Types of Non-Verbal Cues Used by Tambach Kiswahili Teacher-Trainees During Teaching Practice

Types of Non-Verbal Cues Used by Tambach Kiswahili Teacher-Trainees During Teaching Practice

Duke J.M. Kinanga_, Prof. Patrick A. Kafu_, Dr. Agnes Oseko

Department Of Curriculum Studies, University Of Eldoret, Kenya

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8080135

Received: 19 July 2024; Revised: 02 August 2024; Accepted: 06 August 2024; Published: 06 September 2024

ABSTRACT

The main objective of this study was to be establish the types of non-verbal cues frequently used by Tambach student teachers in teaching Kiswahili language. The study was guided by the Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) theory.  The study adopted a cross-sectional research design. The target population included teachers of Kiswahili, student teachers of Kiswahili language and pupils of selected primary schools in Uasin Gishu and Elgeyo Marakwet Counties in Kenya. Purposive sampling technique was used to single out Kiswahili teachers for Focus Group Discussions. Stratified random sampling method was then used to select 234 student teachers and 210 learners. Methods of data collection included: Questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions and Direct Observations. The questionnaires provided quantitative data, which were fed in SPSS version 23.0. Qualitative data obtained from the focus group discussions and observation was fed in NVivo 11. Lastly, the data was presented descriptively and graphically as tables, graphs and charts. The findings uncovered that silence, tone of voice and pitch, eye contact and physical appearance were among the most common non-verbal cues employed in Kiswahili language lessons. This study anticipated to improve the teaching and performance of Kiswahili language, build a suitable teacher-student bond in the language classroom, further develop the cognitive abilities and heighten the learning capabilities of pupils by using non-verbal communication.

Key Words: Non-verbal cues, Student teacher.

INTRODUCTION

Fabri et al. (2015) describes the term “nonverbal” as human interaction events that transcend the spoken or written word, while Fatemeh et al. (2014) described nonverbal interaction as the process of one person using cues such as gestures and facial expressions to stimulate meaning in the mind of another person by means of nonlinguistic cues. Non-verbal interaction may take place primarily through several ways like non-verbal vocalization, types of clothes, bodily contact, how a teacher expresses the face, gaze, types of gesture and one’s body posture. Therefore, non-verbal interaction can be equal to or more effective than oral interaction.

Essays (2013) defines verbal and non-verbal communication as the connection with others and also as a way to demonstrate the physical and psychological state. Subsequently, an appreciation of the various kinds and elements of verbal and non-verbal communication and its importance within any everyday interactions is a starting point to increase positive talking and to strengthen relationships. Therefore, non-verbal interaction is as necessary as verbal communication in reality.

According to Natof (2009), non-verbal communication incorporates sounds, signs, body postures, eye contact, facial contortions, the tone of one’s voice, the distance between people, outward conduct, postures, and an individual’s attire. If the teacher adopts a supportive approach fitting to the students’ level, efficient communication results can be achieved. On the other hand, if the teacher uses hurtful speech, their relationship with the students is likely to decline (Najafi, 2013).

Ekman and Friesen (1967) support the idea that posture gives an overall understanding of emotion, while more precise feelings are communicated through facial expressions and body language. Permanent facial features, such as wrinkles, tone, and skin/eye color, can provide information about demographics. Hair length, hairstyle, cleanliness, and facial hair are additional variables that offer insight into an individual’s notion of beauty. Lastly, more transient expressions represented by changes in the forehead, eyebrows, eyelids, etc. can reveal impressions instantly. Khabaz (2013) explores such facial movements as raising the eyebrows, frowning, or curling the lips in further detail.

According to Salimi (2014), the old proverb, “eyes are a reflection of your inner self”, still rings true today. Eye contact carries many varied meanings and significances. For example, a person may give a defiant and angry look when angered, a glance when they spot anything fascinating or strange (although staring obnoxiously is impolite), an absent-minded gaze when enamored, as well as a straight look when attempting to make your point explicit when conversing.

Based on the findings of Babelan (2012), in all contexts, we use gazes as a communicational device with another person. We purposefully abstain from looking someone directly in the eye if we are trying to conceal something. Police officers generally utilize this method to decide if the person is telling the truth or not. Therefore, unless one is particularly good at deceit, they usually feel anxious when they lie. Additionally, from timidity, a person may struggle to look someone firmly in the eye. This symptom is usually present in tandem with other indicator of shyness, such as verbal stumbling and periodically flushing. On the flip side, it is possible that the other individual has a short attention span for whatever is being discussed.

Facial expression between instructors and learners is one of the most important types of non-verbal signals in the classroom. As a key aspect of facial expression Kinesics behavior is most among the powerful tools used by instructors to communicate effectively. Posture is also considered under kinesics. Postures such as gestures support and reinforce what is said verbally. Primarily, kinesics bits of behavior are body movements that are intended to express meaning (Pan, 2014).

A study by Kusanagi (2015) generalizes kinesics behavior under the heading of “gestures”. According to him gestures are the most common non-verbal behavior used by both instructors and learners. They use it to express emotions or actions used in the classroom communication, and are often defined by context because they usually help the instructors to express some ideas vividly. According to Sutiyatno (2015) gestures can be used to simplify complex grammar and hence assist learners to understand.

Najafi (2013) added that body movement and gesture are different signals of how trainers and pupils walk, sit, or stand. These all have an effect on how we perceive each other. For instance, a lecturer who slouches or twitches when talking to the class will not be deemed a composed person. In contrast, the professor who appears calm no matter the circumstances will often be seen as detached and detached. Salimi (2014) affirmed that body stances and activities are regularly evidence of confidence, energy, fatigue, or rank. Within the classroom, students can feel the emotions of the teacher in regards to the subject matter being taught through non-verbal interactions, such as the teacher’s posture and movements. Skillful teachers can also tell when students are taking in the content or having difficulty grasping the main concepts.

When talking to a student, it is better not to point your finger at them and make them uneasy or anxious. The best move is to stand in a way that the student can see the teacher, face them directly, and point with one’s full hand (Khabaz, 2013). Using non-verbal language correctly is not for theatrical effect, but it improves the effect of individual words. The more natural non-verbal language is, the more it will be accepted by the audience. Teachers who use non-verbal language suitably will have a more beneficial relationship with their students.

Fidyk (2013) acknowledges and respects the complexity of the factors relevant to silence, such as distinguishing between types of silences, especially those that can be unfamiliar, uncertain, and paradoxical. This serves to highlight some of the apparent contradictions, ambivalences and complexities in the development of understandings of silence.

Arguably, the use of silence in its ‘weak’ form, used as an oppressive, disciplinarian tool, is in evidence in ‘the growth of authoritarian models of schooling, involving ‘zero-tolerance’, ‘no-excuses’ disciplinary approaches’ (Clarke, et al., 2021:187). For instance, the use of isolation or ‘inclusion’ units in schools for withdrawal of students for infraction of the rules ‘While some isolation rooms contain rows of desks, some contain isolation booths, separated from each other by solid wooden panels, at which pupils sit in silence on their own, often for many hours’ (p.195). This is silence imposed from the outside and a very different form of silence to silence as participatory, agentic, positive pedagogic practice. Spyrou (2016) has argued for childhood researchers to pay attention to and be respectful of children’s silences in the analysis of children’s voices, noting that ‘far from being absences or lack of data, children’s silences are pregnant with meaning and a constitutive feature of their voices’ (p.7). Thus, in research exploring children’s voices, it is also important to attend to their silences (p.19).

Used as a pedagogic tool, planned opportunities for silence and stillness may open up fertile time and ‘nourishing space’ (Fidyk, 2013) for reflection and creativity. However, arguably this would require a shift in classroom culture, a reassessment of the priority usually afforded to the spoken word in classroom pedagogy and the perception of silence as ‘awkward’ and ‘embarrassing’, and as a passive, non-participatory state.

According to the data from Bahauddin Zakarya University (2014), people adopt non-verbal communication for several purposes. To begin with, words are restricted in exhibiting outlooks, dimensions, and identity. Furthermore, a non-verbal communication is more effective; verbal messages usually include the matters of the environment, whereas non-verbal communication gives insight into internal feelings. For example, someone may state something appreciative about a movie; however, their non-verbal behaviors could show that the comment is ironic. Thirdly, non-verbal messages have a higher probability of being heartfelt because non-verbal signals cannot be directed as effectively as verbal ones. Lastly, a distinct mode of communication is required to deliver complex messages- a speaker can use non-verbal signals to significantly supplement verbal messages.

Nonverbal Communication in the classroom includes the overall classroom environment as well as the instructor’s display of non-verbal communication. Effective use of non-verbal communication in the classroom is an important and ever-present element that must be evaluated. Effective classroom non-verbal communication should support learning the curriculum and add to the overall quality of the reading education. All educators send out nonverbal cues to students in every class. Neuliep (2013) has postulated that as much as 90% of all communication occurs through non-verbal communication. It makes sense therefore for teachers to not only use nonverbal communication to their advantage but also to understand its effect in the classroom. In the classroom, instructors create more permanent impressions through non-verbal communication than they do using the knowledge of subject matter and verbal fluency. Bambaeerou and Shokpour (2017) argued that in the field of teaching, certainly one of the main characteristics of good instructors is good communication skill. In addition, they noted that most of the observed stress in the classroom arises from a lack of proper communication.

In Teaching Practice paper (2014), non-verbal communication can cooperate with verbal communication in six distinct ways, including repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating, and accentuating/controlling. When repeating, one would use body language to emphasize what is being said verbally; when conflicting, gestures may be displaying a different message than words, likely due to feelings of ambiguity, hesitation, or annoyance; and when complementing, gestures and words can supplement one another to add a further level of understanding. Additionally, words and gestures may replace each other, control the pace of the conversation, or act as a sort of emphasis.

Bambaeeroo and Shokrpour (2017) intone that there is a strong correlation between quality, number and techniques of using non-verbal communication in a classroom by teachers in the course of instruction. In case there is a contradiction between the verbal and non-verbal, the advice is to favor the non-verbal message and ask them to pay more attention to non-verbal than verbal messages because non-verbal cues frequently reveal the intention of the sender of the information and reflect his/her emotional reactions. However, investigations to confirm that certain types of non-verbal communication are present in primary school and reading education are few and far between. Assessing the presence of particular types and their roles can help in ascertaining their significance in the context of literacy tuition. Determining these would also be of use in instructing future reading educators.

When students take the skills they have learned in theory and put them in practice, this creates a deeper cognitive link to the material, making it easier for students to learn (McEwen, et. al., 2014). This pedagogical tool has been used in various fields, from medicine to law, from business to psychology (Westrup & Planander, 2013). Using role-plays have been shown to better prepare student teachers and construction managers (Bhattacharjee, 2014). Not only does it increase student engagement, it increases knowledge retention. (Westrup & Planander, 2013).

Khabaz (2013) makes the point that making use of non-verbal communication successfully is of great importance when it comes to a good teaching technique. Iranian students with physical and motor impairment saw an improvement in their self-esteem and confidence when their teachers used non-verbal language. A competent approach to these skills is to give the students tasks according to their intelligence level, so that the teacher will appear mindful of the students’ aptitude and when they feel a sense of motivation. Conversely, if the teacher gives a notion that he is not capable of solving a problem, the student may experience fear. These shared reactions are vital not only in the school environment, but in every human relationship, particularly between parents and children (Salimi, 2014).

In addition to that, Iravani (2009) proposes that when teaching differently-abled students, the teacher can use non-verbal communication effectively with a simple greeting. This is the best way to start the class and cannot be done without the use of non-verbal language. The teacher who is experienced will start by specifically speaking to one of the pupils, attempt to look every student in the face throughout the entirety of the lesson, and alter the tone of their voice to ensure that the students stay alert. Amin, (2016) also argues that can be a very important channel of communication in classroom settings. As advised by Evans (2001), the teacher needs to change their position in the classroom at times, but there should also be an establishment of their normal place.

In order to make a favorable impression, the teacher needs to seem at ease and self-assured in the role, thus eliminating some of the normal teacher/student boundaries. Although a person’s skills, values, or attitudes cannot be judged through external appearance, clothing can speak volumes; though, usually, this is just a superficial display. College students view their educators according to enthusiasm, honesty, and equity. They are likely to be tricked simply momentarily by what they are wearing (Najafi, 2013). A tailored suite or designer outfit cannot turn a curmudgeon into an exciting, enthusiastic tutor. A grin is more effective than any amount of money the educator might spend on garments. Furthermore, it is generally suggested that learners form strong opinions of their instructors during the first several seconds of their interaction.

Khabaz (2013) indicates that changes in pitch are effective in establishing the significance of a message, regulating conversation, and expressing the strength of a communication. For instance, babies can identify when a sentence ends with a higher-pitched tone as a query. Additionally, people tend to use a rising voice level for initial greetings and falling emphasis when saying goodbye. However, finer and more complex nuances related to paralanguage, such as detecting sarcasm, are acquired later on; children, as well as adults with lower cognitive abilities, usually have difficulty recognizing irony through a speaker’s delivery (Andersen, 1999).

The way we speak can be just as important as what we say. In addition to the specific words we choose, the timing, pace, volume, tone and inflection that comes with speaking can send important messages to our listeners (Lruzy,2013). For example, the tone of voice can indicate sarcasm, anger, fondness, or certainty (Milliet, 2010). This collection of sound characteristics is known as Paralanguage and can affect the meaning of words. Prosody can reveal information like the speaker’s emotional state, whether the speaker is being ironic or sarcastic, or which part of the sentence is most important. In other words, it can tell the listener a lot more than just the literal meaning of what is being said (Milliet, 2010).

Najafi (2013) identified socially accepted forms of physical contact which are made in order to create connections and grant recognition and respect. Examples of such touching may involve shaking hands, lightly squeezing an arm or patting on the shoulder. This behavior is an enactment of handholding, though in a shorter form, for an extended period would be considered too intimate in a corporate or polite context. Furthermore, Heslin (1983) believes that even professional touches, like between a hairdresser and a customer, or a nurse and a patient, can carry therapeutic properties and influence initial introductions. This effect can be beneficial for the development of a relationship (Martin, 2010).

Kurgatt & Omuna, (2016) sought to establish the extent to which visual materials are available for use in teaching of writing skills in Kenyan public primary schools. They found out that print media was the major resource in the classrooms in most schools and they were not just available but also adequate. Ambuko & Odera (2013), contend that the lack of media resources greatly determine the choices that teachers have regarding a particular media. Ngure (2014) also notes that the availability of instructional media encourages its usage in teaching: a particular technology must be available for it to be exploited. This means that if tutors are to integrate instructional media in teaching, the resources should be availed to them in the college environment.

Instructional media can also be used to facilitate reproduction activities during speech work, serving as a reminder through association of what the student has learned. Instructional media such as composite pictures, flashcards, figures and sequence of pictures may be used in this case (Ambuko & Odera, 2013). The teacher asks questions and provides the visual material as the clue for the required answer. Physical objects can also be used during translation to facilitate the teaching of the meaning of items in a bid to enhance the learners’ learning skills. For instance, the translation of the function of ‘Tarakilishi,’ which is the Kiswahili word for computer, cannot by itself convey its meaning and how it looks like. The use of a colored photo in this case, adds to the student understanding of the word and the retention of its meaning.

Educationists advocate for the utilization of instructional media in teaching since it stimulates the learning environment. Instructional media facilitates and enhances learning, resulting in faster and enjoyable learning. Students prefer this kind of learning as compared to the traditional approach where the teacher was the custodian of knowledge whereas the student was a passive recipient (Wamalwa & Wamalwa, 2014). When instructional media is effectively integrated into the learning process, greater learning is achieved within less time. Instructional media is quite effective in teaching process as they provide concrete experiences, increase the retention capabilities of the learner, provide variety and enhance the continuity of thought.

Non-verbal as a field of study seems to be underrated (Akinola, 2014). Good communication skills remain central in language learning classrooms. Verbal and non-verbal skills remain a key factor to effective learning in the classroom. Non-verbal communication as an aspect of communication is present in our classroom learning environments, but non-verbal communication as a field of study has not been given adequate attention in Kenya. Teaching of Kiswahili in Kenya as a second language continues to pose challenges to instructors. Majority of these instructors rely on their non-verbal gestures to overcome such problems (Akinola, 2014).

It is against this backdrop that this study sort to establish the types of non-verbal cues frequently used by Tambach student teachers in teaching Kiswahili language.

RESEARCH  DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The current study was based on a mixed method design combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods into its data-gathering technique. Through a pragmatic approach, mixed methods have the potential to provide a middle ground that can examine the capacity for both researchers and participants to use knowledge for playable outcomes (Morgan, 2007). Thereby, treating the two research methods as separate extremes is not appropriate, as this holds implications for the possibility of generalizability.

Pragmatists do not consider the link between the two research methods but focus is on the outcome of the research. Pragmatists say methodology used should be one that is most likely to answer the research questions and address the research objectives. The concern should be on what works. Creswell (2003) further says methods chosen need to meet the needs of the researchers and purposes of research hence pragmatism paradigm best suits mixed research methods. The current study being mixed method design has characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Therefore, pragmatism was best suited to underpin this study.

The questionnaire and structured observations provided quantitative data which was fed in SPSS version 23.0 for both descriptive and inferential analysis of variables. Of course, some elements of observation including pictures were treated as qualitative data. Suitable statistics that offer both bivariate and multivariate analyses to show significances in association of two or more variables were deployed appropriately. Specific statistical tests were settled for once the researcher developed the questionnaire codebook and knew the scales of measurements involved.

Qualitative data obtained from the observations and the focus group discussions were fed in N-vivo 12 Plus to inductively generate thematic nodes that was eventually ran into analysis queries to generate interpretations and meanings of data. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses and interpretations were laid out in written words and descriptions including quotes, narratives and vignettes, and in visuals including tables, Percentages, graphs and charts.

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

The objective of the study was to determine the types of non-verbal cues commonly used in the teaching of Kiswahili during the Teaching Practice session. To achieve this objective, the pupils were asked to state whether their teachers used non-verbal cues while teaching. The responses are shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure  1 : Teachers Use of Non-verbal Cues

The responses on whether teachers use non-verbal cues shows that majority 177(92.2%) of the pupils showed that their teachers use non-verbal cues while teaching Kiswahili. This is in agreement with Neuliep (2013) who postulated that as much as 90% of all communication occurs through non-verbal communication. It makes sense therefore for teachers to not only use nonverbal communication to their advantage but also to understand its effect in the classroom. In the classroom, teachers create more permanent impressions through use of non-verbal communication than they do using the knowledge of subject matter and verbal fluency. The response also confirms Bambaeerou and Shokpour (2017) assertion that in the field of teaching, certainly one of the main characteristics of good teachers is good communication skills. In addition, they noted that most of the observed stress in the classroom arises from lack of proper communication.

Figure 2 shows the responses on the non-verbal cues used by the teachers while teaching Kiswahili.

Figure  2: Non-verbal cues used

The findings as shown in Figure 4.5 reveals that 88 (45.8 %) of the pupils stated that their teachers use body movement while teaching Kiswahili whereas 87 (45.3 %) stated that their teachers use eye contact and 9 (4.7 %) stated that the teachers use facial expressions. Only 8 (4.2 %) asserted that the teachers use gestures while teaching Kiswahili. According to Najafi (2013), variety of gestures and body movements with which a teacher and student interact can have an impact on interpersonal understanding. A teacher who slumps or appears fidgety when conversing with pupils will not be viewed as a self-assured individual. Conversely, a teacher who appears composed in any situation may be considered as stand-offish or distant. Salimi (2014) intones that posture and body motion can demonstratively indicate assurance, energy, tiredness, and status.

The teacher-trainees were also asked to state their level of agreement concerning different uses of non-verbal cues. The responses are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Types of Non-Verbal Cues Used in the Teaching of Kiswahili

The findings in Table 1 shows that 32 (17.9%) of the teacher-trainees almost always make specific choices on which of the non-verbal communication cues to use when teaching reading while 43(24 %) of teachers always make specific choices on which of the non-verbal communication cues to use when teaching reading. However, 73 (40.8%) rarely, 24 (13.4%) never and 7 (3.9%) of the teachers almost never make specific choices in which of the non-verbal communication cues to use when teaching reading. This finding concurs with Fabri et al. (2015) who describes the term “non-verbal” as human interaction events that transcend the spoken or written word, and Fatemeh et al. (2014) who describes non-verbal interaction as the process of one person using cues such as gestures and facial expressions, to stimulate meaning in the mind of another person by means of non-linguistic. Non-verbal interaction may take place primarily through several ways like non-verbal vocalization, types of clothes, bodily contact, how a teacher expresses the face, gaze, types of gesture and one’s body posture. Therefore, non-verbal interaction can be equal to or more effective than oral interaction.

The findings in Table 1 reveal that 31 (17.3%) of the teachers almost always use role-playing as a teaching technique in the classroom when teaching reading while 48 (26.8%) of teachers always find use of role-playing as a teaching technique in the classroom when teaching reading. However, majority 61(34.1%) rarely use role-playing as a teaching technique in the classroom when teaching reading and 35(19.6%) never use it while 4(2.2%) of the teachers almost never use role-playing as a teaching technique in the classroom when teaching reading. This concurs with McEwen, et al (2014) who argue that, when students take the skills they have learned in theory and put them in practice, it creates a deeper cognitive link to the material, making it easier for students to learn. This pedagogical tool has been used in various fields, from medicine to law, from business to psychology (Westrup & Planander, 2013). Using role-plays has been shown to better prepare student-teachers and construction managers (Bhattacharjee, 2014). Not only does it increase student engagement, it increases knowledge retention. (Westrup & Planander, 2013).

The results of Table 1 indicate that 57(31.8%) teachers usually make use of silence as part of their teaching approach for reading, while the majority 82(45.8%), always integrate silence in their reading instruction. Conversely, only 14(7.8%) occasionally implement silence in their teaching, 23(12.8%) never use it, and 3(1.7%) nearly never make use of silence as a teaching tool when it comes to reading. Fidyk (2013) acknowledges and respects the complexity of the factors relevant to silence, such as distinguishing between types of silences, especially those that can be unfamiliar, uncertain, and paradoxical. This serves to highlight some of the apparent contradictions, ambivalences and complexities in the development of understandings of silence. In this study, most of the respondent trainees indicate that silence has different effects. Pauses and silences are an important part of creating meaning during classroom interaction. Pauses draw attention to important parts of messages. The “pregnant pause” is an extra-long pause that precedes particularly weighty information. Pauses are a type of silence that are brief in nature, but prolonged silence such as minutes, hours, or even days can be used to convey meaning as well. Consider a conversation in which the other person does not respond to you. Myriad meanings of silence help emphasize the significance of silence and that it is as impactful as verbal communication especially in a classroom situation.

Arguably, the use of silence in its ‘weak’ form, used as an oppressive, disciplinarian tool, is in evidence in ‘the growth of authoritarian models of schooling, involving ‘zero-tolerance’, ‘no-excuses’ disciplinary approaches’ (Clarke, et al., 2021:187). For instance, the use of isolation or ‘inclusion’ units in schools for withdrawal of students for infraction of the rules ‘While some isolation rooms contain rows of desks, some contain isolation booths, separated from each other by solid wooden panels, at which pupils sit in silence on their own, often for many hours’ (p.195). This is silence imposed from the outside and a very different form of silence to silence as participatory, agentic, positive pedagogic practice.

Spyrou (2016) has argued for childhood researchers to pay attention to and be respectful of children’s silences in the analysis of children’s voices, noting that ‘far from being absences or lack of data, children’s silences are pregnant with meaning and a constitutive feature of their voices’ (p.7). Thus, in research exploring children’s voices, it is also important to attend to their silences. Used as a pedagogic tool, planned opportunities for silence and stillness may open up fertile time and ‘nourishing space’ (Fidyk, 2013) for reflection and creativity. However, arguably this would require a shift in classroom culture, a reassessment of the priority usually afforded to the spoken word in classroom pedagogy and the perception of silence as ‘awkward’ and ‘embarrassing’, and as a passive, non-participatory state. In this research the use of silence in the class would arguably be for emphasis as most trainee teachers would be more focused on achieving the objectives set out for each lesson.

The findings in Table 1 shows that 51(28.5%) of the teachers almost always find need to convey enthusiasm during reading instructions while 73(40.8%) of teachers always find need to convey enthusiasm during reading instructions.  However, 21(11.7%) rarely, 19(10.6%) never and 15(8.4%) of the teachers almost never find need to convey enthusiasm during reading instructions. This finding was in line with Bambaeeroo and Shokrpour (2017) who argued that in tone there is a strong correlation between quality, number and techniques of using non-verbal communication in a classroom by teachers in the course of instruction. In case there is a contradiction between the verbal and non-verbal, the advice is to favor the non-verbal message and ask them to pay more attention to non-verbal than verbal messages because non-verbal cues frequently reveal the intention of the sender of the information and reflect his/her emotional reactions. However, investigations to confirm that certain types of non-verbal communication are present in primary school and reading education are few and far between. Assessing the presence of particular types and their roles can help in ascertaining their significance in the context of literacy tuition. Determining these would also be of use in instructing future reading educators.

These results demonstrate that 62(34.6%) nearly always utilize pitch and tone to demonstrate excitement during reading classes, while a significant majority; 75(41.9%) teachers make use of them constantly. Meanwhile, the rest of them, 30(16.8%), use the vocal cues infrequently, and 19(6.7%) don’t use them at all. Vocal gestures in the classroom are a significant, non-verbal strategy that can easily influence pupil participation in class activities. Generally, when providing accuracy responses, the instructor should respond with positive spoken reinforcement supplemented by a vocal pitch or tone, expressing recognition and fondness for the students’ response (seldom paired with a beam or other non-verbal sign of approval). By contrast, the reverse happens when the teacher doesn’t really like the response (or conduct). Khabaz (2013) indicates that changes in pitch are effective in establishing the significance of a message, regulating conversation, and expressing the strength of a communication. For instance, babies can identify when a sentence ends with a higher-pitched tone as a query. Additionally, people tend to use a rising voice level for initial greetings and falling emphasis when saying goodbye. However, finer and more complex nuances related to paralanguage, such as detecting sarcasm, are acquired later on; children, as well as adults with lower cognitive abilities, usually have difficulty recognizing irony through a speaker’s delivery (Andersen, 1999). Therefore, use of vocalics is expected to be used judiciously and consciously for the aforementioned effects to be realized in productive teacher-pupil classroom interactions.

How speech is made is as important as what is spoken. In addition to the specific choice of words, the timing, pace, volume, tone and inflection that comes with speaking can send important messages to the listeners (Lruzy, 2013). For example, the tone of voice can indicate sarcasm, anger, fondness, or certainty (Milliet, 2010). This collection of sound characteristics is known as paralanguage and can affect the meaning of words. Prosody can reveal information like the speaker’s emotional state, whether the speaker is being ironic or sarcastic, or which part of the sentence is most important. In other words, it can tell the listener a lot more than just the literal meaning of what is being said (Milliet, 2010).

The findings in Table 1 indicate that 12(6.7%) of the teachers almost always find touching the student on the back or the arm as a helpful teaching tool during reading instructions while 28(15.6%) of teachers always find touching the student on the back or arm as a helpful teaching tool during reading instructions.  However, 57(31.8%) rarely, 66(36.9%) never and 16(8.9%) of the teachers almost never find touching the student on the back or arm as a helpful teaching tool during reading instructions. This agrees with Najafi (2013) who identified socially accepted forms of physical contact which are made in order to create connections and grant recognition and respect. Examples of such touching may involve shaking hands, lightly squeezing an arm or patting on the shoulder. This behavior is an enactment of handholding which though in a shorter form, for an extended period would be considered too intimate in a corporate or polite context. Furthermore, Heslin (1983) believes that even professional touches, like between a hairdresser and a customer, or a nurse and a patient, can carry therapeutic properties and influence initial introductions. This effect can be beneficial for the development of a relationship (Martin, 2010). However, like it may be coming up in discussion here, touch is usually culturally determined and most African cultures are limited in touch. Most of the trainee teachers were in their late teenage years and would have found it awkward to involve themselves with touch especially of the many girls in their classrooms.

Table 1 presents the results of the survey taken on the importance of eye contact during reading instruction. An overwhelming majority of 113(63.1%) of the teachers reported always deeming eye contact necessary for effective teaching, while 43(24.0%) almost always found its use to be significant. On the flip side, 11(6.1%) rarely viewed it as important, 8(4.5%) never did and 4(2.2%) almost never comprehended its importance. This is in line with Salimi (2014), who asserts that the old proverb, “eyes are a reflection of your inner self”, still rings true today. Eye contact carries many varied meanings and significances. Use of eye and/or facial expressions is deemed in many studies as having a disciplinary function well as other roles which help teachers in managing classrooms (Gower & Walters,1983). For example, a person may give a defiant and angry look when angered, a glance when they spot anything fascinating or strange (although staring obnoxiously is impolite), an absent-minded gaze when enamored, as well as a straight look when attempting to make your point explicit when conversing.

Based on the findings of Babelan (2012), in all contexts, gaze is used as a communicational device with another person. Purposefully most people abstain from looking someone directly in the eye when they are trying to conceal something. Police officers generally utilize this method to decide if the person is telling the truth or not. Therefore, unless one is particularly good at deceit, they usually feel anxious when they lie. Additionally, from timidity, a person may struggle to look someone firmly in the eye. This symptom is usually present in tandem with other indicator of shyness, such as verbal stumbling and periodically flushing. On the flip side, it is possible that the other individual has a short attention span for whatever is being discussed.

From Table 1, 7(3.9%) of the teachers almost always find touching students during reading instruction to be a valuable teaching tool while 29(16.2%) of the teachers always find touching students during reading instruction to be a valuable teaching tool. Another 38(21.2%) rarely, 94(52.5%) never and 11(6.1%) of the teachers almost never find touching students during reading instruction to be a valuable teaching tool. Muchemwa (2013) affirms that classroom communication is inefficient when there are no non-verbal communication cues. Teachers use non-verbal communication in teaching, but they lack ability to interpret such non-verbal cues. Also in Zimbabwe, chronemics (use of time) is highly respected among teachers. However, the study observed that there was no haptics (use of touch) which can be attributed to culture. The study observed that touch was not encouraged in African and Asian cultures. Teachers therefore, did not have close contact with the students. Touch is viewed as negative classroom behavior in the African culture because most African cultures are low contact. There are however, high contact cultures which encourage touch with people during the communication process. African cultures mostly belong to the low contact category. Kenyan culture same as Zimbabwe is low contact.

Table 1 reveals that 46(25.7 %) of teachers almost always believe their dressing plays a part in effective reading instruction. Another 85(47.5%) always believe their dressing plays a part in effective reading instruction. There were 25(14.0%) of the teachers rarely and 23(12.8%) of the teachers always never believe their dressing plays a part in effective reading instruction. In order to make a favorable impression, the teacher needs to seem at ease and self-assured in the role, thus eliminating some of the normal teacher/student boundaries. Although a person’s skills, values, or attitudes cannot be judged through external appearance, clothing can speak volumes; though, usually, this is just a superficial display. A study on college students found out that they view their educators according to enthusiasm, honesty, and equity. They are likely to be tricked simply momentarily by what they are wearing (Najafi, 2013). A tailored suite or designer outfit cannot turn a curmudgeon into an exciting, enthusiastic tutor. A grin is more effective than any amount of money the educator might spend on garments. Furthermore, it is generally suggested that learners form strong opinions of their instructors during the first several seconds of their interaction. Good teachers have to dress professionally and decently in order to create a more comfortable classroom environment and establish a positive relationship with pupils in the classroom. In this study, it was found out that most teachers favor dressing for effective teaching in reading instruction.

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

The study sought to determine the different kinds of non-verbal cues used for Kiswahili lessons in the Teaching Practice sessions. The outcomes of this survey suggested that the majority (54.2%) of participants hardly or never carefully select non-verbal communication when teaching to read. Moreover, a further 56.9% hardly or never employ role-play as a pedagogical method in the classroom when teaching to read. Nevertheless, the majority of the respondents (77.6%) expressed that they routinely utilize silence as a teaching strategy when teaching to read. Aside from this, majority (69.3%) of the respondents specified that they demonstrate enthusiasm while giving reading instructions.

Additionally, the vast majority of instructors (75.5%) utilize the pitch and tone of their voices to show enthusiasm when teaching reading. The research showed that a sizeable amount of teachers (77.6%) never think that putting their hand on a student’s back or arm is useful during reading lessons. Further, the study showed a strong majority (63.1%) of teachers always think that maintaining eye contact is important when giving a reading lesson. Most instructors (73.7%) rarely or never see touching a student as a helpful teaching practice in reading instructions. Likewise, a large number (73.2%) of teachers think that their way of dressing is vital for effective reading instruction.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion therefore, silence, tone of voice and pitch, eye contact and dressing are the most common non-verbal cues used during instructional discourse in Primary schools during teaching practice.

Suggestions for Further Study

The following suggestions were made for future research in established knowledge gaps.

1. To increase the generalizability of the study, a similar investigation should be conducted in other public institutions in Kenya.
2. Further research should be conducted exploring other factors that may have an influence on use of accurate non-verbal cues in teaching.

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