The Fathering Styles Experienced by Successful Young Professionals

The Fathering Styles Experienced by Successful Young Professionals

Ramil A. SANTOS
National University Philippines

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7440

Received: 19  March 2023; Revised: 04 April 2023; Accepted: 07 April 2023; Published: 02 May 2023 

ABSTRACT

It is established that a good foundation at an early stage of development through appropriate employment of parenting styles positively affects a person’s growth. However, parenting is usually associated with “mothering” or how mothers rear or raise their children, creating gaps in the other half of parenting: the fathers. This study was conducted to know the most prevalent fathering styles of the fathers of successful young professionals. The researcher asked 11 young professionals, meaning they were currently employed and finished college or have a baccalaureate degree, to answer 2 interview questions that will describe their fathers’ rearing. The respondents were also asked to answer the PSS or the Parenting Scenario Scale created by Ribeiro (2009). It will allow the researcher to know the parenting styles of the fathers. The researcher concluded that out of the four parenting styles, the authoritative parenting style is the most prevalent and it matched with how the respondents describe their fathers’ rearing.

Keywords: fathering styles; young professionals; Parenting Scenario Scale

INTRODUCTION

                Different social contexts are created in children’s lives at home by different parenting styles. Numerous research examined how parenting styles affect how children behave and develop emotionally (Kokkinos & Vlavianou, 2019; Gugiu et al., 2019; Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2022).Consequently, parental involvement is very important to every student. Students perform better academically when their parents are involved in their learning (Maiuolo, 2019). However, parental involvement has often meant “mothers’ involvement.” It has been assumed that mothers are responsible for the development of their children’s learning, missing the importance of fathers’ involvement. The establishment of a good foundation during the early years of a person’s development through a proper parenting style is crucial for their future careers in the workplace (Love et al., 2020; Korucu et al., 2020). That is to say, being a successful professional at an early age may lead to a lot of opportunities for people in any area of work or specialization. Lots and lots of convenience are being offered for them; thus, the styles or manner as to how a certain parent raises their child, as mentioned, will greatly affect their future. Now, the researcher wants to focus on the fathers’ side of rearing.

It is well acknowledged that father-child relationships play a significant role in the social, cognitive, and emotional development of the children (Marsiglio et al., 2000; Palkovitz, 1997; Zimmerman et al., 1995 as cited by Bronkew-Tinkew et al., 2016). Recent studies have shown that fathers’ involvement, both in absolute and relative terms, has increased in many western industrialized countries, despite results showing males engage in child rearing tasks at a significantly lesser level than mothers do physically (Yeung, 2010). Many studies conducted in different parts of the world have demonstrated its benefits. For instance, Varghese and Wachen (2016) discovered that said involvement in reading and writing activities, as well as their use of complex language and responsive parenting techniques, all made distinctive and direct benefits to their children’s literacy outcomes. Additionally, in using a more quantitative approach, Keown and Palmer (2014)’s research discovered that, despite the fact that fathers were more active in their children’s lives on weekends and mothers were more accessible to their sons during the week, both mother and father-child conversations were valuable resources for children during their school years. There is a lack of research on the father-child relationship among teens, and more research is needed to understand how fathers’ parenting practices and the nature of their relationships with their children affect the results for many clusters of age groups (Lamb, 1997; Larson & Richards, 1994; Zimmerman et al., 1995). More understanding of men’s roles in families and society is also necessary, particularly in Asia, where families “are experiencing rapid shifts under different cultural, demographic, socioeconomic, and policy contexts” (Yeung).With this much information about the relevance of the fathers’ involvement in child rearing, it is important to identify how they raise their children. The researcher’s aim is to know what kind of involvement young professionals have or had with their fathers. The researcher then will analyze the information given by the respondents and classify what kind of parenting styles were used by the fathers based on Baumrind (1971)’s Parenting Styles (PS), namely: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved.

Providing there are more researches about fathering styles, the researcher wanted to take it to a new and different dimension by finding out whether young professionals are the product of their fathers’ parenting style. Focusing on individuals who are “successful” in their respective field or area of specialization at a young age and with fathers who were involved in their growth will give us more knowledge in filling the gap of studying parenting styles. It is important to study the mentioned variables to understand and to know how the fathers can affect and contribute to the improvement of the society.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition of Parenting

The word “parenting” is derived from the Latin verb parere, a word defined as “to bring forth, develop, or educate” (Virasiri, et al., 2011).

Parenting is playing the part of a parent by providing care, nurturing, and protecting the child of biological parents or on behalf of a biological or adoptive parent. By exercising power over the child and acting in a consistent, assertive manner that is appropriate for the situation, the parent supports the child. Parenting is different from raising children. Parenting stresses the obligations and traits of exemplary behavior of the parent, whereas child raising places focus on the act of teaching or bringing up the children and the relationship between the parents and child.

Children in terms of Psychology

Philosophers have argued many theories on the transmission of parental ideals, objectives, abilities, and attitudes since the seventeenth century. For instance, John Locke,in his 1689 essay titled “Essay Concerning Human Understanding”, proposed that children were born with a “tabula rasa” or “blank slate” by which parents and society could readily convey their values and views to their children. Yet, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1893) thought that children were “innately good” and that it was the responsibility of society and parents to defend and reinforce these principles. Educational and developmental psychologists are interested in learning more about the interactive socialization process by which parents try to pass their values, aspirations, abilities, and attitudes to their children, just like the philosophers of old (see Grusec, 1997; Parke and Buriel, 1998).

Socialization is the term used to describe how parents influence their children’s development (Holden, 2010). “The process by which a person is taught skills, behavior patterns, values, and motivation necessary for effective functioning in the culture in which the kid is growing up,” according to the definition of socialization (Maccoby, 2007).

Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

Many studies have been done on parenting styles and how they affect kids’ academic performance, sociability, overall health and development, and even future social standing and professional careers. (Sijtsema et al., 2014; Moe et al., 2020; Love et al, 2020; Korucu et al., 2020; Karibayveva & Bogar 2014, 2014; Checa & Abundis-Guitierrez, 2017). The vast majority of studies show that raising children in a strict atmosphere has the best results. These kids routinely do better academically and in terms of psychosocial skills. Also, they frequently score lower for both internal and outward problem behavior. On the other hand, kids who grow up in a neglectful household typically display the least good adolescent adjustment. They perform poorly on tests of social ability, psychological adjustment, and academic accomplishment. (Lamborn et al., 1991).

Baumrind is renowned for creating the classification for parenting styles. In her 1967 typology, she distinguished three basic types of styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Baumrind’s parenting styles were reclassified by Maccoby and Martin (1983), who distinguished between permissive and negligent parenting. According to the level of parental responsiveness and parental demandingness displayed in child-rearing activities, Maccoby and Martin classified their parenting styles. Parental responsiveness is a measure of how warm, accepting, and involved parents are. The degree of control, supervision, and maturity demands made by the parents were used to gauge their level of demandingness and the details below are how the 4 parenting styles were discussed:

Authoritative

Kind but stern – these are authoritative parents. They support their adolescent’s independence while still set boundaries and exercise control over their behavior. Parents who are in charge avoid using the “because I said” defense. Instead, they are prepared to consider, listen to, and entertain their teen’s point of view. Although the parent is ultimately responsible, authoritative parents participate in talks and disputes with their adolescent. Adolescents of strong parents learn how to bargain and have conversations, according to previous mentioned studies. They are aware of the value placed on their thoughts. They are therefore more likely to be socially adept, accountable, and independent.

Authoritarian

Parents who are authoritarian are cold and very controlling. They enforce rigid rules, have a punishing approach, and demand that their adolescent obey their commands. Authoritarian parents use words like “you will do this because I said” and “because I’m the parent and you are not,” and they avoid having conversations with their teen or debating the family’s norms and expectations. Authoritarian parents think the teenager should blindly follow the guidelines they set forth for behavior. According to research, teenagers of authoritarian parents are taught that conforming to stringent rules and discipline is more important than demonstrating independence. Teenagers might consequently turn rebellious or reliant. Aggressive behaviors may be seen by people who become rebellious. Adolescents, with more submissive personality, tend to remain dependent on their parents.

Permissive

Warm but undemanding, permissive parents are very welcoming. They believe that by caving in to their adolescent’s demands, they may show their love for them. They are indulgent and passive in their parenting. “You can stay up late if you want to,” and “You don’t have to do any chores if you don’t feel like it”, are some of the words used by permissive parents who do not like to disappoint their kids or say no. Teenagers are therefore given the freedom to make a lot of crucial decisions without parental supervision. Parents do not perceive themselves as actively influencing their teen’s behavior; rather, they regard themselves as a resource in case the adolescent decides to ask for their opinion. According to research, children of permissive parents learn that there are few restrictions and norms, and that the penalties are usually not extremely severe. Teenagers may therefore struggle with self-control and exhibit egocentric tendencies, which can obstruct the healthy growth of peer relationships.

Negligent/Uninvolved

Parents who are not involved are cold and do not make any expectations of their teen. They spend as little time as possible interacting with others and, in some situations, are so disengaged that they are being careless. Parents who aren’t involved do not care about their adolescent’s needs, whereabouts, or interactions with classmates or at school. The words “I don’t care where you go” and “why should I care what you do” are often used by absent parents. Uninvolved parents rarely ask their child for their opinion while making decisions, and they typically do not want to deal with their teen’s problems. These parents could be selfish or overburdened by their situation. If parents are worn out, irritated, or have just “given up” on attempting to uphold their authority, they may also adopt this manner. According to research, teenagers of uninvolved parents learn that their parents are more likely to be preoccupied with their own life and spend less time on parenting. Teenagers thus exhibit behavior patterns that are typically comparable to those of adolescents raised in permissive homes. They may also exhibit impulsive actions as a result of problems with self-control.

Challenges in “Fathering” of Fathers

There are a lot of hindrances and barriers concerning the involvement of fathers’ parenting globally. Firstly, because of the social environment they live in, fathers continue to experience gender stereotypes (Cowan & Pruett, 2009 as cited by Tekin, 2012). For instance, they are more frequently referred to as “ATM fathers” or simply considered as providing financial or material support for women and children. Regrettably, popular media, crooked family laws, and government policies all support and encourage this financial stereotype. Court disputes about who gets to be the custodial parent are not directly based on evaluations of fathers’ capacity to be good parents. Secondly, the creation of a more intimate psychological bond between fathers and children is hampered by government child support systems and punitive restrictions that keep fathers away from their kids. Programs and laws of this nature penalize both dads and children. There aren’t many fatherhood-related public and private initiatives that are effectively delivered and planned with families in mind. In addition, Kaye (2005) wrote that there is a dearth of comprehensive evaluation of the few sponsored father participation initiatives that are currently in place. As a result, the majority of institutional policies in place now do not favor greater paternal engagement in childrearing. Social science research is the third obstacle to father engagement. Unfortunately, social science research has rarely examined father involvement over the years due to early patriarchal influence in society, which saw involvement in children’s lives as a demeaning and feminine task that should be carried out by women, and later hardline feminist pressure, which saw father as an exploiting figure who should be expelled from the family and kept at a distance from children. Even though father engagement research has grown recently, the majority of parenting studies still center on mothers, and as a result, comprehensive reviews of father participation interventions are still uncommon. For instance, despite the fact that many in-depth studies have focused on mothers alone, some of them have also included fathers and highlighted the importance of their participation in the education of young children. People are especially uninformed about any modifications to the father-child relationship during the first few years of formal education (Collins & Russel, 1991 as cited by Tekin, 2012).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The purpose of this study is to know the most prevalent fathering styles of successful young professionals. At this stage of the study, the term “successful young professional” will be defined as an employed individual of 21-30 years old having a baccalaureate degree. The following questions helped in arriving with an answer for the research question:

1. What factors of the father’s profile affect the successfulness of the individual?
2. In what way did the father’s rearing affect the person’s success?
3. What is the most prevalent fathering style?
4. What do the current literatures say about the fathering styles experienced by the you professionals?

METHODOLOGY

The participants were 11 successful young professionals. The period of data gathering occurred on the month of January 2023. The ages of the participants were occurring from 21-30. The sex of the participants was unequal; there were 3 males and 8 females. They were from the City of Malolos, Bulacan Philippines and were also working and practicing their profession in the same location. The sampling methods employed were qualitative sampling methods particularly convenient and purposive sampling. This is because the focus of the study are “successful young professionals”. They were professionals, meaning they were currently employed and finished college or have a baccalaureate degree. Apart from this. Their job must be related to their college degree. The researcher asked the participants two interview questions:

1. What factors of your father’s profile affect your successfulness?

(Examples: age, occupation, academic achievement, etc.)

2. In what way did your father’s rearing affect your success?

On the first hand, the researcher asked the first question to know what factors of the father’s profile affect the successfulness of the professionals and if these factors are the same with others. On the other hand, the second question let the professionals describe the parenting style of their father.

The researcher also used the Parenting Scenario Scale or the PSS formulated by Ribeiro (2009). PSS was designed evaluate consistency of parenting over the developmental stage. In the proponent’s validation of the scale, PSS was correlated with two other measures. Five hypotheses regarding consistency over age, validity and reliability were posed. Convergent validity was examined using the Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri, 1991 as cited by Ribeiro, 2009), which is based on three parenting styles, and discriminate validity was achieved using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (Beck, 1996 as cited by Ribeiro, 2009). Item analysis reliability coefficient alpha and split-half analyses were used to evaluate reliability. To examine consistency, validity, and reliability, data from 62 participants—39 women and 23 men—were used. The data were analyzed using Descriptive Statistics, Pearson Correlation, and Cronbach’s Alphas. These findings showed that these participants stated parenting styles were very consistent throughout the five age groups involved in the study of the instrument’s proponent. With the exception of four and sixteen, there were substantial and positive connections between all of the ages. The R2 values were between .40 and.03. The correlation with the lowest predictability was between four and sixteen. The new PSS has good reliability measured by Cronbach’s Alpha of (.78) and Guttman split half reliability of .85.

[The participants were asked to read each of the scenarios and answer according to how they felt their parents would have responded to the scenario when the participant was that age. The four choices presented centered around one response similar to how each parent in each of the following parenting styles would have responded to the child; authoritarian, authoritative,  permissive and neglecting.

For example:

Please read the following scenarios and respond to each statement in the manner in which your parent would have responded when you were a child.

Terry has difficulty dressing for school. As a 4-year old often insists, no one can help. However, delays up a half hour are expected, with tears and tantrums when procrastination can no longer happen because everyone has to leave the house for work, school etc.

Fig. 1 Sample Questions from the PSS of Ribeiro et al. (2009)

The PSS scale in addition contains a forced choice among the four responses for each of the 10 scenarios. For example:

Fig. 2 Instructions from the PSS of Ribeiro et al. (2009)

This assures that in the set of responses for each scenario, one response will be a clear choice of a specific parenting style. In addition, the PSS is based on four not three parenting styles.] (Ribeiro, 2009, pp. 18-21). No statistical treatment and statistical tools were needed since there was only a need to identify the most prevalent type of parenting style based on the count of the numbers (1, 2, 3, or 4) mentioned in the Scale.

FINDINGS

Out of eleven successful young professionals, seven have authoritative fathers, two have authoritarian fathers, and two have permissive fathers, thus making the authoritative parenting style the most prevalent of the four.

Figure 3 shows that the fathers of successful young professionals were either permissive, authoritarian, or authoritative. There was no neglectful father.

Moreover, the respondents’ answers to the first interview question are very similar. They identified three common factors of their fathers’ profile that made them successful.

Figure 4 shows the common answers of the participants. The most common factors of their fathers’ profile are: occupation, academic achievement, and values.

Furthermore, the researcher analyzed their answers to the second interview question through a deductive coding and found out that all of their answers are the traits of an authoritative father:

Table 1. Thematic Analysis of respondents’ responses

One of the respondents answered that her aunt was the one who funded her schooling but her father was still with her. Also, one of the respondents said that her father works abroad but is still in touch with them. Most of them were not that well enough when they were still little, but because of perseverance they were able to improve their socio-economic status. Most of the respondents’ fathers were authoritative in style therefore the researcher concluded that authoritative style is the most prevalent style among fathers of successful young professionals.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The researcher raised questions about the factors of father that affect the successfulness of young professional. Using the PSS, the researcher found out that out of eleven young professionals, seven of these are authoritative fathers, two are authoritarian and two are permissive fathers. The researcher discovered that there is no presence of negligent rearing among the fathers of the eleven young professionals. The answers of the eleven respondents to the first question which is “what factors of your father’s profile affect your successfulness?” were very similar. They identified three common factors of their father’s profile which are the following: occupation, academic achievement, and values. The occupations of the fathers had a big factor to their successfulness because they were inspired to the hardships of their fathers. The authoritative style really affects their overall school performance which made them productive in school or all throughout their studies. And when it comes to the values that these young professionals acquired to their fathers were: to have self-discipline, learning to give sacrifices, having patience, and be persevering when face with challenges. All of these conform with previous literatures and studies about parenting. In this regard, Kotel chuck (1976), Parke and Swain (1975) as cited by Allen and Daly (2007)mentioned that infant whose involved fathers are better able to handle strange situations, be more resilient in the face of stressful situations.

The characteristics of an authoritative father and the described experiences of the respondents led us to the conclusion that it is relevant to continuously include not only the mothers but the fathers as well in explaining to children what they should and should not do. Children bring the learnings of their fathers up to their adolescent years when they are explained well and with reasonings. Their behaviors are affected, possibly contributing to the “successful” part of them being professionals. The fathers’ education or educational attainment and their values may have contributed to the behavior of their children. Being vocal in terms of support also helped in the growth of the respondent, leading to the conclusion that there is also a possibility that communication played a big role in the fathers’ employment of authoritative parenting style. Of course, it is necessary to have the means to properly raise a child, that is why for the respondents, fathers with occupations that can support the family can make the lives of their children have access in necessities such as education and welfare.

Young adults who had nurturing and available fathers while growing up are more likely to score high on measures of self-acceptance and personal and social adjustment (Fish & Biller, 1973), see themselves as dependable, trusting, practical, and friendly (Biller, 1993), be more likely to succeed in their work, and be mentally healthy (Heath & Heath, 1991). The variable that is most consistently associated with positive life outcomes for children is the quality of the father child relationship (Amato, 1998; Furstenberg & Harris, 1993; Lamb, 1997). Children are better off when their relationship with their father is secure, supportive, reciprocal, sensitive, close, nurturing, and warm (Biller, 1993; Easter brooks & Goldberg, 1984; Lamb, 1986, 1997; Radin, 1981 cited by Allen & Daly, 2007).

Children of involved fathers are more likely to have higher levels of economic and educational achievement, career success, occupational competency, better educational outcomes, higher educational expectations, higher educational attainment, and psychological well-being (Amato, 1994; Barber & Thomas, 1986; Barnett et al., 1992a; Bell, 1969; Flouri, 2005; Furstenberg & Harris, 1993; Harris et al., 1998; Lozoff, 1974; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Snarey, 1993 cited by Allen & Daly, 2007).

Like mothers, fathers play a crucial role in a child’s emotional growth. The respondents trusted their fathers to establish and uphold rules. Also, they looked to their fathers to give them an emotional and physical sense of security. Because they encourage personal development and strength within, the respondents desired an active father. According to the findings of the studt, a child’s future as a professional is significantly impacted by their fathers’ warm and encouraging behavior. Lastly, it fosters a sense of general wellbeing and self-assurance. While society frequently portrays a father as the only provider for the family and the mother as the lone caregiver, as shown by the studies previously mentioned, it is crucial for a child’s overall development to have both a father and a mother. Although mothers are often in charge of raising the child since they are more loving, the fathers of the respondents, based on their responses, had a very significant role in their development, particularly in their transition to becoming a well-balanced adult.

Research findings demonstrate that an authoritative parenting style produces a number of positive developmental outcomes in adolescents. An authoritative parenting style that includes parental monitoring and supervision promotes teen’s exposure to positive activities and reduces teen’s opportunities for engaging in delinquent, risky behaviors, jiving in with the study of Wargo (2007). A warm but firm approach to parenting allows teens to be independent within developmentally appropriate parental limits and boundaries. Authoritative style is the most prevalent among the four styles of parenting. The researcher concludes that an authoritative parenting style produces a number of positive developmental outcomes to the children and these children may carry this positive development over their adolescent and future adult selves.

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