Social Marketing and the Management of Youth Restiveness in Nigeria’s Oil-Producing Region

Social Marketing and the Management of Youth Restiveness in Nigeria’s Oil-Producing Region

Marcus Friday Ovovwero Ekure, Anayo D. Nkamnebe, Chukwudi Ireneus Nwaizugbo, Solomon A. C. Egbule

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8110132

Received: 02 November 2024; Accepted: 07 November 2024; Published: 09 December 2024

ABSTRACT

This study, ‘’Social Marketing and the Management of Youth Restiveness in Nigeria’s Oil-Producing Region’’ extends the contextual boundary of social marketing by examining its relationship with youth restiveness in the South-south region of Nigeria. Therefore this study probably represents a maiden attempt in social marketing literature as against the conventional application of the phenomenon in inducing behavioural change in health related domains. Contrary to empirical tradition, this study investigated the possibility of social marketing as an effective tool for reducing the scourge of youth restiveness and criminality in the troubled South-south region of Nigeria. Using a systematic sampling procedure, 6 states where selected from the 9 states of the Niger delta on the bases of their oil and pipeline bearing statuses, two local government areas were selected per state and four communities per local government area from where unit of analyses or respondents (comprising community youths, leaders, elders, ex militants and their relatives) for the research were drawn who responded to the survey instruments that were distributed..Thereafter, multiple regression was used to analyse obtained field data and findings revealed a positive relationship between social marketing and management of youth restiveness in the South-south region. Hence it was recommended that multinational oil companies operating in the area should invest more in quality and durable infrastructural development as well as free human capital development programs such as vocational cum entrepreneurial programs, scholarship, intern-ship as well as provide employment opportunities as an army of unemployed youths is tantamount to sitting on top a keg of gun powder which could explode in no time.

Key Terminologies: Multinational Oil Companies, Social Marketing, Youth Restiveness.

INTRODUCTION

The protracted oil crises in the South-south and its attendant rate of youth restiveness has been an issue of national and international concern considering its adverse effect on social economic and political stability of the country.  The south-south region being the nucleus of the Niger delta region of Nigeria has known no peace since the discovery of oil as there has been series of violent crises ranging from militancy, kidnapping, pipeline vandalism and all forms of youth restiveness.

Ijeoma, et al, (2020) believes that majority of these self-determination agitation and restiveness by youths of the region share common objectives which centres round ecological degradation and pollution, infrastructural and human capital development deficit or deprivation on the part of government and multinational oil companies operating in the region. This has created a very negative perception in the minds of the host communities which portray these multi national oil companies more in light of exploitation and oppression which has invariably affected their behavioural pattern towards these companies (Ross et al, 2017).

In an attempt to proffer lasting solution this scourge of restiveness and criminality in the region, various crises management strategies have been implemented by government and multinational oil companies operating in the region but no satisfactory outcome has been recorded (Gimah and Bodo, 2019). For instance, the Presidential Amnesty Programme initiated by the late President of Nigeria, Umaru Musa Yar’Adua, was established in 2009 to realize sustainable peace, human and environmental security in the Niger Delta region (Chikwem and Duru, 2018; Davidheiser and Nyiayaana, 2011;Ebiede, 2018).

The primary purpose of this initiative was to give pardon to repentant militants that would surrender their arms within 60 days, between August and October 2009 and a sum of sixty five thousand naira (N65,000 /USD 180) was earmarked for each as monthly stipendincluding a compulsory fully funded skill acquisition for each between the period of 2010–2015 (within and outside the nation) so as to enable them build capacity for gainful employment and reintegration into the society by the end of the program (Essien, 2008; Ering, Bassey and Odike, 2013; Etekpe, 2012). Since the presidential amnesty program’s inauguration in 2015, a projected amount of 234 billion naira (USD 645 million) has been purportedly spent (PIND, 2015a, 2015b, 2018).

However, despite the huge expenditure on this program and more, youth restiveness and criminality has continued to surge in the region, thereby living doubts regarding their efficacy and creating room for criticism and outright labelling as conduit pipe for financial embezzlement by political contractors. This observation invariably sets the background of the need for more sustainable approaches in tackling the crises situation in the region and the present-day debates seems to be tilting towards social marketing related solutions, especially from the functional dimension of multinational and local oil companies operating in the region such as their corporate social responsibility (CSR) and their relationship management strategies (Udujiand Okolo-Obasi, 2017, 2018).

The unique feature of social marketing is that it takes learning from the commercial sector and applies it to the resolution of social and health problems. Historically, the idea of social marketing originated from the action of Wiebe in 1951, when he questioned the statuesque of the marketing community by asking “Why brotherhood and rational behaviour can’t be sold like soap or any other product?” (Wiebe, 1951/1952). This experience became thought provoking and it stimulated empirical focus in that regard as scholars and marketing practitioners began to thinker various ways in which behavioural change can be achieved in the non commercial (non profit) sector. Over time, this thinking has been refined through empirical effort by marketing scholars and public health experts and leverageing particularly on international development efforts, where social marketing has been proven to be potent in achieving behavioural changed in family planning and disease control programmes. Empirical evidence today reveals that social marketing thinking and techniques has gained a wider recognition and application in diverse fields of applications, especially in the developed climes where it has taken a centre stage of health improvement and management in several countries. In the USA, social marketing is increasingly being advocated as a core public health strategy for influencing voluntary lifestyle behaviours such as smoking, drinking, drug use and diet (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2005).

This observation aligns with the definition by Kotler and Lee (2008) which portrayed social marketing as “process that adopts principles of marketing and techniques to create, communicate, and deliver value in order to influence target audience behaviour that benefit society (public health, safety, the environment, and communities) as well as the target audience”.

Therefore, considering the empirical evidence regarding the success of social marketing in actualizing behavioural change in key sectors, this study aim to measure the relationship between social marketing and management of youth restiveness in the south-south region of Nigeria with view to providing a nuanced understanding of how the various dimensions of social marketing adopted in the study affect management  youth restiveness and criminality.

Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between social marketing and management of youth restiveness in the south-south towards enhancing peaceful coexistence and tranquillity in the region. This aim will be expressed through the following objectives:

1. To determine the effect of infrastructural development in host communities by oil firms on management of youth restiveness in the South-South region.
2. To ascertain the implication of human capital development on management of youth restiveness in the South-South region.

Research Questions

1. To what extent will infrastructural development carried out by oil companies in their host communities affect management of restiveness and criminality in the South-south region ?
2. What effect would human capital development programs of multinational oil companies for host communities have on management of youth restiveness and criminality in the South-south region?

Research Hypotheses

The study is guided by two hypotheses which are stated in null forms as follows:

H01: There is no significant positive relationship between Infrastructural development in host communities and management or reduction of youth restiveness in the South-South region.

H02: There is no significant positive relationship between human capital development programs in host communities and management of youth restiveness  in the South-South region

Significance of Study

The findings of this study will undoubtedly make a significant contribution to the ongoing discourse and pursuit of sustainable solutions to the persistent crises in the region, as evidenced by the research lacuna noted above. However, the government, oil companies, and other key actors in the region have been making decisions based on rule of thumb due to the absence of context-specific research, as there appears to be no evidence-based research to guide policy and strategy formulations. This research will assist in addressing this imbalance.

Additionally, the results of this investigation will broaden the scope of knowledge and encourage further discussion regarding the potential of social marketing as a solution to social issues within the South-South Region’s energy companies. Additionally, it has the potential to contribute to the advancement of the theory of Community Development, CSR, and the potential passage into law or an Act to be known as the Community Development Act (CDA).

The researchers, as a Community Development specialists, policy makers, stakeholders, and host communities, will all benefit from the practical implications of the study’s findings. It will provide managers and corporate firms with valuable insights to effectively integrate their CD policy and programs with the requirements of the host communities and to cultivate a more positive corporate relationship with them. It will also allow corporations to enhance their performance and profitability by fostering a tranquil business environment and promoting their corporate image.

Additionally, it will allow them to utilise the CD to cultivate their community and establish more positive relationships with the companies they host. It will also allow them to align the CD programs and initiatives with their community’s vision and adhere to the sustainable development of community capital and assets. The government would have access to a valuable reference material for the development of economic road maps, laws, and policy formulation, particularly in the areas of security, human capital, infrastructural development, community development, and environmental protection in the troubled Niger Delta region, which serves as the economic backbone of the nation. It is a valuable addition to the broader corpus of knowledge in academia, as it can be used as a reference for future research and general research engagements.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Social marketing

As an innovative social change strategy, social marketing has gained popularity in the 21st century. Four decades of doubt regarding the field’s breadth, considerable concentration revisions, and eventual maturity along various dimensions have shaped its standing. According to a recent assessment of the profession, there are significant obstacles to expansion (Andreasen, 2002).

After a protracted ‘identity crisis,’ social marketing eventually discovered its true nature in the 1990s when key researchers and practitioners realised that it was about altering behaviour, not ideas. Social marketing at this point was the use of commercial marketing technologies to analyse, plan, execute, and evaluate programs to influence target audiences’ voluntary behaviour to improve their personal and societal well-being.

This concept set the field apart from its disciplinary competitors: it was not about education or attitude modification unless it influenced conduct. Using conduct as the social marketing ‘bottom line’ provided other benefits. It showed that behavioural impact is the final criteria of efficacy, but as Hornik has recently shown, it is sometimes difficult to identify and ascribe to exact reasons (Hornik, 2002).

In practice, this new concept allowed team members to perceive their position as contributing in different ways to this final objective, rather than squabbling over which manner is better. The focus on behaviour change led scholars to evaluate behaviour change theories and models and create testable claims. Practitioners used behavioural science conceptualisations and research to create and integrate program features.

The benefit is that it shows how social and commercial marketing are comparable and why most commercial marketing strategies and techniques should work for social marketing. Reflexion shows that commercial marketers’ performance is measured by behavior—sales, repeat business, positive word of mouth, cooperative marketing ventures, etc. Sergio Zyman says, “If what you do does not ‘move the needle’, you are not a good marketer” (Zyman, 1999). Thus, sales strategies should encourage good social conduct.

Infrastructural development

According to Akamune (2018), infrastructure development entails the enhancement of the quality of infrastructure’s various components, including roads, power, ICT, water, and sanitation. Infrastructure is a fundamental, essential service that must be established in order to facilitate development. The prevalence of infrastructure can both facilitate and accelerate the economic development of the Niger Delta region. In the absence of these facilities and services, development will be exceedingly challenging and can be likened to a highly scarce commodity that can only be obtained at an exorbitant price. Many empirical studies and theoretical analyses have been conducted on the provision and development of infrastructures (Fidelis, Jude, and Ighata, 2017).

The emergence of crises in the region has been ascribed by experts to sentiments that arise from perceived deprivation, underdevelopment, abuses, and socio-economic inequity on the part of the government and the various oil companies operating in the region (Nkamnebe, 2021). The most common objectives and vision of the majority of these self-determination movements are the development of infrastructural and human capital, ecological degradation and pollution, and deficit or deprivation. (2020). Eleje.

The correlation between the administration of energy crises in the South-South and infrastructural development is evident from the aforementioned. Osagie et al (2010) have observed that in the event of conflict between groups, there must be valuable assets such as infrastructural development, academic pursuit of knowledge, social welfare, facilities, freedom, or self-determination which are in dispute or at risk. As a result, it emphasises the safeguarding of personal or group identity or interest. Oil firms’ dedication to CDS within host communities has the potential to alleviate the scourge of militancy in the Niger Delta region, according to Okolo-Obasi (2017).

As a result, Wilson (2021) determined that the environmental unfriendly activities of multinational oil companies have the potential to initiate conflicts, while their genuine involvement in infrastructural development can prevent and resolve conflicts, thereby fostering host community-company identification. This assertion is unquestionably predicated on Okolie’s (2021) observation that conflict-sensitive organisations and their managements are essential components of a collaborative effort to establish a more peaceful world.
Considering the origins of threats to the processes of oil exploration, production, and distribution, it is instructive to observe that security threats resulting from restive youths, pipeline vandalism, kidnappings, and attacks by armed gangs are the result of CDS-induced conflicts involving oil companies, communities, and aggrieved youths who occasionally employ well-planned strategies to steal oil (Okolie-Osemene, 2015; Adams, 2014).

Human resource development

Vocational and entrepreneurial capacity development are implied by human capital development in the context of this research. In order to mitigate the escalating scourge crises in the Niger Delta region, the government and multinational oil companies have implemented a variety of capacity-building initiatives, including the development of entrepreneurial skills and the acquisition of skills, for the oil-producing and pipeline-bearing communities in the region. (2017, Ogbuene). In spite of the substantial annual investment in this area, the crisis situation continues to deteriorate on a daily basis. Therefore, the effectiveness of these programs is called into doubt.

World-wide, vocational and entrepreneurship capacity development has assumed a central position, as it continues to be the foundation upon which small and medium-sized enterprises, which are undeniably the most significant economic growth indicator, flourish. (“Eleje 2020”). The human capital development programs of multinational oil companies operating in the region are either inadequately organised, shabbily implemented, or deliberately not intended to improve the quality of life for the people of the region, as per Akpana et al (2020). Odubo and Tobor (2016) concurred with the aforementioned assertion, adding that the indigenous people of the South-South region are experiencing a paradoxical situation of poverty in the face of abundance due to the irresponsible behaviour of government and oil companies. Isiguzo (2008) has posited that the marginalisation and exclusion of indigenous individuals in management positions, where cardinal decisions are made, has been a contributing factor to the agitation of host communities in the regions. The long-standing crises in the region have reached a stage where the execution, quality, and impact factors of the numerous claims of social responsibilities and community development initiatives must be questioned.

Youth restlessness and criminality

The notion of youth varies by geographical location due to societal influences. A young person is consistently characterised by an excess of energy that requires channelling; but, if left unchecked, this energy may result in detrimental behaviours. These individuals are characterised as neither adolescents nor newborns (Ndu, 2000; Yusuf, 2001).

Adewuyi (2008) defines youths as those between the ages of 15 and 24. In Nigeria, those aged 30 and below are classified as young persons by the National Youth Service Scheme (NYSC). Igbo and Ikpa (2013) characterise an adolescent as a person under the age of 35 participating in the N-Power program of the Federal Government of Nigeria. In the Niger Delta and across Nigeria, an individual is deemed an adolescent if they are unmarried and an adult if they are married, irrespective of their age. Youth unrest has been utilised by young individuals as a means to achieve their desired objectives from the relevant authorities.

Reports indicate that the Niger Delta populace was initially passive but has been consistently agitated, leading them to a state of desperation. Consequently, they retaliate against their oppressors just to prevent their demise and extinction, as well as to mitigate their pain (Bodo, 2019). Various groups, such as the Niger Delta Avengers (NDA), Niger Delta People Volunteer Force (NDPFF), and Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), emerged in response to the consequences of many oil crises and conflicts between the people and the government. Bodo (2019) has seeing the emergence of many cult organisations claiming possession of deserted oil installations in the area. Bodo (2019), Bodo (2018), and Okolie-Osemene (2015) report that the region is presently witnessing regular incidents of arson and homicides due to military offensives against cult organisations, prompting several locals to abandon their homes in pursuit of safety. Multiple manifestations of young unrest have been noted in the south-south region, encompassing pipeline damage, illegal oil bunkering, militancy, and kidnapping and hostage-taking.

Factors contributing to youth unrest

Certain reasons have been cited as the causes of abduction and hostage-taking in Nigeria, particularly in the Niger Delta Region. The issues are: unemployment, politics, poverty, illiteracy, religion, greed, and corruption. The unemployment rate in Nigeria is concerning, particularly among the youth. Balogun (2010) asserts that young unemployment in Nigeria is a latent crisis poised to erupt. This circumstance has driven several youngsters to engage in criminal activities, including abduction and hostage-taking, for the goal of extorting money. The instance of Evans, the affluent kidnapper, has prompted several jobless Nigerian teenagers to view abduction as a potential solution to unemployment and poverty. Unemployed youngsters in the Niger Delta oil region have grievances against the government. They assert that they are an oil-producing region; nonetheless, many of the kids remain unemployed. This pushes the youth to abduct foreign expatriates for ransom.

Politics: Politicians in Nigeria sometimes cultivate a contingent of unemployed youngsters for nefarious intentions, particularly in efforts to target their adversaries.

Poverty: Nigeria has a population over 197 million, with around 70 percent residing below the poverty line (Olawale, 2018). Poverty persists in Nigeria, with about 100 million individuals subsisting on less than $1 (£0.63) daily, despite economic expansion (BBC, 2012). The elevated poverty rate in Nigeria has compelled several adolescents to engage in different forms of crime, including kidnapping and hostage-taking for ransom.
Illiteracy: Research indicates that the majority of those involved in abduction and hostage-taking lack tertiary or higher education. The majority possess minimal or no formal schooling. Education instills moral values in individuals pursuing academic courses; nonetheless, the uneducated, particularly the adolescents, are more susceptible to being misled into a life of crime. It is important to recognise that illiteracy is a contributing factor to abduction in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria.

Corruption: Nigeria ranks 148th in terms of corruption among 175 nations. Nigeria is positioned 27th in the corruption ranking among 175 nations globally. The corruption rank in Nigeria averaged 120.45 from 1996 to 2017, peaking at 152 in 2005 and to a nadir of 52 in 1997 (Transparency International, 2017). Nigeria is so synonymous with corruption. The current government ascended to power by pledging to combat corruption, asserting a policy of zero tolerance. However, since its inception, it has become evident that the anti-corruption efforts are biassed and serve as a mechanism to target opposition parties, resulting in the continued prevalence of corruption. Nigeria’s pervasive culture of corruption has led many young individuals to engage in criminal activities like as abduction and computer fraud, commonly referred to as “yahoo yahoo.”

The frustration-aggression theory

This study aligns with several theories, including resource curse theory, social contract theory, social conflict theory, stakeholder theory, and planned behaviour theory. The Frustration-Aggression Theory most effectively elucidates the young unrest in the South-South region.

The violent uprising by militant youths in the Niger Delta targets military and civilian entities, directed at the government and foreign oil firms. Frustration consistently results in aggressiveness, as seen by Palestinians against the State of Israel, the ANC and other liberation forces in apartheid South Africa, and the IRA in Northern Ireland, among several others. One is aware of the issues and constraints of the frustration–aggression thesis, including the notion that an aggressive reaction to dissatisfaction may rely on the individual’s tolerance level. Frustration does not necessarily result in violence, nor does aggression invariably manifest as negative and violent; it may also be beneficial and productive. Nonetheless, it is a recognised truth that dissatisfaction induces a brief rise in motivation, resulting in more forceful reactions (Bandura and Walters, 1963). This is seen as sufficiently comprehensive to serve as a foundation for explaining nearly all manifestations of violent conduct, including political violence. Maire (2004) contended that “men who are frustrated possess an inherent tendency to inflict violence upon the source of their frustration in accordance with the intensity of that frustration.” This is indeed a highly relevant portrayal of the circumstances in the oil-bearing and adjacent villages in Nigeria’s Niger Delta area.

The Contemporary Niger Delta and Nigeria’s Resource Curse Conflict

The South-South area of Nigeria, like to other deltas such as the Amazon in Brazil, Orinoco in Venezuela, Mississippi in the United States, and Mahakarn in Indonesia, is recognised for its rich oil reserves, positioning it as the sixth biggest exporter of crude oil globally.Prior to the discovery of oil in the region, Nigeria was historically renowned for its agricultural productivity, which contributed to the impetus for imperialist incursions into the country.The area was abundant in palm products, lumber, rubber, peanuts, and cotton (Agbegbedia, 2012). The Niger Delta has been of paramount significance to the Nigerian economy since its inception. Nonetheless, despite the region’s evident significance, it continues to experience substantial marginalisation, impoverishment, and exclusion regarding human capital and infrastructural development (Collins, 2018).

Scholars and political analysts contend that following the discovery of oil in 1958, the Niger Delta region has undergone irrevocable changes due to the incessant exploratory endeavours by multinational corporations, which have ravaged its previously fertile land and contaminated its water, rendering the inhabitants vulnerable to economic strangulation, deprivation, and severe marginalisation, a plight frequently articulated by the South South populace (Akinbi, 2012). Empirical evidence indicated that the optimism of Nigerians, particularly in the South South region, surged significantly upon the discovery of oil (Dode, 2012), as their engagement in agricultural activities waned entirely, partly due to water pollution. Consequently, they could no longer pursue farming and fishing, which had previously constituted their primary sources of livelihood until the commercial discovery of oil in the Oliobiri community in 1958. This discovery most effectively elucidates the Resource Curse theory. Consequently, oil intended as a boon for the populace became into a scourge.

Rhuks (2018) investigated the redefinition of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in Nigeria’s post-amnesty oil sector. The paper aimed to emphasise the opportunity presented by the peaceful environment in the Niger Delta, resulting from the amnesty agreement, particularly for oil multinationals to innovate their corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives to sustain harmonious relations with local communities and thereby enhance their business potential. The methodology consists only of a review of existing literature and deductive reasoning, providing insights into resolving crises stemming from the denial of rights via the lens of Corporate Social Responsibility and stakeholder perspectives.

The report recommends for the use of mechanisms for peace education to foster a healthy relationship between the SPDC and the host communities of the Niger Delta. The research also argues for equitable remuneration from oil corporations operating in the Niger Delta region to the host communities to mitigate violence in the area. This paper contends that neglecting these issues may lead to a persistent and recurring conflict, exacerbating the already undeveloped conditions in the Niger Delta area.

Ijeoma Pauline Ogbonne (2020) conducted a research titled “Cutting the Head as a Cure for Headache: Exploring the Economic Impact of Niger Delta Militancy on Host Communities.” The research aimed to analyse the effects of militancy in the Niger Delta on the economic conditions of local populations. The research also investigated the government’s responsibilities to the inhabitants of the Niger Delta region from the viewpoint of impacted communities. The study employed descriptive survey research, utilising a sample size of 384 respondents from Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers States. The Questionnaire functioned as the data collecting tool, while simple percentages and multiple regressions were employed for data analysis in the study.
Militancy in the Niger Delta adversely affects economic activity through threats to participation, demotivation, job loss, income drop, inadequate salaries, and the deterrence of investors. The Nigerian government is obligated to assist them in five general areas: human security, environmental security, economic security, human empowerment, and the eradication of corruption in governmental operations.

The study suggests that the federal government and oil companies operating in the oil-rich Niger Delta should implement proactive measures instead of reactive ones to address emerging issues that could provoke unrest, thereby preventing significant economic damage caused by militant groups in the region. Additional research is necessary to investigate the solutions to the issues in the Niger Delta, taking into account their effects on economic activity.

RESEARCH METHODS

Population of the Study

The Population of the study covers the entire population of twenty-four communities systematically drawn from the twelve selected local government areas of the South –South states.

Table 1 Distribution of Sample size determination

The sample size for this study was determined using Taro Yamen formula which is computed as follows: n= N/(1+N〖(e)〗^2 )

Where:
n = SampleSize
N = PopulationSize
e = error
≅400

Model specification

The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy on the overall (0.8) shows that the variables are good.

Bartlett’s test for equal variances: 5.5934(0.012) reviews the adequacy of the data.

RESULTS

Table 2 Descriptive Statistics

Source: Researcher’s computation (using Stata version 13.0)

Table 2 above shows the descriptive properties of the data set used for the analysis, the constructs have a maximum value of 5 indicating that the respondents strongly agree at some point for all the questions asked, while the minimum of 2 and 1 for the constructs. On the average the respondent chooses 4 (agree). The descriptive statistics Table further shows that the sample size of 380 respondents were sampled

Table 3 Post Regression Diagnostic Test    

Source: Researcher’s computation (using Stata version 13.0)

The test for heteroskedasticity, shows that the variation between the dependent and independent variables are homoscedastic, in that there is no heteroskedasticity problem , implying that, the model is free from presence of unequal variance. This further indicates that our probability values for drawing inference on the levels of significance reliable and valid. Thus, validating the OLS result. Hence, the regression results can be used to test the formulated hypotheses.      

Hypotheses Testing using

Table 4 Regression table

The regression result output in table 4 above shows that Infrastructural development dimension of social marketing strategies has a significant positive effect on lingering oil crises in the South-South region., which means Infrastructural development is less than 0.05, hence, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate, which state that there is significant positive relationship between Infrastructural development and the lingering oil crises in the South-South region.

2: There is no significant positive relationship between host communities’ human capital development and management of the youth restiveness in the South-South Region.

The regression result output shows that host communities human capital development dimension of social marketing strategies has a significant positive effect on management of the lingering oil crises in the South-South region, the p-values for host communities human capital development is less than , hence, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate or contrary which states that significant positive relationship exists between host communities human capital development and management of the lingering oil crises in the South-South region.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Infrastructural development and management of youth restiveness

The regression result output in table 4 shows that Infrastructural development dimension of social marketing strategies have a significant positive effect on crises management in the South-South region, the p-values for Infrastructural development is less than 0.05, hence, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate, which states that there is significant positive relationship between Infrastructural development and crises management in the South-South region. By implication, sustainable infrastructural development is a fundamental tool for effectively managing the lingering oil crises in the region. Body of empirical evidence, amongst other criteria, places at the root of the crises in host communities in the South-south,  the issue of infrastructural deficit. It is no doubt that the multinational oil companies, by their exploratory activities, subject hoist communities to hazards of environmental degradation. This research finding aligns with views of Olarenwaju (2014), Ojo (2012), Ajibade and Awomuti (2009), Idemudia (2007) which supports infrastructural developments in host communities as important parameter for crises management between oil companies within the Niger Delta region and their host communities. From divergent viewpoints, they made cases for imperatives of oil companies giving priority attention to infrastructural development within their catchment areas. And that in that way they would be able to win the co-operation and support of host communities.

Ejibunu (2007) posits that despite over forty (40) years of oil production in Nigeria and hundreds of billions of dollars of oil revenue, the inhabitants of the South-South region , especially the riverine (creeks), remain in abject poverty due to poor social and infrastructural developments.

Oronto et al (2003), further aligns with this position when they opined that poverty level in the area is about 80% while unemployment level is about 70% due to lack of infrastructural development. Ibada, (2005) added that they live without even the most basic amenities such as pipe-borne water and electricity.

Fidelis and Egbere (2013) recommended in their study on ‘’the effect of the cost of militancy and unrest or peace accounting on the productivity of private organizations in Nigeria’’, that the federal government (NDDC) and operating oil companies in the Niger Delta region should give special attention to infrastructural development such as electricity, good roads, efficient communication systems, portable water, employment opportunities for the youths, scholarship awards amongst others. This will bring about peaceful coexistence in the region, thereby eliminating the cost of peace enthronement and consequently improve the economic development of the country.

Amongst recommendations by Mcvayerore 2020, that there should be a well planned and coordinated programme for socio-infrastructural development across the region. This will enable the government to provide needed social infrastructures such as schools, health care facilities, public water supply facilities, bridges and good road networks across the region. This will have a mitigating effect on the lingering crises in the region.

Human capital development and management of youth restiveness

The regression result output in table 4 shows that host communities human capital development dimension of social marketing have a significant positive effect on crises management in the South-South region, the p-values for host communities human capital development is less than , hence, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate, which states that there is significant positive relationship between host communities human capital development and crises management in the South-South region.

In line with the above finding, Mbat, Ibok and Daniel (2013) emphasizes need to shift from just infrastructural facility to issues of capacity building and poverty reduction which are main concerns of host communities. Eleje, 2020 also aligns his thought with the findings on human capital development and crises management when he submitted that oil companies operating in the area should invest huge amount of their profit into capacity building initiatives such as specialized skill, leadership and entrepreneurial trainings which would enhance their financial independence. However, in fairness to these oil companies and government, so much effort has been made in this regard by way of various intervention empowerment programs. But Mbok and Daniel (2013`) believes these effort have not been properly and strategically implemented to achieve their desired essence hence the reason for the lingering crises and dissatisfaction on the part of the host communities. Recently, the agitation from the angle of human capital development has taken a new dimension as host communities are now clamouring for higher engagement and representation at the echelon of the multinational oil companies which would afford them opportunity to be part of key decision making that affect their land (Devidheiser and Nyiayaana, 2011). This also buttress the urgent need for a more sustainable kind of human capital development that would give room for this agitation to be effectively responded to. The people of the South-south believe that capacity enhancement of these oil firms is deliberately targeted at equipping them for low cadre jobs only. Other scholarly opinion (Ebiede, 2018; Gimah and Bodo, 2019) hold that such foreign scholarships awarded to indigenes should not end at just acquiring the knowledge only but also to deploy it at working in strategic departments of these oil companies all things being equal to give sense of belongings to host communities.

The study finds that:

1. Adequate durable Infrastructural development across host communities in the South-South region of Niger Delta would have a significant positive effect on management of the youth restiveness in South-South Nigeria.
2. Adequate human capital development across host communities within the South-South region would have a significant positive effect on management of the youth restiveness in the region.

CONCLUSION

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between social marketing and management of youth restiveness in the South-South region of Nigeria. Based on the findings above, the study therefore concludes that Infrastructural development is of strategic importance to curbing youth restiveness in the troubled south-south region and that human capital development has a strong mitigating effect on crises in the region . Therefore, Since it has been established that adequate and quality infrastructural development in host communities reduces youthful exuberance and tendency to restiveness and criminality, oil firms operating in the troubled South-South region should give priority attention to infrastructural developments in the area. Previous research suggest that part of the reasons for the endless crises and restiveness is as a result of poor infrastructural development in the area. Host communities hold the view that oil companies are exploitative, selfish and self-centred, always thinking of themselves to the detriment of host communities where they operate. To correct this impression, oil firms must as a matter of urgency begin to prioritize host community development, both in areas of infrastructure and human capital development.

More so, human capital development having been identified as a major factor in oil crises management in the South-South region, oil firms should invest a great deal of their excess income in human capital development projects such as free skill acquisition programs, education, employment as well as SMEs development. This would help build trust, stimulate better relationship between the oil firms and their host communities.

Suggestion for Further Studies

This study revealed useful insight on the relationship between social marketing strategies and management of youth restiveness in the South-South region. The concept of social marketing is an emerging one and has hitherto found roots more in health-related areas as regards instilling certain desired attitudes or behaviour. This research work derives its uniqueness from the fact that it’s a deviation from the norm of health related applications to an hither virgin area of youth restiveness or crises management. The researchers had to grapple with stress of literature immersion to derive applicable dimensions for social marketing. This observation obviously suggests a wide gap in knowledge that research needs to cover. Below are areas noted for further studies:

In the first instance, the scope of this study encapsulates the South-South region which is just but 6 out of 36 states of the federation. Today, the challenge of insecurity is a serious one which is eating so deep into our national budget. Further research effort could target possibility of applying social marketing to instil desired behaviour in Nigerians that would reduce insecurity in other regions such as the north or south east that are currently the den of kidnappers and terrorists.

More so, the two dimensions used in this research may appear unrelated in the lens of some researchers. The authors painstakingly engaged in literature immersion which involved studying one hundred journal articles from reputable databases from where various dimensions emerged two of which were used based on suitability. This no doubt creates a vacuum for further research as to whether the applied dimensions in this regard are sufficient or not. A research could also be conducted on broadening the application of social marketing beyond health focus just like this research has succeeded in doing with youth restiveness in the South-South region.

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Table 4.1: Distribution of Questionnaire

Source: Field Survey, 2024

Questionnaire Collection

Source: computed from field survey data, 2023.

Survey Responses on Infrastructureal Development

Responses on Human Capital Development

In table 4.5 above, majority of the respondents fall within the strongly agreed and agreed category which implies that respondents are in agreement that human capital development in the Niger delta region will positively influence the oil crises in the region.

Responses on Management of Youth Restiveness

The above table reveals that majority of respondents are in agreement to the various items on the construct.