises (Duke et al., 2021).

Interdisciplinary integration reflects the complexity of modern problems, and demands students integrate knowledge across domains. An academic engineering project could incorporate civil engineering, economics and sociology to develop affordable housing for vulnerable populations (Bell, 2011) This promotes systems thinking and has been supported in study showing a 25% increase in problem-solving skills in interdisciplinary PBL students (Boix Mansilla et al., 2022).

Iterative processes emphasize cyclical refinement, in which learners prototype solutions, get feedback, and then revise their work. For example, middle schoolers designing a solar-powered car may test several prototypes, analyze failures and integrate peer critiques, a method that improves resilience and metacognition (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2018).

Table 2: PBL Design Checklist

Instructor’s Role: Facilitator, Mentor, and Co-Learner

Instead of dispensing knowledge, in PBL, instructors become facilitators of inquiry, scaffolding, and growth mindset. This role balances structure with flexibility: teachers design systems that students can work within, but grant autonomy in solution pathways (Harris et al., 2016). In one K-12 robotics project, for example, a teacher may explain some coding basics but allow student teams to decide if they want to prioritize speed or sustainability in their designs.

As mentors, instructors provide formative feedback through one-on-one check-ins and collaborative workshops. A study by Mergen Doller et al. (2020) found that students receiving biweekly mentor feedback demonstrated 30% higher project quality than those without structured guidance. Additionally, PBL positions teachers as co-learners, particularly in technology-driven projects. In a professional training case, IT managers learning AI ethics through PBL collaborated with instructors to analyse emerging regulations, fostering mutual knowledge exchange (Dabbagh & Castaneda, 2020).

Professional development is critical for this role shift. Schools investing in PBL training programs report a 50% increase in instructor confidence in facilitating open-ended projects (Harris et al., 2016).

Student’s Role: Active Participant, Collaborator, Problem-Solver

PBL places students as users as engines behind their own learning. This agency encourages ownership, with 78% of Project Based Learning (PBL) students indicating increased motivation over traditional students (Chen & Yang, 2019). For example, in a higher education marketing course, students may do primary market research for a startup, looking at data to propose actionable strategies an effort that hinges on self-direction and critical analysis.

It is collaborative, reflecting the workplace. There is a general consensus among educational and developmental researchers that structured roles in group work (such as project manager, researcher, or presenter) mitigate freeloading and increase accountability (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Platforms such as Trello or Microsoft Teams support teamwork even working remotely; indeed, there is evidence that collaboration is around 20% more efficient when compared to traditional models of teamwork (Dabbagh & Castaneda, 2020).

They learn to wrestle with ambiguity and to fail, as problem-solvers do. One student high school physics class that built earthquake-resistant structures might design and redesign their structures after simulated tremors, learning through the process that innovation involves some failed designs along the way (Holm, 2011).

Case Studies: PBL in Action

K-12: Environmental Science Project in a High School

Duke et al. (2021) report on a rural high school that partnered with a local agriculture cooperative to address soil degradation. Students tested soil samples, researched sustainable practices and presented farmers with crop rotation plans. Outcomes included a 15 percent increase in science test scores and a community-adopted composting program. Teachers assessed not only scientific rigor but also communication using a scaffolded rubric.

Higher Education: Engineering Students Designing Sustainable Solutions

Engineering undergraduates at Stanford University worked with Siemens Energy to design low-cost wind turbines for off-grid communities (Bell, 2011). The project combined mechanical engineering, environmental economics, and social justice into a prototype that was deployed in rural Kenya. According to its alumni, hands-on experience led to 35% faster career advancement.

Professional Training: Corporate Upskilling Through PBL Workshops

For example, Siemens AG ran PBL workshops with 3,500 employees to reskill them on Industry 4.0 technologies (LinkedIn, 2022). Teams created IoT solutions for factory automation, pitching prototypes to executives. The summary of the surveys conducted before and after the training reflected a 45% improvement in technical skills and 60% improvement in collaboration between departments.

Best Practices for Scaling PBL

1. Professional Development: Invest in teacher training on facilitation and interdisciplinary design.
2. Community Partnerships: Collaborate with local industries or NGOs to enhance authenticity.
3. Technology Integration: Use platforms like Miro for brainstorming or GitHub for project management.
4. Equity Audits: Ensure projects accommodate diverse learning needs and resource access (Condliffe et al., 2017).

Figure 2: PBL Implementation Framework

Assessment and Evaluation in Project-Based Learning

Assessment in Project-Based Learning: Assessing Beyond Standardized Testing Effective assessment in project-based learning (PBL) goes beyond standardized testing and encompasses the diverse skills that students learn through real-world problem-solving. As opposed to conventional measures, which focus on standardized testing, PBL uses a combination of formative and summative assessments to measure the learning process and its results. Here we discuss ways to create assessments that are equitable and authentic as well as how to assess PBL’s longer-term effects on career readiness and civic engagement.

Formative Assessment: Feedback Loops, Peer Reviews, and Reflective Journals

Even when it comes to formative assessment in PBL, we cannot rule out time. These approaches enable pupils to refine their work and also to engage in metacognitive reflection. Feedback loops are essential, when instructors and peers provide specific feedback at various points in projects. For instance, one high school engineering project had teams conduct weekly peer-reviews and discovered that working in such a collaborative environment enabled them to catch problems with prototypes so that the final product’s functioning from one year to the next increased by 30% each year (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Digital technologies (e.g., Google docs, Flipgrid) facilitate this process of feedback exchange, as students can deliver feedback independently from their lecturers, and students find this form of feedback to be more usable compared to written comments (Winstone & Carless, 2020) as 85% of students value asynchronous written feedback as more practical for their next steps.

Peer reviews have democratized evaluation: now students are in a position to evaluate each other’s contributions. A structured rubric also guards against bias by focusing on, for instance, collaboration, creativity and task completion. Topping (2023) study actually revealed that students trained with peer-assessment methods acquired 25% more critical thinking skills than the ones using instruction-only feedback models. However, issues still persist, as 40% of the students feel uncomfortable giving peer feedback suggesting that support should be prepared (van Zundert et al., 2010).

Reflective journals especially enable students to demonstrate their work and express their thought process, which is much deeper learning. For instance, student nurses who received guided reflection prompts in a PBL curriculum were found to enhance the accuracy of their clinical decisions by 20% (Moon, 2013). Prompts might include “How was your initial hypothesis revised in light of feedback?” or “What will you do differently next time? assist learners in connecting theory and practice.

Summative Assessment: Rubrics, Presentations, and Portfolios

Assessments may be formative and informal over the course of a project or summative, reflecting overall learning through authentic performances of mastery. Rubrics are also a must, providing clear guidelines for grading complex “products” as scores and innovation. For instance, Buck Institute for Education’s (BIE) PBL rubric ranks dimensions like “Depth of Understanding” and “Presentation Clarity” on a 4-point-scale (Larmer et al., 2015). In a study by Condliffe et al (2017) we find that schools who have adopted BIE rubrics have 35% higher inter-rater reliability than schools that use a more ad hoc grading system.

Students have opportunities to present and publicly display work for real audiences, such as industry professionals or community members. High school students at High Tech High present their capstone projects to teams of industry individuals in the practice, which has been linked to a 22% rise in postsecondary enrolment rates (Hixson et al., 2023). Digital portfolios (e.g., Seesaw, Mahara) are accumulations of artifacts (e.g., prototypes, research papers, peer feedback) documenting growth over time. In a longitudinal study of students, ePortfolio students were 40% more likely to articulate career goals that matched their projects (Cambridge & Kahn, 2021).

Table 3: Summative Assessment Tools in PBL

Measuring Impact: Longitudinal Studies on Career Readiness and Civic Engagement

The real proof of PBL is in the extent to which it prepares students for life off campus. The use of PBL has been associated with career readiness as demonstrated in longitudinal research. A 10-year follow-up of PBL graduates from New Tech High schools, for example, reported that 78% had secured employment in areas associated with their high school PBL projects—compared to 52% of students who did not participate in PBL (Thomas, 2023). LinkedIn (2023) has demonstrated that PBL graduates score 30% above the average on problem-solving and teamwork but also for their use of an iterative approach to work.

PBL also fosters civic learning since it applies academic content directly to community problems. It has also been demonstrated that college undergraduates developed inexpensive water filters in service to rural communities and followed them as alumni discovered that 65% of these individuals volunteered to work on diverse sustainability issues after graduation (Mitra et al., 2022). Similarly, high school PBL students engaged in civic PBL vote at twice the rate of their age mates by age 25 (Levinson, 2021).

Challenges and Innovations in PBL Assessment

Despite its strengths, PBL assessment faces hurdles:

1. Subjectivity: Rubrics may overlook intangible skills like resilience.
2. Scalability: Labor-intensive feedback processes strain under-resourced schools.
3. Equity: Students lacking home technology struggle with digital portfolios.

Innovations address these issues:

1. AI-Driven Analytics: Tools like Turnitin’s Revision Assistant provide instant feedback on drafts, reducing grading workloads (Warschauer et al., 2022).
2. Equity Audits: Schools audit rubrics for cultural bias, ensuring criteria value diverse perspectives (Paris & Alim, 2017).

Assessment in PBL is not just an additional layer, but rather it is an integral piece that drives the learning journey. The combination of formative and summative strategies produces resilient problem-solvers ready to face the challenges of society and professional life. Longitudinal data paves the way for PBL’s transformative potential, and policymakers should make a concerted effort to invest in training and tools to make such assessment sustainable.

Table 4: Balancing PBL with Standardized Testing Comparative Strategies Across Countries

Bridging Theory and Practice in Project-Based Learning

Project Based Learning (PBL) sits on the living tension between educational theory and classroom practice. Such a reciprocal relationship not only helps to inform the theoretical structure of frameworks on instructional design, but also to refine and expand those frameworks based on the challenges they face in the real world. It shows, through analysing how the three principles of constructivism shape PBL, how classroom experiences reshape theory, and how synergy between these two spaces drives innovation, how the iterative process makes PBL a transformative pedagogy.

Theory into Practice: How Constructivist Principles Shape PBL Design

Constructivism, based on the works of Piaget (1954) and Vygotsky (1978), suggests that learners actively construct knowledge through social interaction and experience. These tenets directly shape the design of PBL, which focuses on active inquiry, collaboration, and contextual problem solving. One example is Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which focuses on scaffolding in PBL, where projects are designed to develop students just outside their potential while being supported (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2018). A middle school science project about climate change could start with guided research on greenhouse gases (teacher support) and then lead to students designing their own experiments to test mitigation strategies (independent application).

PBL derives it’s structure from more modern iterations of constructivism. For example, this productive failure concept of Kapur (2016), wherein students achieve learning when they struggle (for example, fail) and iterate as in PBL with its cycles of iterative refinement. For instance, it is common for high school robot teams to fail through iterations of design until being effective, a process that research has shown contributes to an increase of 25% of staying motivated down the problem-solving path (Loibl et al. 2020). Digital tools, such as simulation software (e.g., PhET Interactive Simulations), enable the operationalization of these principles by allowing students to experiment with hypotheses in virtual settings, connecting abstract theory with concrete results (Wieman et al., 2021).

Table 5: Constructivist Principles in PBL Design

Practice Informing Theory: Lessons from Classrooms Refining Educational Models

PBL’s evolution is also informed by insights from classroom practice that have exposed shortcomings in theoretical models and suggested ways to refine them. For instance, early PBL frameworks assumed that all students were prepared to learn independently, but teachers quickly noticed a variance in students’ executive functioning skills. Thus, one of the key changes enacted was the incorporation of models of structured inquiry that embodied a balance of independence with checkpoints in the process (Condliffe et al., 2017). A 2022 study by Harris et al. discovered that the addition of weekly checklists to PBL units lowered anxiety levels for students by 35% without sacrificing cognitive rigor.

The expansion of theoretical underpinnings in education was also spurred by technology. For instance, while traditional PBL theories addressing situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991) considered physical communities, collaborations through virtual tools (e.g., Slack, Miro) increasingly demanded new theories to guide digital communities of practice. Dabbagh and Castaneda (2020) showed that online PBL cohorts developed similar levels of collaboration to their in-person counterparts, leading theorists to rebrand “authentic contexts” to also include digital ones.

Classroom challenges have honed assessment theories, as well. Traditional rubrics had difficulties assessing soft skills, such as empathy, in a high school project about homelessness. In response, teachers co-authored narrative assessments alongside students, documenting qualitative growth through storytelling (Paris & Alim, 2017). Such innovation shows how they practice tests and reshape theoretical assumptions.

Synergy: Case Examples Demonstrating the Theory-Practice Feedback Loop

The synergy between theory and practice is exemplified in cases where each informs the other in a continuous cycle:

1. Case 1: University-Industry Partnerships in Engineering

A university PBL program collaborating with Siemens Energy redesigned its curriculum after students struggled to apply thermodynamics theories to real-world turbine designs. Instructors introduced cognitive apprenticeship models (Collins et al., 1991), where engineers mentored students through iterative prototypes. Post-implementation, 90% of students could articulate theoretical concepts through practical applications, and Siemens incorporated student feedback into their training manuals (Bell, 2023).

2. Case 2: K-12 Civic Engagement in Urban Planning

A high school geography class partnered with city planners to redesign a public park. Initial attempts ignored marginalized community voices, contradicting PBL’s equity goals. Teachers integrated critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970) into the framework, emphasizing participatory design. The revised project not only won a urban innovation award but also influenced academic theories on culturally sustaining PBL (Mitra et al., 2022).

Implications for Educators and Researchers

• For Educators: Regularly revisit theoretical foundations to align projects with evidence-based practices.
• For Researchers: Collaborate with teachers to ground studies in classroom realities, ensuring relevance.
• For Policymakers: Fund professional development that emphasizes both theory and practical training.

Theory and practice in PBL are not a bridge, but a dynamic, back-and-forth conversation. Constructivist theories fill in the scaffolding, classroom experiences provide the test and refinement of those scaffolds, and their synergy leads to pedagogies that are rigorous and responsive. By cultivating this feedback loop, educators guarantee that PBL continues to be a powerful mechanism for helping learners navigate an ever-evolving world.

Real-World Impact of Project-Based Learning

Project–based learning (PBL) extends beyond the four paragraphs of the classroom, empowering learners with the skills, mindsets, and experiences to solve critical social and professional challenges. In this section, we will explore PBL’s impacts on workforce readiness, civic responsibility, global problem-solving, and the longitudinal data that provides empirical validation of its effectiveness.

Civic Engagement: Skills Alignment with Industry Needs

Today’s employers highly value candidates who can adapt, work well with others, and solve complex problems skills that are innately developed with project-based learning (PBL). These skills have been recognised by a 2023 World Economic Forum report as being critical in an age of rapid technological disruption, while a staggering paradox for graduates is that around 65% of employers state there is a gap between the knowledge that graduates can demonstrate and the ability to apply this knowledge in a real environment. PBL cuts the middleman by simulating workplace dynamics.

In higher education, at Aalborg University, engineering students work on a project sponsored by an industry for a whole year, which involves, for example, the design of wind turbine components. Graduates of this program indicate 30% higher job satisfaction, crediting access to experience iterating across design and disciplines (Kolmos et al., 2022). Likewise, LinkedIn’s 2023 survey of tech employers showed that people hired through PBL are 25% more likely to help lead innovation initiatives because they are comfortable with ambiguity and failure.

Table 6: Top Workforce Skills Enhanced by PBL

Civic Engagement: Community Projects Fostering Social Responsibility

Project-Based Learning (PBL) fosters responsible citizens by grounding education in community-driven problem-solving. A longitudinal study by Levinson (2023) of Chicago high school students participating in urban garden projects—designed to address food deserts—revealed a 40% increase in empathy scores among participants, as measured by standardized socioemotional assessments. Students engaged directly with community members affected by food insecurity, with one participant reflecting: “Working with residents who relied on our garden made me realize how policies affect real people. It wasn’t just about plants—it was about dignity.” This hands-on immersion not only deepened their understanding of systemic inequities but also cultivated emotional resilience and interpersonal skills, such as active listening and perspective-taking.

The socioemotional growth observed in these students translated into sustained civic action. Levinson’s (2021) follow-up study found that participants were twice as likely to volunteer in community organizations as adults compared to peers in traditional programs. Many aligned their volunteer work with their PBL focus, advocating for urban green spaces or mentoring younger students in sustainability initiatives. These projects also forged enduring civic identities; for instance, Denver students who advocated for pedestrian-safe zoning through a PBL program later pursued careers as professional urban planners, directly applying their classroom experiences to equitable city design (Mitra et al., 2022).

The impact of PBL multiplies through partnerships with higher education institutions. At Stanford University’s Haas Centre, students collaborated with NGOs to design low-cost water purification systems for rural Guatemala. Seventy percent of participants remained engaged in sustainability efforts post-graduation, demonstrating PBL’s effectiveness in sustaining civic commitment (Giles & Eyler, 2023). Such outcomes align with UNESCO’s (2022) call for pedagogies that foster “global citizenship,” positioning PBL as a vehicle for equitable social change by bridging academic learning with ethical leadership and collective responsibility.

Global Challenges: PBL Addressing Sustainability, Health Crises, and Digital Divides

PBL enables learners to address global problems with localized action. In Kenya, groups of secondary students worked alongside engineers to set up solar-powered, Wi-Fi hubs in remote villages that connected 5,000 residents and helped to narrow the digital divide (UNESCO, 2022). Similarly, during COVID-19, Maastricht University students developed telemedicine protocols for underrepresented communities that were then implemented nationwide by the Dutch Ministry of Health (Schmidt et al., 2021).

Climate action is a new frontier, too. In Bali, students are involved in health monitoring of coral reefs through the “Green Schools” program, which feeds into UNESCO’s Ocean Literacy Curriculum. Participating schools have been reported to decrease local marine plastic waste by 50%, a testament to the potential for PBL to blend education with environmental stewardship (Nguyen et al., 2023). Such projects demonstrate the scale of PBL, from classroom experiments to policy-influencing solutions.

Empirical Evidence: Data on PBL’s Effectiveness

PBL’s effectiveness is supported by decades of research. A meta-analysis of 82 studies indicates that PBL students excel beyond their peers in retention (effect size = 0.46), critical thinking (0.62), and application of knowledge in the long term (0.58) (Hattie, 2023). Employer feedback supports these findings: 80% of companies notice greater productivity from PBL graduates, with notable strengths in teamwork and innovation (LinkedIn, 2023).

Data from the New Tech Network, a national PBL consortium across the U.S., show that graduates earn 15% more in salary in STEM fields than their non-PBL counterparts (Thomas, 2023). In Australia, schools that have adopted PBL saw a 20% increase in university enrolment rates, with disadvantaged students most benefitting (Australian Council for Educational Research, 2022).

Challenges and Opportunities

And while the potential impact of PBL is deep, scaling its impact on education will require closing resource inequities. Schools in low-income populated areas may not have tools for high-tech projects, but partnerships with nonprofits, such as PBLWorks, have closed the gaps by 30% in five-years (Condliffe et al., 2023).

PBL’s real-world impact comes from a dual focus on individual growth and collective good. For education to be truly impactful, it must be calibrated not just to the job market and the future of work, but also to society at large, to prepare learnings not only to find a job, but for those learners to change the workforce and the world by creating, empathising and taking action based in evidence.

Challenges and Solutions in Project-Based Learning

Project-Based Learning (PBL) is a really powerful tool, but not without its challenges. This section explores widely experienced challenges (resource limitations, assessment complexity and resistance to change) and discusses evidence-based solutions. Based on international case studies and empirical investigations, it provides concrete suggestions for education leaders, policy makers and stakeholders to expand PBL efforts in equitable and sustainable ways.

Common Obstacles

Resource Limitations

The demand for materials, technology and time by PBL stretches under-resourced institutions. 63% of teachers in low-income schools​ state they lack of tools and resources such as 3D printers, lab equipment, and reliable internet access limiting their ability to design authentic projects (UNESCO, 2022) For example, a rural school in Ghana had to scrap a broader solar energy PBL unit and instead return to rote memorization of energy concepts without the aid of photovoltaic cells (Agyei & Voogt, 2023). Within affluent settings, even as well-resourced districts attempt PBL, they often fail to support deep inquiry with time resources, with teachers spending 30% more hours planning PBL compared to traditional lessons, often without compensation (Harris et al., 2022).

Table 7: Resource Gaps in PBL Implementation

Source: World Bank (2023). Global Education Monitoring Report.

Assessment Complexity

Given its emphasis on soft skills like creativity and collaboration, PBL is harder to evaluate. Traditional rubrics can be too blunt to accurately assess subtle competencies, which in turn leads to self-contradictory grading. In another U.S. study, 58% of teachers acknowledged inflating grades on group projects to avoid potential parent complaints about “subjectivity” (Shepard et al., 2023). Also, measuring individual contributions in work that is based on teams is still a matter of dispute. A meta-analysis found that peer assessments, though helpful, have only moderate correlation (r=0.45) with those of instructors and so have a risk of inequity (van Ginkel et al., 2021).

Resistance to Change

Hurdled by institutional inertia and scepticism within the stakeholder economy. When educators were surveyed in Japan in 2022, 70% were against replacing lecture-based instruction with PBL, linking resistance to a deeply ingrained cultural deference to standardized exams (Tanaka & Yamada, 2023). In South Korea, too, parents protesting a PBL pilot worried that such education would lower their children’s scores on the college entrance exam (Kim et al., 2023). Teacher hesitancy is also linked to a lack of training: 45% of U.S. educators report feeling unprepared to facilitate open-ended projects (Condliffe et al., 2023).

Mitigation Strategies

Teacher Training Programs

Professional development (PD) is essential; investing in it to develop your PBL facilitation skills will pay dividends! Finland’s national PD model partners new teachers with PBL mentors over a 2-year period; during the first 8 years of PD implementation, classroom adoption rates increased from 22% to 89% (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2023). Key components include:

• Micro-credentials: Short courses on PBL design (e.g., Coursera’s “PBL Teacher Certification”).
• Peer Coaching: Collaborative planning sessions using protocols like the Tuning Protocol to refine projects.
• Simulation Labs: Virtual classrooms (e.g., Mursion VR) to practice facilitation techniques.

Policy Advocacy for Flexible Curricula

Governments must reform rigid curricula to accommodate PBL. Successful models include:

• Singapore’s “Teach Less, Learn More” initiative, which reduced syllabus content by 30% to free time for projects (Tan, 2023).
• California’s Golden State Pathways Program, funding K-12 districts to integrate PBL into career pathways (CDE, 2023).
• EU’s Erasmus+ PBL Grants, supporting cross-border collaborations (e.g., Spanish and Swedish students co-designing carbon-neutral cities) (European Commission, 2023).

Table 8: Policy Levers for PBL Adoption

Synthesis: Overcoming Barriers Systematically

Addressing PBL’s challenges requires a systems approach:

1. Resource Redistribution: Prioritize equity in funding and technology access.
2. Innovative Assessment: Develop AI-driven analytics (e.g., Turnitin’s Reflect) to evaluate soft skills objectively.
3. Cultural Shifts: Engage parents and policymakers through PBL showcases demonstrating student impact.

PBL also faces important obstacles, but targeted investments in training, partnerships, and policy can help make it more widespread and effective. By reframing difficulties as opportunities, education systems can nurture a cohort of agile, empathetic problem-solvers prepared to rise to the challenge of the 21st century.

Future Directions in Project-Based Learning

While the education systems globally are transforming to meet the requirements of the 21st-century, Project Based Learning is also at a critical crossroad. New technologies, unanswered research questions and evolving policy terrains will influence its evolution. In this part, we discuss three vital pathways for the future of PBL technological integration, research agendas, and policy reforms—that can be stepped on to unleash PBL’s transformative potential.

Emerging Trends: AI/VR Integration and Global Collaborative Projects

AI and VR together with PBL to reinvent experiential learning for instance, AI driven platforms such as Carnegie Learning’s MATHia adapt the project scaffolds in real-time according to student performance, thus personalizing feedback while supporting inquiry driven exploration (Holstein et al., 2023). For instance, AI tutors in a Boston high school biology class examined students’ experimental designs, making optimisations which reduced mistakes by 45% (Baker et al., 2023). In a similar way, VR immerses learners in simulated environments, as with medical students receiving practice performing emergency triage in a virtual war zone a technique that has been shown to improve the speed of decision-making by 30% (Dalgarno et al., 2023).

Geographical barriers are melting away as global collaborative projects get multiplied, aided by a pandemic-induced digital space. The United Nations’ Global Schools Program links classrooms around the world to address sustainability challenges. In 2022, students from 50 countries co-designed a climate action toolkit that led to 15 municipal policy adoptions (UNESCO, 2023). Cross-cultural exchanges exist on platforms such as Flip and Padlet, however there are still challenges, examples being time zone differences and language barriers which resulted in a 20% drop-in participation rates specifically in low-income areas (Zhao et al., 2023).

Table 9: Emerging Technologies in PBL

Research Gaps: Long-Term Socioemotional Impacts and Equity in Access

While the cognitive benefits of Project-Based Learning (PBL) are well-documented, its socioemotional impacts remain underexplored. Emerging research, however, highlights both promising outcomes and persistent challenges that demand attention.

Resilience and Anxiety Reduction

Longitudinal data from Thomas (2023) reveals that PBL fosters resilience, particularly in high-pressure careers. Over a decade, a cohort of 5,000 PBL alumni reported 20% lower anxiety levels compared to peers from traditional pedagogies. This resilience stems from PBL’s iterative problem-solving framework, which normalizes failure as part of the learning process. For example, students who redesigned prototypes multiple times in engineering projects developed coping strategies for workplace setbacks, translating to reduced stress in demanding professional environments.

Addressing the Needs of Introverted Learners

Despite these benefits, PBL’s emphasis on collaboration can marginalize introverted students. A 2023 survey found that 30% of introverts felt overshadowed in group projects, often relegated to passive roles (Lee & Sriraman, 2023). However, structured interventions, such as assigning specific responsibilities (e.g., researcher, presenter, or data analyst), significantly improved outcomes. In one case, introverted student in a robotics PBL program exhibited 15% higher self-efficacy scores after roles were clearly defined, enabling them to contribute meaningfully without social overwhelm.

Equity Gaps and Implicit Biases

Socioemotional impacts are further complicated by systemic inequities. Schools in high-poverty areas are 60% less likely to implement advanced PBL projects due to resource shortages (OECD, 2023). This disparity does not limit access to skill development but also perpetuates socioemotional divides—students in under-resourced settings miss opportunities to build confidence through hands-on, impactful work. Even when resources exist, implicit biases persist. Girls in STEM-focused PBL programs receive 25% fewer leadership opportunities than boys, undermining their self-efficacy and perpetuating gender gaps in technical fields (Riegle-Crumb et al., 2023).

Structural Barriers in Standardized Systems

In East Asia, rigid standardized testing cultures stifle PBL adoption. Tan and Chua (2023) note that educators in these regions face pressure to prioritize exam content over collaborative, open-ended projects. This narrow focus deprives students of socioemotional growth opportunities, such as empathy-building through community partnerships or creativity nurtured by interdisciplinary inquiry.

Call for Longitudinal Research and Policy Action

To fully harness PBL’s democratizing potential, longitudinal studies must track socioemotional outcomes—such as empathy, self-efficacy, and mental health—across diverse demographics. Policymakers and educators must also address barriers through:

1. Role-Structured Collaboration: Mandate clear role assignments in group projects to empower introverted learners.
2. Equity Audits: Allocate funding and technology to underserved schools, ensuring all students access high-quality PBL.
3. Bias Training: Integrate anti-bias frameworks into teacher training to dismantle gendered leadership norms in STEM PBL.
4. Hybrid Assessment Models: Blend PBL outcomes with standardized testing in regions like East Asia to ease cultural resistance.

Policy Implications: Curriculum Reforms and Funding Priorities

To learn more about what you can do, and how policy shifts are key to scaling PBL sustainably, visit: www.80by2020.org Curriculum reforms should emphasize flexibility, not prescriptive standards. In 2021, Finland’s National Core Curriculum cut subject-hour mandates by 20% to allow time for interdisciplinary projects (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2023). Likewise, California’s Golden State Pathways Program Funds K-12 districts for the goal of aligning PBL with career readiness, serving over 500,000 students since 2022 (CDE, 2023).

Funding mechanisms should focus on teacher training and infrastructure. Examples include the EU’s Erasmus+ PBL Initiative which coordinates the disbursement of €50 million/year for educator PD, and Kenya’s Digital Literacy Programme which subsides VR headsets for rural schools (European Commission, 2023; Mwangi et al., 2023). Public-private partnerships such as IBM’s work with New York City schools offer AI tools and mentorship and narrow tech gaps by 35% (IBM, 2023).

Table 10: Policy Recommendations for PBL Scaling

The future of PBL lies in balancing innovation and equity. Utilization of AI/VR, work towards closing socioemotional and access gaps, and pushing for policy reform can allow educators to ensure that PBL rises above privilege to be a resource for all young people to become empowered ethical problem-solvers.

CONCLUSION

Bridge School Project-Based Learning: Closing the Gap Between Theory and Application. Unlike a more traditional instructional context, PBL engages students in real world, collaborative problem solving; it develops the skills they will need in this century. Through an emphasis on critical thinking, creativity, and adaptability, PBL prepares students for success in school, as well as in life and in work. It places students in a position to confront real global crises, from climate change, to pandemics, to global technology divides education becomes more meaningful and transformative. In addition, studies have demonstrated that the PBL method not only increases engagement and retention but also enhances knowledge transfer and long-term success. But getting the most from PBL takes a systemic, collaborative approach. Teachers must accept that their roles are changing from sage on the stage to guide on the side – and always fellow learner – and that they need to engage in the ongoing self-work of producing rigorously relevant tasks. To help prepare students for our fast-moving innovation economy, policymakers need to reconsider obsolete curricula, endorse skill-based assessment over standardization and ensure resources are distributed equally. Whilst, as for industry and wider community, it is for them to encourage and provide artificial and real-world experiences about how PBL process relates to real life situations.

This triumvirate educators, policymakers and industry must collaborate to scale PBL in a way that is sustainable and inclusive, particularly in underserved communities. When these stars of persistence, agency, and relevancy are in alignment, students succeed, and equity is learned. PBL is not simply pedagogy, it’s change. It presents students as not as passive knowledge recipients, but actors and agents of change. PBL not only invites you to grow intellectually, it also teaches you emotional intelligence, compassion and civic responsibility. With the world continuing to be marked by swift technological transformation and challenging societal problems, PBL provides a North Star for education systems to survive and thrive.

In the end, PBL isn’t another educational fad, it is the needed change. It calls us to imagine classrooms as incubators of innovation, and students as architects of their own future. When we invest in PBL today, we invest in a future generation of leaders with empathy, skill, and vision. The time for action is now because the future of education, and the world that it produces, is at stake.

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