The Effectiveness of Strategies of Service Delivery by Private Security Firms in Crime Prevention in Nairobi County, Kenya

The Effectiveness of Strategies of Service Delivery by Private Security Firms in Crime Prevention in Nairobi County, Kenya

George Mondela Lukalia

Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000458

Received: 21 May 2025; Accepted: 26 May 2025; Published: 21 June 2025

ABSTRACT

The security of any nation is key for the achievement of social, economic and political objectives. Given these critical aspects of the security, no country across the globe can be able to satisfy the security need without having a support from other participants such as community and partnering with private security firms. With special requirement and level of training that PSFs offer to their personnel, partnership of police and PSFs in crime detection and prevention is key in provision of security across the Country. This study sought to examine the effectiveness of strategies of service delivery by private security firms in crime prevention in Nairobi County, Kenya. “This study was modeled by resource-based view theory that offered a discernment on what options are present to the private security firms in addressing the diverse challenges emanating from the ineffective strategic decisions in service delivery. A descriptive survey research design employing mixed methods approach in data collection was utilized to undertake the study. The target population constituted managers, supervisors, clients, and private security guards drawn from a sorted group of private security firms in Nairobi County. A multistage sampling approach employing clustering, proportionate random sampling and purposive sampling were used to obtain a sample size of 90 respondents. Questionnaire and interview guides were the main tools of data collection. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and presented in tables and charts. Qualitative data was presented in quotes and analyzed thematically. The findings of the data showed that guarding and collaboration strategies were the main strategies used by the PSFs. Based on the findings, the study recommended the implementation of government policy and legislation on collaboration between security agencies and PSFs for effective service delivery, implementation of an oversight control agency to check on professionalism and the adoption of modern and innovative technology by PSFs for effective crime prevention.

Keywords: Security; Private Security; Strategies; Strategic options; Service delivery

INTRODUCTION

Private Security Firms (PSFs) operate as businesses that provide additional security services to safeguard their clients’ lives and properties from criminal activities such as burglary, kidnapping, murder, vandalism, and theft. Implementing a suitable strategy that aligns with the external conditions, internal resources, and capabilities of a business can lead to significant enhancements and improved performance for the firm (Cushen and Thompson, 2016). As a result, the public, entrepreneurs, and various commercial entities have had to hire private security services for crime prevention to better protect themselves and their businesses. To fulfill this additional role effectively, private security companies need to implement efficient strategies for delivering their crime prevention services. Private security comprises various business entities, either individually funded or comprised of a group of self-employed individuals, whose primary aim is to provide security services to individuals or organizations that need these services by purchasing them (Button, 2019). Therefore, there is an element of a willing seller and a willing buyer. It has been mentioned that the functions performed by security firms are varied and include the protection of individuals, private property, and other investments from numerous risks (Cherono, 2018).  Burns noted that private security serves multiple purposes, ranging from preventing waste to deterring crime, all in an effort to improve safety.

According to Punch (2016), it is clear that Private Security Firms (PSFs) are vital in supporting state security services globally. Consequently, the swift increase in criminal activities in many countries has driven more private companies to enter the security sector. Despite this, the number of criminal incidents has risen over the years, with new types of crime such as terrorism and attacks by Al-Shabaab insurgents complicating the crime prevention efforts of Private Security Firms (PSFs). As noted, an effective strategy suited to a business environment enhances performance. The rise in insecurity, despite the growing presence of PSFs, may suggest that the current strategies are inadequate for addressing the modern security landscape. Consequently, there is a limited amount of research that has examined the service delivery strategies in crime prevention employed by PSFs.

Worldwide, Johnston, (2017) contends that private security is leading the way in delivering security services, driven by strong demand and a ready market for their offerings, in an area that has traditionally been dominated by public police forces. The leading role in providing security services has been accompanied by an increase in the workforce of security guards through private security companies, a strategy aimed at meeting the growing demand for these services. In contemporary democracies such as the United States, Britain, and Canada, the 1960s are seen as a pivotal moment in the evolution of crime prevention and law enforcement. During this period, the need to protect valuable possessions spurred investments in private security. A survey conducted in New York City revealed that private security firms play a crucial role in addressing security concerns (Bures and Carrapico, 2018). He also notes that, private security firms have some guidelines and rules as strategies of service delivery, to be able to undertake their contracted duties. Additionally, they achieved this through the enforcement and application of the law, which spurred this investigation into the service delivery strategies of private security companies in crime prevention within Nairobi County, Kenya. In a similar vein, Paz-Fuchs etal, (2018) opine that the privatization of the security sector has been occurring in Israel since the late 1980s and early 1990s, in response to the evolving security challenges the country faces. And one of the strategies of service delivery employed by the private security firms to compliment the state security agencies was, the embracing of technological advancements (Nemeth, 2019). This was done so that it can appeal on the government for contracts in security provision and also to impress on the citizens who would be in need for personalized security.

Another strategy of service delivery was professionalization of their operations on the passages where they are manning (Button, 2019). Consequently, they were tasked with safeguarding various private and public institutions in Israel and the West Bank settlements. It would be intriguing to explore the potential effects of applying similar service delivery strategies in Nairobi County. Many African countries, such as South Africa, Nigeria, South Sudan, and Kenya, possess private security forces (PSFs). As a result, South Africa’s private security industry, which is highly fragmented and functions in an unstable environment, has the opportunity to enhance public safety when the government cannot, as long as these services are delivered with professionalism and accountability as part of their service delivery strategies (Kroukamp and Cloete, 2018).

Consequently, they would be equipped to tackle the rise in criminal activity in townships and suburbs, including offenses like murder, attempted murder, cash transport heists, vehicle hijackings, and kidnappings. Like many regions globally, Berg, and Howell (2020) notes that East Africa heavily depends on private security firms for protection services due to the strain on the local police force. This was partly because they had adopted technology and hired more personnel than governmental security agencies. However, it is highly likely that the state maintains a monopoly on the use of force. By early 2013, every mining company in the Orientale province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo had engaged the services of a private security firm (Cordner, 2017).  Nonetheless, private security companies were prohibited by law from carrying firearms. To enhance their guard services, these companies have stationed personnel in the offices of extractive industries, utilizing state security agents as part of their operational approach. However, there is a lack of data regarding the extent to which private security firms in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which employ government security agencies, contribute to crime prevention. Okebiro and Mutonyi, (2022) in their study on investigating the impact of Private security companies and crime detection and prevention in Nairobi County, Kenya revealed that, despite the presence of these firms and the availability of their services, insecurity in the area continued to rise. This trend prompted the researchers to delve deeper into the issue. The researchers concentrated solely on the number of private security personnel in Nairobi County as a crime deterrent strategy, neglecting to investigate alternative strategies and their effectiveness in preventing crime. This study aims to enhance the understanding of private security strategies by examining how the service delivery approaches used by private security firms contribute to crime prevention. In this context, patrolling, as a physical service delivery method, involves trained guards patrolling on foot or in vehicles throughout their operational area, which aids in deterring potential criminals from accessing protected locations (Foster and Chasomeris, 2017). Nonetheless, there have been reported instances unjustifiable killings within premises, burglary and robbery, muggings, vandalism and gang attacks. Hence the need to understand how such a strategy of service delivery by private security firms prevents crime in Nairobi County.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The effectiveness of private security firms (PSFs) in crime prevention requires an assessment of how well crimes are solved and a critical analysis of the service delivery strategies employed (Bamidele, 2016). Despite this, notable criminal activities such as gang assaults, kidnapping, murder, vandalism, and theft persist in areas where private security firms operate in Nairobi County. The legal restrictions preventing private security guards from carrying firearms have hampered the effectiveness of their security services (Mutonyi etal, 2020). Consequently, these guards can only confront assailants who are unarmed. However, there remains a lack of academic research on how the absence of firearms affects the crime prevention capabilities of private security.

In a research study, it was established that man-power capacity has been utilized to enhance service delivery within the guarding industry (Diphoorn, 2016). In a similar vein, another study by McKenna, (2018) on the influence of security perceptions and self-efficacy on adult consumers’ adoption of home-based internet of things in the United States, advocated for increasing the presence of private security personnel on the streets to boost effectiveness, even though empirical evidence supporting the impact on crime prevention is lacking. In many nations, the number of private security guards often exceeds that of police officers. This increase in manpower has raised questions about its impact on crime prevention, highlighting a research gap that calls for further investigation.

A research study by Montgomery, and Griffiths, (2015), on the use of private security services for policing, explored how various technologies enhance the effectiveness of private security firms and found that both standalone and manned technologies demonstrate similar levels of efficiency. In Nairobi County, PSFs have incorporated technological advancements over time, employing hard technologies for crime prevention in various contexts, such as metal detectors in schools, baggage screening at airports, bulletproof windows in bank teller areas, and security systems for businesses and residences. Thus, this study aims to determine whether these effective strategies have led to an increase or decrease in crime rates. A research study established that expanding training capacity is essential for improving private security effectiveness, yet research is scarce on how enhanced training influences crime detection and prevention (Heaton, etal (2015). It was established that the male-dominated nature of the private security profession, influenced by client preferences and hiring organizations, has impacted its effectiveness (Cherono, 2018). The author concluded that the leadership styles within these private security companies shaped this gender makeup. However, the study did not address how the male dominance affects crime prevention effectiveness, which this research aims to explore.

Consequently, Masiga, etal (2020) in a research study on commercialized security and its role in selected countries’ national security noted that private security firms are deemed effective as they are the most visible security presence, with uniformed guards being the main point of interaction for the public in both private and public spaces where safety is a priority. These guards are employed to patrol various locations, including shopping malls, office complexes, residential areas, sports venues, warehouses, parking lots, and events requiring security. However, the authors did not clarify how this effective service delivery strategy influences crime prevention, which is the focus of this study.

Theoretical Framework

The research was guided by the Resource Based View Theory and the knowledge-based view Theory. This theory from Penrose in 1959, but thereafter advances by Wernerfelt in 1984 and Barney in 1986. respectively. The proponents of the RBV theory contended that for establishments to maintain competitiveness, they have to analytically evaluate their interior situation for causes that would increase their market driven leverage instead of searching for an environment with completion for their establishment.

Berg and Howell, (2020) asserted that a worthiness of an organization is an element of assets which should be unique, diverse and unmatched.  Besides, such qualities would assist a firm to counter hazards that exist or would emerge in firm’s market. For instance, equipping the security firm with modern armored vehicles for mobile patrols and electric alarm sensors for mitigating such crimes like trespassing, burglary and theft in premises; a resource, majority security firms lack within Nairobi County.

Accordingly, to the basis of the RBV theory was therefore the achievement of competitive organization through the tangibility and intangibility of resources that are heterogeneous and immobile hence providing attributes that are unique (Ainuddin, etal (2017). The proponents of the RBV theory argued that, instead of harnessing new abilities for every unique prospect, it could be efficient enough if the external prospects were checked by use of current abilities in current ways. In the analysis of competitive advantage, an essential basis of the resource-based view was that firms to exhibit competition founded on their exclusive resources and abilities.

The resource-based view theory viewed an organization as a package of resources: organizational capabilities, tangible and intangible resources. Profits that were competitive and maintained throughout the period normally came up from the formation of packages of resources and abilities. For the profits to be maintainable, four principles had to be contented: rareness, valuable, difficulty in imitation and difficulty in substitution. Such an assessment required a sound awareness of competitive background in which the organization was operating (Abrahamsen and Leander, 2015).

This theory was appropriate for this research by providing a reasoned approach to strategically allocate limited security resources to areas that could yield maximum results. In the case of this study, the resource-based theory introduces private security firms in examining if those strategies of service delivery in crime prevention were of value as required. Also, the effectiveness of strategies of service delivery would be checked within the firm through this theory. The competitive advantages attached to the adopted strategies of service delivery would be evaluated so that a firm could understand which strategy was unique in nature and was not available to the competitors of the firm.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study utilized a descriptive survey research design. The design facilitated the researcher to investigate and report things the way they were and describe such things as values, attitudes, characteristics, perceptions and behavior.

The area of study was Nairobi County, specifically; the industrial area, Central Business District (CBD) as well as the suburbs that are within the borders of the County. Nairobi County was chosen because of high density of private security firms found within the County either offering the security services or having their headquarters within the County. Also, Nairobi County is a hub of private business operators, NGOs and Embassies that require private security services from various private security firms, thus, appropriate for the study.

For this study the population was guards of the various private security firms. The target population were the guards of private security firms in the category of Large Medium and Small based in Nairobi County and their clients as captured in table 1 below.

Table 1: Target population

Source: Questionnaire data 2020

This study first used purposive sampling to identify private security firms in the categories of Large, Medium and Small then applied simple random sampling on the security managers, guards and clients based on the categories of their security firms.

Out of a total population of 116 respondents, simple random sampling procedure was applied in selecting 90 respondents who were the potential participants in the study. This study used Yamane’s formula in determining the suitable sample size for this study, with assumption of 95% of confidence level.

Where, n = Sample size

N = Study Population, 116 in this case

e = Alpha level of 0.05

substituting these values in the above equation, the sample size was:

n = 90

With the use of Yamane’s formula, the sample size of the study was determined to be 90 respondents from a population of 116 with a confidence level of 95%. Sample size distribution was presented in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Sampling of Respondents Firm’s Clientele by size

Source: Questionnaire data 2020

The main instruments used in the data collection were the questionnaire and interviews based on the objectives of the study.

Questionnaires were sent out to the top management of the various PSFs as well as their clients so as to gain responses to the research questions that have been formulated for the current study. The questionnaire used in this study was made up of two main sections; A and B. Section A gathered information on the background information of the participants, on the other hand, section B gathered information on the objectives of the study relating to the effectiveness, constraints, services and facilities provided by the security firms. The researcher preferred a questionnaire instrument because it was relatively convenient, covers a large area of what was examined in terms of objectives and it free from external manipulation. The questionnaire had closed-ended and open-ended questions to bring out specific responses for quantitative and qualitative examination respectively. Secondary data was derived from journals, online resources, government records; publications based on information from the World Values Surveys; non-governmental organizations (NGOs) records, media articles.

The researcher also performed in-depth interviews with the key informants and the managers of the PSFs and their clients. It was the belief of the researcher that the KIIS would elicit more reliable and accurate information since they were involved directly in providing security services within their regions of operation. Interviews undertaken on a one-on-one basis were also used to enable the researcher to delve into the information in detail and derive solid conclusions. Structured interview was also administered in form of pre-determined questions in conjunction with high standard recording techniques to acquire information from participants. This instrument was employed as a follow up to participants of questionnaires for further insight of their responses by enabling the interviewees to speak in their own voice expressing their own thoughts and feelings.

The researcher with the help of the research assistants gave out questionnaires face to face to private security officers from various private security firms randomly. Interviews for the officials from various PSFs, managers and PSF’s clientele were scheduled through phone calls and by visiting their offices.

Qualitative data were utilized to describe and interpret the quantitative results. All the quantitative variables were chronologically organized with respect to the questionnaire outline and this ensured the correct coding was used for variables. Editing was then done to ensure that information entered for each questionnaire in each variable was correct.

For qualitative data, which was mainly gathered from key informants, interviews and the open-ended questions in the questionnaires; a qualitative data checklist was developed. The checklist was clustered along with main themes of research to ease the consolidation of information and interpretation. The main themes checklists included; the demographic characteristics like age, sex, and occupation for the first section and the second section were fixated as per the three specific objectives. The work sheet assisted in collating the gathered information beneath specific subjects. It was then utilized to assist in analyzing, discussing and interpreting of information beneath the main themes.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The survey aimed to explore the effectiveness of strategies of service delivery by the PSFs in relation to the rate of crime in Nairobi County. Participants were presented by a five-point Likert scale to guide their responses from 1- Very High to 5 =” Very Low. The outcomes were exhibited in the Table 3 below.

Table 3: The Effectiveness of Strategies of Service Delivery in Crime Prevention

Source: Questionnaire data 2020

The effectiveness of Guarding Strategy of Service Delivery in Crime Prevention

According to Table 3 above, the strategies focused on guarding service delivery emerged as the most effective, with a significant 53% of respondents reporting very low crime rates attributed to Private Security Firms (PSFs). This reduction in crime was ascribed to the collaboration between PSFs and community policing efforts aimed at preventing crime. It was observed that PSFs and local community organizations, including vigilante groups, engaged in conversations about their security requirements and sought assistance from various organizations, not just the police, to fulfill those needs. They also worked on addressing the underlying causes of crime and insecurity through targeted problem-solving approaches. As a result, community policing was perceived as a collaborative effort between the local community and PSFs to mitigate crime and disorder. A participant residing in a Lovington apartment remarked that

“We can observe low crime rates thanks to the strong relationships and collaboration between PSFs guards and local leaders of social amenities, including apartment caretakers. To enhance their safety and protect their properties, many neighborhoods and communities have increasingly relied on private security firms and informal security providers, also referred to as community-based security systems”.

From the previous response, it was concluded that private security guards play a crucial role in enhancing the safety and security of communities, thereby fostering community collaboration in crime prevention. According to Griffiths, (2016) the partnership between private security and the community has challenged the public police’s monopoly on policing and community safety. As a result, it was found that a combination of foot and motorized patrols conducted by private security forces (PSFs) has contributed to a reduction in crime rates in their operational areas. This improvement is linked to the significant challenge of securing property, especially in the face of new threats like terrorism, organized crime, gang violence, and trespassing. PSFs introduced innovative approaches such as canine guarding and regular patrols. Consequently, these targeted patrols effectively identified potential criminals and deterred them from committing offenses. A respondent, who also manages a PSF, mentioned that

“Security guards remain vigilant and attentive while patrolling during their shifts. These patrols enhance their ability to protect clients, as they can monitor, survey, and inspect areas and properties. In the event of an incident, a swift alarm response is essential for achieving the desired results”.

From the results, security patrols, whether on foot or by vehicle, serve as a tactical approach to deter potential wrongful and criminal activities at client locations, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of service delivery in guarding strategies (Burns, etal 2018). Furthermore, the research demonstrated that having a sufficient number of guards significantly contributed to the successful provision of security services by Private Security Firms (PSFs). This effectiveness is largely due to the constant presence of guards at incident sites. It was concluded that the presence of guards from these firms provides the most logical initial response to prevent crime and handle emergencies, ultimately leading to improved service delivery. In contrast, police and other governmental law enforcement agencies are not consistently on-site, primarily due to their limited personnel who are dispersed throughout the country (Liu, etal 2020). One respondent noted that

“The private security sector is not uniform; rather, it is a mixture of both small and large entities that aim to provide security and consulting services tailored to meet the client’s specific security needs, depending on the available human resources”.

Based on the previous response, private security firms operate under the principle of client satisfaction, offering whatever resources are necessary to meet the guarding service requirements of their clients. The accessibility of these private security services enhances their efficacy in preventing crime, as opposed to the police, who are often unevenly distributed across the country and may not be readily available to all citizens, which limits their ability to provide security to the majority. The results concur with Williams (2016) assertions that private security views crime primarily as a threat to profitability and considers law as a manageable resource aimed at minimizing negative publicity and financial risk.

Moreover, it was found that the operational flexibility of private security firms led to effective service delivery. This flexibility stems from the absence of rigid security protocols, allowing these firms to tailor their operations to meet each specific situation based on established security best practices, which can be adjusted as needed. One participant remarked that.

“What helps our firm perform effectively was the human resource flexibility to adapt worker qualities such as their skills and knowledge to the dynamic working settings. The workers relish the easiness in management”.

The findings indicated that the ability of Private Security Firms (PSFs) to adapt to changes significantly increased their chances of success. This success in security service delivery was primarily attributed to employees’ readiness to embrace new ideas, follow emerging trends, and operate in environments outside their traditional training and expertise. These results align with the suggestions made by a research study which highlight that greater job flexibility enhances job satisfaction, minimizes errors, and boosts customer satisfaction without disrupting workflow (Te, etal 2018).

Furthermore, it was found that strong relationships between national security agencies, community vigilante groups organized by local residents to oversee street entrances or estate gates during nighttime, and PSFs were crucial for the effective execution of service delivery strategies aimed at crime prevention. This collaboration was particularly important in Nairobi County, which faces a wide array of criminal activities, including kidnappings, embezzlement, terrorism, cybercrime, fraud, and corruption. Without such collaboration and rapport among security entities, the guarding service delivery strategy would not have been successful. One respondent remarked that

“The vital duty for the private security was to safeguard and be able to react swiftly in case of a predicament. The rapport amongst private security firms and the police was significantly important for the efficient provision of guarding services. As you know the private security industry in the country is not armed with guns. Therefore, the PSFs have to rely on the police reinforcement for whichever severe criminal event linking guns”.

The analysis revealed that the mutual reliance among these industries is crucial for grasping the importance of relationships as a security strategy in the effective provision of guarding services in privatized urban areas like Nairobi County. As a result, the study’s findings stress that such collaborations are vital for preventing and detecting crime and apprehending offenders, thereby enhancing the delivery of security services (Button, 2019).

The effectiveness of Technological Strategies of Service Delivery in Crime Prevention

According to Table 3 above, the technological strategies for service delivery showed a significant (30%) positive response regarding their connection to crime rates. It was found that the absence of modern technology by some private security firms (PSFs) had contributed to a rise in crime rates. This situation was largely due to insufficient and inadequate financial resources to support the adoption of technology and innovation. It became clear that most PSFs lacked the necessary resources to invest in technological tools, which tend to be costly, particularly for smaller security firms. One respondent and a supervisor overseeing security at a supermarket remarked that

“Criminals have access to advanced equipment that sometimes surpasses what we have, including automatic weapons and armored bulletproof vests, while we face shortcomings in personnel and training.”

The findings revealed that some Private Security Firms (PSFs) are deficient in modern technological resources, including vehicle tracking devices for recovering stolen cars, CCTV cameras for static monitoring, armored vehicles for transporting valuable items like cash to banks, personal body armor for security, mobile communication tools, rapid response vehicles, alarm systems, and even adequately trained personnel in areas like cybercrime detection and forensic analysis. This deficiency has contributed to a high crime rate. The inability of some PSFs to secure funding to acquire and implement these technological systems has further exacerbated the issue. It is established that with the rapid advancement of technology, electronic security solutions can greatly aid users in managing access to properties and sensitive areas. Unfortunately, many PSFs struggle to adopt these electronic measures due to insufficient financial resources (Githimi, etal 2017).

Moreover, it was found that a lack of knowledge, skills, and expertise in technological crime prevention among some security firms also played a role in the escalating crime rate and ineffective service delivery. This lack of effectiveness was attributed to inadequate selection, recruitment, and training policies for security personnel within these firms. It was concluded that most PSFs do not have a structured training program that includes on-the-job and specialized training in electronic security systems, which results in a gap in expertise and a subsequent increase in criminal activity. A bank manager offered insight on this matter, stating that

“As we engage some of these PSFs, we face a shortage of certain specialized expertise that is extremely expensive and sourced from well-resourced firms. An example of this is expertise in cybercrime investigation and assessment. While predicting when crime rates will drop is challenging, it would be wise to prepare for an increase in cybercrimes, as they represent our highest business risk”.

The findings suggest that most Private Security Firms (PSFs) tend to hire security guards with low educational backgrounds, primarily school dropouts who lack foundational knowledge and skills in electronic security systems necessary for executing their technological service delivery strategies. Research study indicates that many security firms offer minimal to no professional training for their guards, exposing both clients and guards to considerable security risks (Odhong, 2018). The union pointed out that many guards lack proper understanding of their roles, as their training typically consists of a brief period of marching for one or two weeks, without sufficient or specialized instruction in protecting life and property or in public relations.

Moreover, it was found that private security officers are increasingly encountering a constant influx of innovative technological tools designed to combat tech-related crimes, due to rapid advancements in technology. This situation has arisen from the development of new high-tech devices that are effectively aimed at crime prevention, as well as enhancing the safety of security personnel and the public, improving operational efficiency, regulating costs, recruiting benefits, and maintenance advantages. A local resident commented that

“At present, almost all crimes have a dynamic digital aspect. As a result, security agencies need to adapt by employing technical staff and utilizing electronic security devices to stay current with rapid technological developments. However, most public security forces struggle to keep up with these advancements due to financial constraints and a lack of expertise in new digital technologies.”

Based on the previous response, it appears that most Private Security Firms (PSFs) have struggled to prevent crimes like burglary, break-ins, and vandalism of both residential and commercial properties. Kiama and Bor (2015) contends that this difficulty can be attributed to the rapidly evolving technological advancements that necessitate adaptation in order to effectively implement technology-driven service strategies. These findings align with claim that new technologies are increasingly becoming integral to the daily activities of police officers on the frontlines of law enforcement. Some PSFs have encountered challenges in adapting to these advancements, which has rendered their crime prevention strategies less effective. Nevertheless, contemporary software, hardware, and electronic communication systems can equip security personnel with the tools needed for implementation and investigation, providing them with more relevant data in the realm of crime prevention.

Furthermore, it was found that government policies and regulations represent another significant barrier to technological adoption. This is largely because governments can impose regulations such as licensing fees that restrict and control the number of security technologies that certain private security companies can acquire. The findings indicated that governments have the ability to limit access to technical resources, establish high standards for adoption and safety, which subsequently raises the costs associated with some technological security implementations that could enhance operational efficiency. One respondent remarked that

“Once the state law regarding firearms by the Private Security Firms (PSFs) is implemented, alternatives to specific guns will be permissible. These alternatives would then serve as a last resort for self-defense situations. However, while firearms would be effective for this approach, government policy currently prohibits PSFs from obtaining and using them, resulting in inefficiency”.

Consequently, it was identified that overly strict government policies and regulations could hinder the adoption of technology, leading to inefficiencies in the technological service delivery strategies of Professional Service Firms (PSFs), particularly in areas with higher crime rates. These findings align with the claims that government policies and regulations significantly influence industry performance, resulting in diminished profit margins, increased prices, reduced productivity, lower rates of ICT adoption, fewer job opportunities, and escalated labor costs (Prenzler and Sarre, 2014).

Furthermore, it was found that the institutional culture within some PSFs contributed to their inability to recognize the need for change and their challenges in adopting and effectively implementing necessary modifications, including technological advancements. This issue was attributed to factors such as a lack of self-awareness, insufficient responsiveness, inadequate competency, resistance to change, and characteristics associated with organizational inertia. A respondent and a KNPSWU secretary commented on this matter, stating that;

“Some PSFs, particularly small group firms, lack the administrative and financial resources to adopt technological changes for security solutions. They face financial insecurity and a lack of organizational resilience to deliberate and manage the uncertainty inherent in investing in technologies such as electronic security systems as barriers to full technological implementation. They think the work a private security officer is to be a watchman”.

The findings indicated that the capacity of private security firms to adapt was affected by several factors, such as their expertise, level of sophistication, and previous experience with other technologies. Organizations require time to establish, implement, and integrate new standards, strategies, and regulations, while essential operational principles need to be reevaluated. It was observed that security firms struggle to leverage emerging technologies due to their guards’ lack of understanding of how such technologies could benefit the organization. It is asserted that numerous challenges hinder the widespread adoption of large, complex socio-technical systems. Tidd and Bessant, (2020) opine that These challenges may involve economic, behavioral, institutional, or structural factors.

The effectiveness of Collaboration Strategies of Service Delivery in Crime Prevention

Based on the information presented in Table 3, the partnership strategies for service delivery, which received the highest response (33%) regarding high crime rates, showed a lack of cooperation between the police and the Private Security Firms (PSFs) in terms of sharing security information, consulting on security matters, sharing material resources, training, and conducting joint operations. This inadequacy in collaboration contributed to elevated crime rates. It was noted that the absence of a legal policy governing the levels of coordination and cooperation with the police led to frequent inefficiencies and ineffectiveness. For example, one respondent emphasized that…

“The police viewed us as part of the public (Raia), seeing us as inferior due to our insufficient training in security matters, which limits our ability to effectively address security issues. They generally do not have a clear understanding of their role in ensuring safety in their communities and instead seem to operate with a focus on generating profit. The lack of organized coordination and collaboration has led to a rise in criminal activities in Nairobi County that could have been prevented.”

Based on the previous response, it was concluded that the absence of a policy regarding the levels of collaboration with private security providers has led to increased crime rates, undermining partnership strategies for effective crime prevention. It was noted that the lack of regulatory policies governing the interactions between the National Police Service (NPS) and Private Security Firms (PSFs) hindered the PSFs’ ability to coordinate with NPS institutions in managing crime in Kenya (Wairagu, etal 2014).

Furthermore, it was found that poor communication, negative attitudes, perceptions, and practices have created a lack of rapport between PSFs and the police, resulting in competition, conflict, and hostility. National police officers have expressed concerns that the private security sector is encroaching upon their responsibilities, leading them to perceive these firms as a threat to their authority. One respondent remarked:

“With the increasing crime incidents affecting the limited number of NPS officers, many individuals, property owners, and business operators are turning to private security firms to fill the gap left by overwhelmed police forces, enhancing their role in crime prevention and safety. The relationship between the NPS and PSFs is strained, as the NPS feels that the PSFs are usurping their function and are unwelcoming to the public’s needs.”

This feedback suggests that private security firms are considered capable of meeting the demands of clients who are willing to pay for their services by delivering security that the state has either failed to provide or claimed exclusive rights over. Consequently, the primary goals of these private firms are risk management and property protection, rather than prosecution, conviction, or punishment. Ronen (2010) argued that PSFs are increasingly recognized as crucial partners in both crime prevention and detection. Across various regions globally, heightened strain on law enforcement institutions has led to the privatization of certain police duties, with civilian private security firms stepping in to cover the void left by the overloaded police and assuming a more significant role in crime prevention and community safety.

It was also determined that public perceptions of the police negatively impacted cooperation between the NPS and PSFs. There exists a pervasive distrust and low confidence among the public regarding the national police service. This sentiment stems from the perception that the police often exacerbate crime and disorder rather than serve as part of the solution. Concerns over police involvement in political intimidation and acts of violence were noted as contributing factors to the public’s skepticism. One respondent highlighted that:

“The accusations against law enforcement regarding their connections with criminal gangs, their slow response to reports of wrongdoing, widespread bribery, disregard for human rights, and their punitive and violent behavior toward the accused and members of the community have all diminished public trust in the police.”

The response indicates that the rising instances of police involvement in criminal activities and collusion with criminals have fostered public distrust towards the police, leading to a greater preference for private security firms (PSFs). As a result, the police feel undervalued and are hesitant to collaborate fully with these private entities in crime prevention efforts, ultimately undermining the effectiveness of cooperative strategies. Wachira etal (2019) noted that despite Kenya’s high crime rates, there is surprisingly little coordination among security measures. The relationship between the police and the private security industry is often marked by competition, mistrust, and inconsistent policy, hindering efforts for improved collaboration and performance. The situation has been further aggravated by the government’s failure to provide clear guidelines on the role of private security, complicating the interactions between public and private sectors.

Moreover, the lack of accountability within the private security sector has posed challenges to fostering a closer partnership with the police, resulting in ineffective implementation of crime prevention strategies. This lack of accountability can be traced back to widespread unawareness about current regulations governing private security, which breeds hesitance to engage with these firms. Some private security guards have also been implicated in criminal incidents resulting in significant financial losses. A private security client remarked that,

“Unlike the national police service, PSFs do not have a supervisory body to ensure their accountability, which raises concerns about cooperating with them. Many guards have not undergone vetting, posing risks that some may have criminal backgrounds, which could harm the police’s reputation. There is an absence of ultimate authority overseeing their operations, leading to unclear reporting structures and accountability”.

The findings demonstrate that the connection between the police and PSFs is hindered by the absence of a clear regulatory framework. Consequently, police interactions with private security are carried out at their discretion without a formalized plan, resulting in inconsistent and informal collaboration. Shaw and Thomas, (2017) asserted that regulation of PSFs could enhance accountability and guide their conduct. However, without effective legal or regulatory frameworks, questions regarding legality, legitimacy, and accountability arise within security policy domains.

Furthermore, the differing principles of public and private security serve as a notable barrier to effective collaboration in crime prevention. National security agencies express concern that increased participation of the private sector in frontline policing could lead to a dual-tiered police system, catering to those who can afford it while neglecting others. One respondent noted that

“Outsourcing security tasks to private firms could lead to unreliable service, as companies may withdraw their services or inflate prices in the absence of accountable challengers, making security access contingent upon financial capacity”.

The findings also reveal a strong sentiment among national security agencies that certain functions, particularly policing public areas prone to conflict, should remain solely within the public sector. This perspective is likely influenced by the private sector’s lack of public accountability, its profit-driven motives, potential inequities in service provision, and the questionable credibility of private security, which may ultimately impact police operations. It is viewed that private security firms are fundamentally profit-oriented, while the police are primarily dedicated to ensuring public safety and order (Shemesh, 2013). Such differences complicate effective collaborative strategies aimed at crime prevention.

DISCUSSION

The study sought to examine effectiveness of strategies of service delivery by the PSFs in relation to the rate of criminal activities in Nairobi County. From the findings it was deduced that, guarding strategies of service delivery were established to be the most effective strategies with a majority response of (53 %) by the PSFs. This was attributed to Private security firms and community policing partnership in crime prevention, facilitation of both foot and motorized routine patrols, the availability of adequate human resource in terms of guards, routine operation flexibility and the good rapport between the national security agencies and the PSFs facilitated effective delivery of guarding services in privatized urban spaces such as Nairobi County.

The technological strategies of service delivery whose response majority (30%) reported high crime rate, it was established that despite the fact that technology was effective in crime prevention, majority of the PSFs lacked modern technological paraphernalia for effective crime prevention. This was attributed to inadequate resources especially financial resources to fund the technological and innovation adoptability, lack of knowledge, skills and expertise in the field of technology in crime prevention by most PSFs, technological diversity, lack of government policy and legislation, lack of institutional change especially in the adoption of technology by majority of the PSFs rendered the strategy ineffective in crime prevention.

The cooperation Strategies of service delivery with a majority response of (33%) high in crime rate, established that there was poor, if any, little cooperation between the police and the PSFs on matters security information sharing, consultations on security issues, material resource sharing, training and joint operations on security matters, thus, high rate of crime rendering the strategy not effective in crime prevention. This was attributed to the fact that there was no legal policy and legislation on the levels of coordination and cooperation between the police and the PSFs, poor rapport between the PSFs and the Police characterized by conflict, competition, antagonism due to poor communication, attitudes, perceptions and procedures; the public perceptions towards the police contributed to the poor cooperation between the NPS and the PSFs. The national police agency is widely loathed and held in low esteem by the population, who frequently view the police as contributing to crime and unrest rather than being a part of the solution. Additionally, it was established that, the private security sector’s lack of professionalism and accountability served as a barricade to mutual working relationship with the police, resulting in a subpar execution of the collaboration strategy of service delivery in crime prevention.

CONCLUSION

The study found that many Private Security Firms (PSFs) provided relevant services in their operational areas, as various forms of criminal activity are prevalent in different regions of Nairobi County. The most successful service delivery strategies employed by PSFs involved personnel and technology, including guarding services, security alarms, access control, CCTV surveillance, and canine units. However, without a legal security policy framework and legislation to guide PSFs in effectively addressing criminal activities, they will primarily continue to respond to the consequences of crime. It is clear that the absence of policies and regulations regarding collaboration between the police and PSFs hinders the effectiveness of PSFs’ crime prevention strategies.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The research findings suggest that enhancing and diversifying the training curriculum for private security providers could improve their ability to engage in crime policing through effective crime prevention service strategies. Implementing standardized training for security guards would build public and police confidence in the private security sector, paving the way for collaboration between private security firms and national law enforcement agencies.

To strengthen the relationship and cooperation between private security services and law enforcement, it is essential for government policies and legislation to promote collaboration between these security entities and private security firms, facilitating more effective crime prevention strategies. This collaboration is crucial, as private security firms, while more widely distributed across the country, often lack the resources to manage violent crimes, despite the police being the official law enforcement body.

Additionally, the research recommends that private security firms adopt modern and innovative technologies to support their crime prevention, detection, and client satisfaction goals. For example, the introduction of advanced anti-terrorism equipment that cannot be detected by conventional screening tools would be beneficial. Moreover, integrating more sophisticated information systems that consolidate existing technologies—such as access control, video surveillance, and intrusion detection—into a centralized computerized system would represent significant progress in addressing the challenges posed by globalization.

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