Leadership beyond Competence: The Interplay of Supervisory Management Skills and Emotional Intelligence of College Deans in Private Heis

Leadership beyond Competence: The Interplay of Supervisory Management Skills and Emotional Intelligence of College Deans in Private Heis

*¹Dr. Joe-An G. Cuaresma., ²Dr. Dominisio James S. Cuaresma., ³Dr. Edil Washif P. Insani

¹Southern Mindanao Colleges

²Pagadian Capitol College, Inc

³Southern City Colleges

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0528

Received: 24 September 2025; Accepted: 30 September 2025; Published: 07 October 2025

ABSTRACT

In the evolving landscape of higher education, leadership effectiveness increasingly requires the integration of both technical competence and emotional intelligence (EI). This study examined the supervisory management skills and EI of college deans in selected private higher education institutions (HEIs) in Pagadian City, Philippines. Employing a descriptive-correlational design, data were collected from 68 deans and 165 faculty members using a validated questionnaire that measured supervisory management dimensions (leadership, human relations, group process, personnel management, and evaluation) and EI components (perceiving, managing, using, and understanding emotions). Findings revealed that both supervisory management skills and EI were consistently rated as “always practiced,” with no significant differences between deans’ self-assessments and faculty perceptions. A strong positive correlation (r = 0.82, p < .001) was established between supervisory skills and EI, indicating that higher managerial competence is closely associated with stronger emotional intelligence. These results affirm that emotionally intelligent leadership enhances faculty engagement, psychological safety, and organizational resilience. The study underscores the importance of integrating EI training with supervisory skill development in leadership programs and incorporating emotionally intelligent leadership into administrative selection policies. Beyond its practical implications, this research contributes to the limited Philippine literature on HEI leadership, emphasizing the role of EI in fostering cooperation, innovation, and sustainable institutional success.

Keywords: supervisory management skills, emotional intelligence, college deans, higher education leadership, and academic climate.

INTRODUCTION

Leadership in higher education is widely acknowledged as a crucial predictor of institutional performance, faculty engagement, and student achievement. Beyond technical competence, academic leaders are required to incorporate supervisory management abilities and emotional intelligence to negotiate the complex and developing issues of higher education institutions (HEIs). Supervisory management skills, such as leadership, human relations, group process, personnel management, and evaluation, enable administrators to direct academic operations strategically, while emotional intelligence (EI) ensures that interpersonal relationships are managed with empathy and adaptability. Recent studies indicate that emotionally intelligent leaders encourage psychological safety, cooperation, and creativity among academic communities (Demir & Öztürk, 2025). This is particularly crucial in Philippine HEIs, where administrators must reconcile institutional requirements with the different demands of staff and students (Atiku, 2024).

While worldwide studies stress the relevance of supervisory management and emotional intelligence, less empirical study has been undertaken in the Philippine setting, particularly among private higher education institutions in underdeveloped locations such as Pagadian City. Studies in Western and Asian institutions indicate how EI promotes leadership effectiveness, but localized investigations remain rare (Shafait et al., 2024). Without such proof, institutional leaders may neglect the incorporation of emotional abilities into standard supervisory frameworks. Furthermore, recent research suggests that leadership devoid of relational and emotional components risks disengagement among personnel and poor organizational performance (Sasere & Ojo, 2025). This study fills this gap by analyzing the synergy between supervisory management abilities and emotional intelligence of college deans, hence giving context-specific insights for Philippine HEIs.

This study is noteworthy for various reasons. For politicians and educational leaders, it underlines the need to include emotional intelligence training in leadership development programs, ensuring that administrators possess both technical and relational abilities. For faculty members, the study illustrates how emotionally intelligent supervisory approaches may build pleasant academic climates, boost job satisfaction, and improve performance results (Paredes-Saavedra et al., 2024). For students, indirect benefits include enhanced learning environments provided by engaged and motivated staff. Lastly, for future researchers, this study contributes to the burgeoning literature on higher education leadership in the Global South, establishing a framework for comparative studies across locations and institutional kinds. By anchoring leadership techniques in both supervisory management and EI, HEIs may assure resilience, adaptation, and sustainability in an era of fast educational transition (Zhang et al., 2024).

This study intends to analyze the supervisory management abilities and emotional intelligence of college deans in chosen private HEIs in Pagadian City. Specifically, it (a) evaluates the extent to which deans demonstrate leadership, human relations, group process, personnel management, and evaluation; (b) determines the degree to which deans practice perceiving, managing, using, and understanding emotions; (c) compares the perceptions of deans and faculty regarding these competencies; and (d) examines the relationship between supervisory management skills and emotional intelligence. Through this, the project hopes to develop empirical information on the leadership qualities of deans, with implications for organizational performance and sustainability in higher education.

Objectives of the Study

1. Assess the supervisory management skills of college deans in terms of leadership, human relations, group process, personnel management, and evaluation.
2. Determine the extent to which college deans practice emotional intelligence in terms of perceiving emotion, managing emotion, using emotion, and understanding emotion.
3. Test whether there are significant differences between the responses of college deans and faculty members concerning these competencies.
4. Examine the correlation between supervisory management skills and emotional intelligence of college deans in select private higher education institutions.

METHODOLOGY

This study employed a descriptive-correlational design to assess the supervisory management abilities and emotional intelligence of college deans in selected private higher education institutions (HEIs) in Pagadian City. A total of 233 respondents participated in the study, consisting of 68 deans and 165 faculty members, each with a minimum of five years of teaching or administrative experience. This design was chosen as it allowed the researchers to examine relationships between supervisory management skills and emotional intelligence while also comparing perspectives between deans and faculty.

Sampling Procedure: A purposive sampling method was employed to ensure that participants possessed relevant administrative or academic exposure. Inclusion criteria required at least five years of service and current or recent supervisory engagement. This ensured that respondents were able to provide informed insights regarding leadership practices within their institutions (Atiku, 2024).

Data Collection: Data were gathered through a validated and reliability-tested survey instrument (Cronbach’s α > 0.90), which measured supervisory management skills across five dimensions (leadership, human relations, group process, personnel management, and evaluation) and emotional intelligence across four components (perceiving, managing, using, and understanding emotions). Responses were rated on a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never practiced) to 6 (always practiced). Content validity was established through expert review, and internal consistency was confirmed prior to deployment. Surveys were distributed with the cooperation of institutional administrators and collected within two weeks.

Statistical Analysis: Data were analyzed using weighted means to describe supervisory and emotional intelligence practices. Independent z-tests were used when comparing large sample means between deans and faculty, while t-tests were applied when closer variance examination was required. Pearson correlation analysis determined the strength and direction of relationships between supervisory management skills and emotional intelligence. These statistical procedures ensured both descriptive accuracy and inferential rigor (Zhang et al., 2024).

Ethical Considerations: Ethical safeguards were strictly observed throughout the study. Institutional approvals were obtained, and informed consent was secured from all participants. Respondents were fully informed of the study’s purpose, assured of voluntary participation, and reminded that they could withdraw at any time without penalty. To preserve confidentiality, no identifying information was disclosed, and completed surveys were stored securely before being destroyed after analysis. These measures align with international standards of ethical research in education, thereby protecting participants’ rights, privacy, and dignity (Shafait et al., 2024; Sasere & Ojo, 2025).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 indicates that college deans routinely display effective leadership, notably in pushing faculty and staff toward shared institutional goals. Both deans and faculty assessed this conduct as always practiced, reflecting a common sense that leaders are actively linking people’s activities with corporate objectives. Such findings fit with modern studies demonstrating that effective leadership in higher education rests on the ability to inspire collective commitment and establish shared purpose (Tang, 2023). When teachers feel motivated and driven by clear leadership, it typically leads to higher engagement and institutional success (Zhang et al., 2024). The high ratings for expressing institutional vision also underline the need for clarity and consistency in leadership. As Zhang et al. (2024) observed, vision communication promotes organizational quality through employee participation and perceived leader support. In the case of Pagadian HEIs, the high agreement between deans’ practices and faculty views implies that leaders are not just expressing a vision but also living it in their day-to-day activities. This congruence supports institutional identification and helps teachers locate their professional activities within wider corporate aims (Paredes-Saavedra et al., 2024).

The human relations factor underlines dean’s capacity to establish positive interpersonal ties and settle issues constructively. The high evaluations show that teachers regard their leaders as accessible and empathic, attributes that create trust and psychological safety inside academic units. Research suggests that such relationship activities are critical for decreasing burnout and preserving teacher morale in demanding higher education contexts (Atiku, 2024). When managers value human relationships, it fosters an atmosphere of collaboration and collegiality. Conflict resolution, likewise evaluated as usually performed, further highlights deans’ interpersonal ability. Paredes-Saavedra et al. (2024) revealed that emotionally intelligent leadership directly improves team effectiveness, partially through relational behaviors that settle differences constructively. In the HEI environment, conflict resolution eliminates relational fractures that might hinder teaching and research productivity. By combining empathy with communication skills, deans guarantee that conflicts do not escalate, thus sustaining institutional harmony and stability.

Participative decision-making appeared as a key group process skill, with respondents appreciating deans’ attempts to engage faculty voices in academic and administrative choices. Such inclusion mimics dispersed leadership paradigms, which promote shared accountability and broad ownership of institutional activities (Wang & Kim, 2022). Faculty engagement in decision-making not only boosts transparency but also increases their commitment to executing decisions, boosting the overall academic atmosphere. Collaboration among teams, likewise highly regarded, indicates the deans’ abilities to build synergy across academic groupings. Recent data demonstrates that inclusive and participative leadership favorably promotes creative behavior among higher-education professionals (Demir & Öztürk, 2025). Involving academics in group activities improves autonomy and psychological safety, which in turn enables innovative solutions to institutional difficulties. Thus, the good scores for group process show that deans are developing institutional cultures that encourage both stability and creativity.

Personnel management statistics reveal that deans succeed in inspiring people for improved performance and assigning duties effectively. Such methods are crucial for preserving organizational success, since they guarantee that duties are dispersed equally while aligning with individual talents. Studies suggest that supportive personnel practices contribute to increased job satisfaction and work engagement among academic staff (Atiku, 2024). By effectively delegating, deans encourage faculty to take ownership of duties and responsibilities, boosting both efficiency and morale. The emphasis on people development also reflects deans’ appreciation of the necessity for continuing capacity building. Paredes-Saavedra et al. (2024) stated that work cultures typified by supportive leadership promote team performance, particularly when leaders provide growth possibilities. In this survey, personnel management was consistently “always practiced,” suggesting that faculty consider their deans not just as supervisors but as mentors who encourage career advancement. This positions HEIs in Pagadian City for long-term sustainability and academic competitiveness.

Evaluation methods garnered strong evaluations, showing that college deans routinely monitor faculty performance and connect competencies with institutional aims. Faculty agreement on these methods demonstrates transparency and fairness in assessment processes. Zhang et al. (2024) revealed that quality performance in companies is highly impacted by leader communication of criteria and supporting assessment methods. In the HEI environment, such procedures promote accountability while simultaneously reinforcing faculty development goals. Moreover, assessment as a supervisory skill supports other management aspects by providing feedback loops that inform leadership, people management, and group process methods. When handled equitably and constructively, assessment not only identifies areas for growth but also promotes desired behaviors. Atiku (2024) underlined that helpful evaluation climates diminish defensive behaviors and promote teacher motivation. The significant results in this study imply that evaluation in Pagadian HEIs is seen as developmental rather than punishing, hence supporting ongoing improvement and institutional resilience.

Table 1: Supervisory Management Skills of College Deans in Select Private Higher Education Institutions

Table 2 findings revealed consistently high ratings (“Always Practiced”) across supervisory management and EI dimensions. Deans were perceived as effective leaders, accessible in human relations, participative in decision-making, supportive in personnel management, and transparent in evaluation. EI scores mirrored these patterns, with strong capacity for perceiving, managing, using, and understanding emotions. This displays the emotional intelligence of college deans, with perceiving emotion regarded as always practiced by both deans and faculty. High ratings for recognizing emotional signals and expressing empathy imply that leaders in these HEIs are skilled observers of social cues and interpersonal dynamics. This is vital for developing supportive work settings, since the capacity to appropriately interpret emotions builds trust and enhances collegial relationships (Tang, 2023). In academic contexts, empathy also helps administrators to respond sensitively to faculty concerns, reducing stress and promoting motivation. A recent study shows that correct perception of emotion serves as the foundation for other EI qualities. For example, Shengyao et al. (2024) observed that students and staff with greater emotional awareness achieved stronger well-being and academic outcomes. Similarly, in institutional contexts, leaders’ ability to perceive subtle emotional cues promotes communication and aids in conflict resolution (Shafait et al., 2024). The consistently high evaluations in this study suggest that deans in Pagadian HEIs are building relational capital by interacting empathetically with faculty, thus boosting morale and institutional resilience.

Managing emotion also earned high ratings, with deans viewed as consistently regulating their emotions and responding constructively to conflicts. This ability enables leaders to remain calm under pressure and demonstrate composed behavior during organizational crises. Research on higher-education executives reveals that emotional self-regulation is a strong predictor of effective decision-making under stress (Al-Zoubi et al., 2024). By maintaining composure, deans signal stability to faculty and staff, thereby reinforcing trust in leadership. These findings are consistent with Sasere and Ojo (2025), who found that leaders with effective emotion management skills create cascading benefits for teacher performance and student achievement. Constructive emotional management not only resolves conflicts but also fosters psychological safety, which is essential for creativity and innovation (Demir & Öztürk, 2025). The consistently high scores in this study indicate that deans are effectively blending authority with emotional control, ensuring that challenges are met with both firmness and empathy.

The capacity to use emotion, to inspire, motivate, and encourage creativity, was also consistently rated as always practiced. This indicates that deans are not only regulating their own emotions but also channeling them strategically to energize and unite teams. Leaders who use emotion effectively can build enthusiasm, foster collaboration, and sustain momentum in institutional initiatives (Paredes-Saavedra et al., 2024). Such practices are critical in higher education, where motivating faculty to engage in teaching, research, and extension requires more than administrative authority. In fact, research suggests that leaders’ ability to harness emotional energy enhances work engagement and innovative behavior. Demir and Öztürk (2025) emphasized that inclusive leaders who strategically apply emotional energy foster psychological safety, which in turn promotes creativity among staff. For HEIs in Pagadian, the ability of deans to use emotions to inspire faculty and build connections demonstrates a leadership style supportive of innovation, adaptability, and collective commitment.

Finally, understanding emotion, interpreting emotional causes, and applying insights in decision-making, was rated highly, suggesting that deans can analyze emotional dynamics to guide their leadership strategies. This finding is supported by Shafait et al. (2024), who concluded that organizational climates enhance leaders’ ability to incorporate emotional knowledge into policies and strategies. By understanding the underlying causes of faculty emotions, deans are better prepared to anticipate resistance, provide supportive interventions, and design policies aligned with stakeholder needs. This strong performance further supports the idea that EI is a holistic construct, with perceiving, regulating, using, and understanding emotions working together to sustain effective leadership. Shengyao et al. (2024) emphasized that the ability to understand and apply emotional insights enhances both psychological well-being and academic performance. For deans in Pagadian HEIs, this suggests that their leadership practices are not only technically competent but also emotionally intelligent, enabling them to foster strong academic climates and long-term institutional success.

Table 2: Emotional Intelligence of College Deans in Select Private Higher Education Institutions

Table 3 Test of Difference in the Responses of College Deans and Faculty on Supervisory Management Skills

In Table 3, all calculated z-test values comparing deans’ and faculty perspectives across leadership, human relations, group process, personnel management, and assessment failed to reach the critical value for significance. This suggests that faculty and deans have relatively comparable conceptions of supervisory management practices, with no major variance between how deans see themselves and how faculty view them. Such congruence is desirable, as perceptual gaps can foster confusion, resistance, or disengagement inside institutions. Rahman (2025) similarly concluded that congruence between leadership and staff perceptions is critical for institutional cohesiveness and trust.

This table showed no significant differences between deans’ self-ratings and faculty assessments. This perceptual alignment can be interpreted in two ways. First, it may reflect genuine transparency and consistency in leadership practices, suggesting deans’ behaviors are observed and validated by faculty. Second, it may reflect cultural dynamics in Philippine HEIs, where hierarchical respect and consensus-seeking norms could minimize reporting of discrepancies. Thus, the absence of difference should not be taken at face value but understood within both cultural and methodological contexts.

The absence of statistically significant differences also indicates that the supervisory activities deans reported are observed and acknowledged by faculty, suggesting transparency and consistency in leadership execution. In organizational psychology, when leader self-rated activities are compatible with subordinate observations, it promotes credibility, legitimacy, and confidence in leadership (Coronado-Maldonado et al., 2023). Indeed, in studies on emotional intelligence and leadership, congruence in perceptions is generally related to greater team cohesiveness and fewer conflict escalations (Coronado-Maldonado et al., 2023). However, one must take “no significant difference” with caution: the lack of detectable difference may arise from uniformly high ratings (a ceiling effect) or restricted diversity in responses. Future research could employ more sensitive instruments or qualitative methods to reveal nuanced perception gaps.

Table 4 : Test of Difference in the Responses of College Deans and Faculty on Emotional Intelligence

Table 4 shows that t-tests comparing deans’ and faculty judgments of perceiving, managing, using, and understanding emotion all resulted in non-significant differences. This demonstrates that both groups similarly perceive EI characteristics exhibited by deans. The consistency suggests that deans’ emotional abilities are not simply internal but also externally observable and validated by faculty. In higher education settings, such alignment enhances trust and fosters a culture of emotional openness (Asmamaw, 2023).

The parity in impressions may also reflect a leadership style of emotional transparency, where deans model emotional conduct openly, making it observable and consistent. In contexts where EI is practiced visibly, subordinates are more likely to adopt emotional norms and expectations (Asmamaw, 2023). This consistency strengthens organizational climate and social cohesion (Coronado-Maldonado et al., 2023). Nonetheless, non-significance should not be equated with lack of relevance. It may stem from limited measurement sensitivity or homogeneity in responses among a group with high baseline emotional capacity. Future research should consider longitudinal and mixed-methods designs, including peer ratings or behavioral observations, to uncover more subtle variations in EI perceptions.

Table 5: Correlation Between Supervisory Management Skills and Emotional Intelligence of College Deans

Table 5 indicates a high positive connection (r = 0.82, p < .001) between supervisory management abilities and emotional intelligence. This means that deans who are more effective in management dimensions (leadership, human relations, assessment, etc.) are also likely to possess better emotional intelligence. The strong positive correlation (r = 0.82, p < .001) demonstrates that effective supervisory management is closely tied to emotional intelligence. This aligns with the literature suggesting that EI enhances technical leadership functions such as delegation, evaluation, and conflict management. However, the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes causal inference: it remains unclear whether EI drives effective supervision or whether successful management cultivates EI.

The significant positive correlation illustrates the conceptual synergy between technical/managerial abilities and socio-emotional capacities in effective leadership. In fact, recent research demonstrates that leaders with high EI are more effective in managerial positions (e.g., decision-making, conflict management), since EI magnifies the impact of management abilities (SAGE magazine, Emotional Intelligence and Leader Outcomes, 2025). Moreover, the substantial link accords with the concept that EI is not distinct from leadership abilities but integrated: emotionally intelligent leaders effectively harness their technical talents to encourage, assess, and steer teams. Coronado-Maldonado et al. (2023) claim in their review that EI complements leadership characteristics in teams, enabling coordination, conflict resolution, and performance. This correlative finding substantiates that the sample’s deans represent this integrated leadership paradigm. Still, correlation does not indicate causality. Longitudinal or experimental designs would assist in untangling directionality. Additionally, investigating moderating variables (e.g., organizational environment, faculty culture, institutional size) could explain when the connection is stronger or weaker.

LIMITATIONS

Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations that must be acknowledged. First, its findings have limited generalizability, as the sample was confined to private HEIs in a single city and may not necessarily represent public universities or institutions in other regions. Second, the uniformly high scores across dimensions suggest the possibility of social desirability bias and a ceiling effect, where participants may have provided favorable responses rather than reflecting actual practices. Third, the cross-sectional and correlational design of the study restricts the ability to infer causality, leaving unanswered whether emotional intelligence drives supervisory skills, vice versa, or if other variables influence both. Finally, issues of measurement sensitivity may have constrained the detection of subtle perceptual differences between deans and faculty. Explicitly recognizing these limitations not only strengthens the academic honesty of the research but also contextualizes the scope of its findings for future studies.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that college deans in Pagadian City continuously exercise great supervisory management skills and high levels of emotional intelligence. Both deans and faculty reported comparable impressions, demonstrating that leadership practices are apparent, transparent, and well-recognized across institutional levels. The absence of major perceptual discrepancies shows a common mental model of leadership activities, which is crucial for institutional trust and cohesiveness. More significantly, the high positive link between supervisory management abilities and emotional intelligence confirms the premise that technical and emotional talents in leadership are interconnected rather than distinct. Leaders who effectively plan, organize, and assess are also those who perceive, manage, and use emotions in ways that promote academic partnerships and faculty involvement. These findings underline the need for establishing leadership training programs that blend emotional intelligence with supervisory management. For higher education institutions, the study highlights the role of emotionally intelligent leadership in fostering favorable academic climates, motivating faculty, and supporting organizational sustainability. This study also demonstrated that supervisory management skills and EI are consistently and highly practiced among deans in private HEIs in Pagadian City, with strong alignment between self- and faculty perceptions. The robust correlation between supervisory management and EI reinforces the view that effective leadership integrates both technical and emotional capacities.

Thus, HEIs should integrate EI modules into leadership development programs, emphasizing not only managerial training but also relational and emotional competence. Institutional policies for dean selection and training may likewise benefit from including EI as a leadership criterion. Further, to address limitations, future studies should (a) replicate the study in public HEIs, larger universities, and other regions for comparative insights; (b) employ longitudinal designs to explore causality between EI and supervisory skills; (c) integrate qualitative approaches such as faculty interviews and focus groups to uncover the “how” and “why” behind high scores; and (d) explore moderating variables such as institutional culture, size, or governance style. By pursuing these directions, research can more fully capture the complexity of emotionally intelligent leadership in higher education.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES

1. Al-Zoubi, Z., Alzoubi, Z., & Hamad, A. (2024). The impact of work pressure on decision-making effectiveness among university department heads. Frontiers in Psychology.https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/articles/PMC11293678/.
2. Atiku, S. O. (2024). Leadership practices and work engagement in higher education: The mediating role of job demands–resources. SAGE Open. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2158244024123 3378.
3. Coronado-Maldonado, I., et al. (2023). Emotional intelligence, leadership, and work teams: A review. PMC. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10543214/Asmamaw, A. T. (2023). Exploring the influence of leader emotional intelligence on faculty engagement. Tandfonline. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2277547.
4. Demir, H., & Öztürk, A. (2025). Inclusive leadership and innovative behavior of higher-education staff. Cogent Education. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13803611.2025.2556055.
5. Emotional Intelligence and Leader Outcomes.” (2025). SAGE Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com /doi/10.1177/15344843251342689.
6. Paredes-Saavedra, M., Amayra, I., & Rozas-Vidal, E. (2024). Work team effectiveness in universities: Roles of EI, leadership, culture, climate, and creative synergy. Administrative Sciences, 14(11), 280. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3387/14/11/280.
7. Rahman, S. M. M. (2025). Unveiling perceptions on academic leadership effectiveness. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11996076/.
8. Sasere, O. B., & Ojo, O. A. (2025). The direct and cascading impacts of school leaders’ emotional intelligence. Education Sciences, 15(9), 1168. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/15/9/1168.
9. Shafait, Z., Huang, S., & Zia, A. (2024). Is it more than just university climate? Teachers’ EI enabled by organizational climate. Psychology in the Schools. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10. 1002/pits.70076.
10. Shengyao, Y., Liu, X., & Wang, W. (2024). Emotional intelligence, psychological well-being, and academic achievement: A meta-analytic examination. Frontiers in Psychology. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ar ticles/PMC11245800/.
11. Tang, Y. (2023). Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, social support, and motivation among college students. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1109569. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.11095 69/full.
12. Wang, Q., & Kim, T.-Y. (2022). Participative leadership: A literature review and future research directions. Frontiers in Psychology. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9204162/.
13. Zhang, R., Wang, L., & Li, X. (2024). Vision communication and quality performance: Mediation of employee involvement and moderation of leader support. Sustainability, 16(8), 3402. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11505190/.