War To Peace Transition: A Progressive Exploration of Liberia’s Post-Conflict Peacebuilding

War to Peace Transition: A Progressive Exploration of Liberia’s Post-Conflict Peacebuilding

Nat B. Walker

Kofi Annan Institute of Conflict Transformation, University of Liberia, Liberia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000248

Received: 29 July 2025; Accepted: 07 August 2025; Published: 05 September 2025

ABSTRAST

One crucial historical case that offers insight into the post-conflict society and development process is Liberia’s transition from a state of civil war to one of relative peace. This article presents a comprehensive qualitative content analysis of the intricate challenges and opportunities that have shaped Liberia’s journey toward sustainable peace and development. The findings of this study indicate that state recovery from post-conflict instability can only occur by implementing various, diversified, and context-specific policies that harmonize global values with local realities on the ground. Therefore, liberal peacebuilding is not locally applicable to other situations. Sustainable peace in Liberia will be achieved through integrated processes of institutional reform, inclusive economic development, and popular engagement. Such experiences can be harnessed for country-specific interventions.

Keywords: Liberia, post-conflict recovery, sustainable development

INTRODUCTION

Liberia’s history of civil war, spanning from a protracted conflict to relative peace, presents fertile ground for a case study on post-conflict reconstruction and peacebuilding. Amongst such violent conflicts, the Liberian Civil War, 1989-2003, is one of the deadliest in modern-day history on the African continent and was characterized by severe human rights abuses and both social and societal dislocation (Masitoh, 2020). A tangled web of political, ethnic, and economic casualties of war exacerbated existing national discontents and set new fractures within the Liberian social structure (Ellis, 1995). Understanding the dynamics of this transition requires a comprehensive analysis of political reform, reform of the security forces, economic revival, and social reconciliation (Masitoh, 2020).

The study aims to provide an assessment of the transition in Liberia, examining the various aspects of the problems and opportunities that have shaped the country’s trajectory towards secure peace and sustainable development. It involves examining the processes pursued, the limitations confronted, and the lessons learned in navigating the challenging landscape of post-conflict reconstruction. In this paper, we examine the paths that the transition from war to peace in Liberia has taken, along with the procedures and elements that drove it. At the heart of this argument is the concept of transitioning to peace in Liberia, which has yielded substantial advancements in terms of political and security reforms but remains tenuous, given the enduring difficulties concerning economic rehabilitation and social reconciliation, including the malign consequences of corruption on institutional building and human development. Through an examination of the tactics, limitations, and successes evident in Liberia’s cases, this study provides a framework and recommendations for promoting long-term peace and resilience in post-conflict settings.

METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS

This study employs a case study design, utilizing a qualitative research approach with Structured Content Analysis to examine the post-war transition in Liberia. Structured analysis of content involves the systematic coding of data from various sources and/or the identification of patterns, themes, or relationships related to the research question (McLeod, 2024). Drawing on a range of primary and secondary sources, including academic journal articles, policy and government reports, and media materials, this study offers a rich and critical account of Liberia’s peacebuilding trajectory (Costantini & Milton, 2021).

The analysis employs stringent selection criteria centered on relevance to evidence, theory, and the intersection of perspectives on elements of peacebuilding processes in Liberia, ensuring a robust chain of work references (De La Rey & McKay, 2006). The qualitative method allows for a deeper examination of the intricacies and details that characterize Liberia’s peacebuilding, thereby ensuring that the perspectives of various actors and the dimensions of the context that contributed to the war-to-peace transition are presented (Levey et al., 2016). Within the framework, one can identify salient challenges, accomplishments, and lessons learned from the Liberia experience (Gheyle & Jacobs, 2017), in which outcomes would be thoroughly presented using instances and or illustrations and where applicable quotes directly culled from the sources, as this will enhance dependability and credibility of the findings (Triangulation in Research,2023).

Contribution To Knowledge

The article contributes to the peacebuilding literature by assessing the emergent processes of post-conflict transformation in Liberia and by analyzing the possibilities and challenges of building sustainable peace in fragile states. The study’s results have implications for policymakers, practitioners in the field, and researchers in peacebuilding, providing evidence-based guidance on how to construct sustainable peace in Liberia and other post-conflict settings. In addition, this study contributes to the peacebuilding literature by presenting a detailed analysis of post-conflict transition in Liberia, and as a consequence, draws important lessons that remind us of how states remain fragile and that peace is no easy task. Concerning applicability, the report for Liberia and other post-conflict countries contributes to sustainable peace for policymakers and practitioners.

Theoretical Framework

Drawing on a theoretical framework derived from peacebuilding, conflict resolution, and political development, this paper examines Liberia’s trajectory from civil war to sustainable peace. Peacebuilding is a multifaceted process that encompasses aspects aimed at addressing current violence while consolidating lasting peace and stability (Egbe, 2024). This study employs statebuilding theories as a framework of reference to examine how post-conflict politics reconstruct the Liberian state. State building is multidimensional, with specific frames serving as dimensions of the opportunities and challenges in peacebuilding in Liberia.

The overall assumption of the study is that, following the cessation of conflict, causes can and should be addressed, thereby addressing the immediate needs of the affected populations. The model also incorporates a feminist peacebuilding analysis, recognizing the critical role of women in peace and reconciliation (Gallo-Cruz & Remsberg, 2021).

Hybrid Governance Theory will be the principal source on which the study will rely for a firmer basis. In Liberia, the state is fragile, and non-state actors, including traditional leaders, civil society organizations, and international NGOs, play crucial roles in service provision, grievance redressal, and reconciliation. In light of the latter’s examination of the interaction between state and non-state actors, this framework will help tease out the conflicting dynamics of peacebuilding and the contending imperatives of compelling and legitimate governance in Liberia.

Furthermore, the model incorporates the Resilience Theory, given Liberia’s history of conflict and instability. This theory focuses on the resiliency of state institutions and social structures to weather shocks and stress, to adapt and recover in moments of crisis. Within Liberia, resilience theory suggests a need to embrace long-term institutional strengthening, social cohesion, and community capacity to mitigate the impact of future threats.

The analysis also builds on an extensive literature on post-conflict state-building, including the role of institutional reform, good governance, and inclusive political processes in establishing the prerequisites for sustainable stability. The framework will represent the various dynamics and actors involved in peacebuilding in Liberia, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities for peace.

In addition to direct indicators of violence, we draw upon Johan Galtung’s theoretical construct of “positive peace.” Peace, not as violence, is not only the absence of direct violence, but also the presence of social Justice and equal opportunity (Bartolucci, 2024). Importantly, peace in Liberia is not only the absence of war or violence (De La Rey & McKay, 2006). For example, addressing corruption — a “cancer” that undermines public confidence — is a sine qua non for building positive peace. That path will cut through a political-economic analysis. The literature on post-conflict neoliberalism, however, fails to adequately consider the social dimension in the process of rebuilding society in the image of market fundamentalism (Pugh, 2005). In doing so, this paper aims to embed these nation-building narratives within the broader peacebuilding context, to provide a more nuanced and inclusive understanding of Liberia’s transition from war to peace, as well as how sustainable and inclusive development can be promoted.

Critical Reflections on Conflict in Liberia in Historical Perspective

Liberia has a history marked by a complex mix of issues that have led to prolonged socio-political turmoil (Bjarnesen, 2023). This context helps distil key distinctions between the peacebuilding process and its results. In the 19th century, the country was established by free American slaves, which led to an unconventional relationship between the ruling elite Americo-Liberian class and the indigenous community, followed by a self-imposed political and economic isolation (Gadkari, 2022). The marginalization of the indigenous populations and inequality in access to resources and opportunities sparked bitterness, and eventually resentment, which boiled over into the outbreak of the war. The First Liberian Civil War, which started in 1989, was very much an outcome of these tensions, which witnessed massive violence, human rights abuses, and population displacement. It just turned into everybody against everybody, with armed groups such as Charles Taylor’s National Patriotic Front of Liberia making things increasingly chaotic and miserable for civilians. An ECOWAS military intervention in 1990 was able to restore peace and a compromise between the different factions about the political future. However, it did not completely stop the violence (Haruna et al.,2023)

Lack of an attempt to address the causes of conflict and encourage inclusive governance led to another eruption of violence in the late 1990s, which spawned a Second Liberian Civil War. The second civil war was characterized by a resumption of hostilities, uprooting, and human rights abuses that reversed the progress made by Liberia in its journey towards stability and recovery. It is the convergence of these background forces that has contributed to the volatile situation in Liberia, reflecting prolonged periods of unrest and insecurity that will have a lasting impact on Liberia’s overall development (Haruna et al., 2023).

The far-reaching issues of governance, nationhood, peace, and development in Liberia were thrown into chaos by the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2003, marking a significant turning point in the country’s history and laying the foundation for a war-to-peace transition.

Critical Elements in Transitions from War to Peace

Liberia’s post-conflict history is characterized by a series of interconnected processes aimed at consolidating stability, institution-building, and reconciliation. It began with the installation of a national unity government, tasked with implementing the peace agreement and preparing for democratic elections. Below are key areas that such a programme could help facilitate a smooth transition and that are relevant to the Liberian context.

Reforming the Political and Institutional System

Democratic governance and the rule of law institutions in Liberia are crucial to the country’s transition (Sesay, 2020). Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (2013) has highlighted the positive contributions of Liberian women to good governance and peacebuilding. The involvement of women in the areas of peacebuilding and political development has been enhanced through the deployment of sustainable peace organizations and alliances. They would have a leading role in calling for reforms and in building up institutions.

Technology plays a key role in the governance reform process. The pursuit of a digital government agenda reflects the government’s enthusiasm for improving governance through technology, while also highlighting the resulting human capacity deficit stemming from the civil war and the Ebola epidemic (Mensah et al., 2020). Investing in young people will be a crucial component in bridging the capacity gap. Strengthening governance practices is vital to ensure the sustainability of peace promotion, where social transformation in politics and the economy is epitomized by projects in post-conflict societies, such as those in North Waziristan (Makki & Iftikhar, 2021). These far-reaching governance reforms are now even more critical, especially in emergencies such as crises, health emergencies, and natural disasters (Newiak et al., 2022). Because innovations and technology are critical mechanisms for embedding governance and transparency, Liberia should utilise these options to provide better services to the public and increase accountability.

It is essential to focus on what is necessary to build democratic institutions and good governance that would provide the sustainability of peace. The fight against corruption, quality of governance, and institutional quality should all translate into higher living standards. If Liberia is to emerge as a peaceful and democratic society truly, it must entrench democracy, encourage good governance, and foster inclusion.

Security Sector Reform

Comprehensive security sector reform is a key component of Liberia’s transition to develop the armed forces, police, and other security services into more professional and effective organizations. Security Sector Reform (SSR) is fundamental to peacebuilding and the prevention of relapse into conflict. It should be addressed through a comprehensive lens that considers various business lines, including institutional capacity, human rights, and accountability. A professional and responsive security system is necessary because it brings stability to the system and potentially prevents conflicts. The security sector’s formulation/reform effort is commendable, but it is not enough. Of any war-to-peace transition, the reform of the security sector is a critical element in promoting the consolidation of peace and averting a return to violent conflict. The initiatives must take into account both numbers and quality, ensuring the necessary logistics and support. Liberia’s security sector reform process still needs to tackle these challenges.

The value of resources, cost-effectiveness, and a culture of transparency among security actors are imperative for building trust and legitimacy. That, in turn, also demands a comprehensive strategy that builds on institutional capacity, respect for human rights, and accountability. These guidelines are a core element of democratic security governance, as they serve as a tool to prevent the misuse of power and foster confidence among the public. Transparent and accountable, as a countervailing check on the executive power of the security sector, they play a crucial role in ensuring central governance through accountability and good governance by executive action in security (Rensburg et al., 2021). Internal security sector control is crucial in curbing the abuse of power and fostering public trust. There should be an effective oversight mechanism that ensures power is not abused in the security sector and serves as a measure of accountability. To restore confidence in the security institutions, Liberia will need to invest significantly in these systems.

Economic Recovery and Reconstruction

The key to Liberia’s future stability lies in an economic turnaround; the country needs to focus on diversifying its economy, attracting investment, and creating jobs. To disentangle from the present unsustainable growth path, which is primarily based on the exploitation of natural resources, it is crucial to support both diversification and value-added growth in the economy. There is a need to invest in building bridges, roads, ports, agricultural industries, large and mini hydro plants, among others. Investment in education and health is crucial to ensure that the groundwork is laid to create an atmosphere conducive to accelerated growth and the betterment of all Liberians.

Developing the role of the private sector and entrepreneurship is crucial for driving innovation, creating jobs, and achieving inclusive growth. The market capital evolves in tandem with the advancement of the financial sector, which intercedes with the flow of savings and investment funds to all who need them (Akenten et al., 2020). One such factor is the soundness of the capital market, as it facilitates the private sector’s capital raising (Akenten et al., 2020). Inclusive, sustainable, and innovative financial institutions should be able to provide equitable access to the benefits of growth (Atta-Aidoo et al., 2023).

 In most countries, including Liberia, policymakers have the opportunity to create economic opportunities for their people by fostering inclusive, sustainable, and innovative financial ecosystems. Economic and social progress is contingent on public confidence—not just in public institutions, but also in one another (Affairs & Perry, 2021). Liberia should take advantage of its youthful population and develop programs intentionally targeting private sector development that involve youth capacity building in all sectors, while ensuring that issues that limit women’s active participation in economic development are addressed.

Peace, Reconciliation, and Social Cohesion

Following the years of civil unrest in Liberia, constructing a society of reconciliation and social cohesion is crucial for healing the wounds of war and fostering an environment where everyone can feel a sense of belonging (Denney et al., 2015). This includes promoting dialogue and providing everyone with equal opportunities (Pugh, 2005). Community-based trust-building and social cohesion need to be fostered through inclusive dialogues and reconciliation processes.

The promotion of inclusive education and intercultural exchange is vital in developing understanding, tolerance, and respect for others. Education systems in post-conflict countries can integrate curricula that encourage critical thinking about conflict, emphasize shared history, and foster intergroup understanding and empathy. Similarly, intercultural exchange programs, both within the country and internationally, can break down stereotypes and build bridges between diverse groups, leading to a more tolerant and cohesive society (Galtung Institute, 2025). The Liberian situation is about confronting past wrongs, healing one another, and building a society that works for all. Psychosocial support programs are crucial for post-conflict recovery, helping individuals and communities cope with trauma and the psychological impacts of violence, which is essential for healing and resilience (Atta-Aidoo et al., 2023).

The public discourse on the proposed war and economic crimes court in Liberia has been ongoing, with proponents highlighting its necessity for accountability and addressing impunity. However, opponents raise concerns about its potential to reignite old tensions. This initiative should be complemented with strong public awareness, education, and comprehensive psychosocial programs. It is crucial to deliver programs in a conflict-sensitive manner, carefully assessing how such initiatives might affect social dynamics and the risk of renewed violence. This requires balancing the need for Justice with the imperative of preserving peace and stability. As Mathias & Obala (2025) indicated, such a process involves adapting mechanisms to local contexts to prevent further societal polarization.

Good Governance and the Rule of Law

Good governance and the rule of law are essential for promoting accountability, transparency, and Justice in Liberia. Content-wise, good governance also implies having the power of governance institutions, transparency in the public sector, and firm action against corruption in society. This involves establishing a robust legal framework, safeguarding civil liberties, and a judiciary that encompasses every citizen. Institutions like the Governance Reform Commission were established as part of the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement to ensure that gaps in effective governance were identified and filled. A lot has been done in this direction, but a lot more still needs to be done. Public trust in the system will increase if the legal system is cleansed of corruption, criminality, and political interference, and the democratic character of the rule is established (MUÇI, 2022). An approach to effective governance should be the promotion of democracy, advancing civil space, and promoting respect for human rights, as these are critical to consolidating peace and preventing future violence.

To have a broad impact on non-corrupt behavior in Liberia, the government should exercise neutrality, and the legality of its actions during implementation must be at the forefront of promoting non-corrupt behavior. Ethical leadership is paramount for sustainable development, social Justice, and the well-being of all citizens (Ali, 2020; Mudzusi et al., 2024). Citizens’ confidence in government is also key to the success of the democratic process (Mansoor, 2021). Openness, transparency, accountability, and citizens’ engagement are the main features of good governance (Marshall et al., 2021). To retain these two ideals is a necessary prerequisite for mass participation in governance, which will result in a responsive government that is sensitive to the population’s demands and aspirations. This is also an issue of increasing the transparency and accountability in government if we want a more open and accountable society.

Post-war governance in Liberia is a “hybrid system”, in which traditional and perhaps informal structures coexist with maintaining formal state mechanisms (Bjarnesen, 2023; M’Cormack, 2018). Indeed, it is nearly impossible to find modern African states that lack pluralistic justice and security systems in one form or another, which have been shaped at least partly by historical interventions, pre-colonial legacies, and post-colonial compromises (M’Cormack, 2018). In Liberia, this is often manifested in a three-tiered system including a formal justice system (modeled on the US system), customary legal systems (chief’s courts), and traditional indigenous systems generally (M’Cormack, 2018). Indeed, the relationship between these types of formal and informal mechanisms remains dynamic.

Coexistence and complementarity:  Informal and traditional justice systems, including customary courts and traditional authorities, facilitate better access to justice services for many people, especially in rural areas and slums where the population frequently experiences difficulties in accessing under-resourced formal institutions (M’Cormack, 2018). Despite several years of institutional reforms and capacity building aimed at enhancing formal state capacity (Bjarnesen, 2023), these systems remain relevant in delivering security and Justice. This exhibits a rather practical complementarity, though one seldom acknowledged, in which the traditional forms round off what the formal state leaves out (Matsiliza 2024).

While a hybrid system can be seen as a strength, it is seen more as undermining its effectiveness because it requires integrating two systems, which may not always help resolve administrative challenges. Many peace interventions have been state-centric to the expense of locally embedded capacities and norms (Beevers, 2015; Gizelis & Joseph, 2016). Often seen in terms of “modern” or “traditional”, a” perceived dichotomy” exists between them. In reality, they draw upon each other at all times, generating a complex hybrid network (Jackson, 2011). The difficulty here is that formal state institutions could directly or indirectly undermine the local legitimacy of traditional powers, which gain their grip on power through popular support rather than government backing (Matsiliza, 2024). It was further argued that the laws of the land are enacted, creating a welfare institution without understanding that customary practices are already entrenched in society, and attempts to bring rules of legal remedies cause backlash and distrust within communities (Compton, 2014), a situation, which in many instances, apply to Liberia and many developing countries.

Administrative and Resource Challenges: Despite some reforms, the formal justice system is, however, often simply ‘vastly under-resourced’ (M’Cormack, 2018), making it difficult for the justice approach to be available at every level of the entire country and its most fundamental functionality. This, in turn, fuels overdependence on everyday, traditional, and informal dispute resolution and security provision mechanisms (M’Cormack, 2018). Additionally, a complex relationship between these systems can exacerbate power imbalances, further marginalizing certain groups of people (Jackson 2011). Consequently, non-state actors continue to exist, and thus, holistic approaches offer the necessary answers to what these security governance processes have become, as purely formal performance reviews no longer suffice (Bjarnesen, 2023).

Although this painting may be good, it paradoxically fails to engage with the specific complexities of Liberian peacebuilding in hybrid governance. Recognizing that accountability among traditional systems continues—progress in international humanitarian law notwithstanding—and the legitimacy of such systems within their communities, the goal has less to do with reducing these modes of governance, which is impossible at times of crisis or governmental disfunction anyway, than it does with resource constraints faced by state institutions during crises and shattered order more broadly. The focus, therefore, must be far more on devising strategies for coordination and linkage rather than on competition or substitution from outside forces. It is, quite simply, this kind of nuance that will be necessary in establishing not only external credibility but also internal accountability and local legitimacy, which are needed when navigating Liberia’s notoriously complex governance terrain.

Gender Equality and Empowerment

Gender equality and women’s empowerment are central to achieving inclusive and sustainable development in Liberia (Weston, 2021). Eliminating gender inequalities in education, employment, and politics is widely regarded as crucial to realizing the full potential of women and girls (Witinok-Huber et al., 2021). Moreover, as it would eliminate a potential productivity dampener, thereby contributing significantly to the core objective of reducing gender discrimination, this initiative would also be critical for Liberia’s economy and macroeconomic stability (Fernando et al., 2022). Narrowing gender disparities in education, employment, and political participation is also crucial if women and girls are to reach their full potential (Kamara & Safari, 2021).

Including women in the political space is an add-on that enriches democracy and enhances effective governance (Ntakarutimana, 2023). Investing in education and health services, as well as undertaking actions and reforms that enhance the economic empowerment of women, is crucial for creating a fairer and more prosperous society (Victoriano et al., 2022). Women’s empowerment will extend their assets and agency to act, negotiate, influence, control, and hold accountable their own lives (Dewi, 2021). As explained by Dewi (2021), women’s empowerment encompasses intellectual development, freedom from economic burden, and the eradication of discriminatory laws, all of which are crucial factors in the rise and fight for human status. Politicians who both understand and practice gender equality can help redress such gender injustices, leading to the institutionalization of gender-transformative policies, including those necessary to ensure sustainability across sectors (Munive et al., 2022). Gender equality and women’s empowerment are now understood and recognized not only as human rights issues but also as essential for social and economic growth (Ayisha & Latip, 2023; Gautham, 2021).

The contributions of women to peace in Liberia have been widely discussed, particularly their “courage and persistence in bringing warring factions to a peace agreement” (Gallo-Cruz & Remsberg, 2021). The hands-on approach to making peace is a fulfillment of feminist peacebuilding principles, where women and gender perspectives must be genuinely present in all aspects of conflict prevention, management, and post-conflict processes.

Indeed, feminist peacebuilding has played a significant role in shaping post-war institutions in Liberia, particularly within the framework of feminist peacebuilding policy. Firstly, when it comes to political inclusion, Madam Ellen Johnson Sirleaf was elected as the first woman President, which became a significant milestone for women’s enabling a more diverse government representation, the formation of a Women’s Legislative Caucus for gender-sensitive legislation, and laws like the Inheritance Act, which gave succession rights to spouses in all forms of marriage, were also products of these efforts. Even though women in Liberia were more empowered than women in some African countries and received recognition from the global community, political, economic, and social inequalities persist, as discussed by Gallo-Cruz Remsberg (2021).

Secondly, in security sector reform and Justice, feminist peacebuilding has raised awareness of the gendered aspects of security and Justice, highlighting concern for women’s victimization during conflict and the active use of sexual violence as a weapon of war. Under President Sirleaf’s administration, the bill was passed imposing harsher penalties for victims of rape. However, despite progress at law reform, women’s access to Justice for sexual and gender-based violence continues to be problematic under Liberia’s hybrid system of Justice, where formal institutions are limited in their reach, making way for informal ways of addressing issues, which often violate the rights of women.

Ultimately, gender mainstreaming has been a key objective of international efforts in post-conflict Liberia, encompassing the integration of gender perspectives into all policies and programs. While intervention may have been established on the ground – and indeed institutional change is always easier than social– it has more often failed for want of a deeper intersectional analysis of gender dynamics and, as importantly, a ‘decoupling between international expectations and norms from practical action, local norms and capacities’ (Gizelis & Joseph, 2016). However, Liberia continues to strive to increase its gender score with numerous challenges.

Youth Development and Employment

Liberia’s future is sustained in the long term through empowering youth expansion and job creation. It is the youth who need to be educated and trained, given the skill set to enter the world of entrepreneurship, and that is where the change will come. Ensuring better access to education and vocational training for youth is crucial. Enhancing youth access to education and training opportunities, while supporting an environment that fosters the development of entrepreneurial skills, is critical for economic empowerment and reducing youth unemployment. Reforming the youth and curbing the unemployment rate are imperative for an effective and promising future in Liberia (Geza et al., 2021).

More than ever, education, skills, and job creation programmes must be allocated the highest priority, as these curriculum areas are at the heart of enabling youth and ensuring sustainable development. Promoting the Active involvement of Youth in Decision-Making and Leadership is also an essential element for creating a more inclusive society. The active involvement of young people is the key to a more inclusive democratic society.

Empowerment can be considered a complex social process that enables an individual to take control over their lives by shaping their behavior in line with their interests, enhancing their skills, increasing their self-confidence, identifying and solving problems, and becoming self-reliant (Gloria & Opoku, 2022). In Liberia, this should be accompanied by the development of strong social, economic, and political institutions, as well as the reduction of inequalities among its population, as is being done in Ghana (Boampong, 2021).

Engagement of Youth in Youth Empowerment Programs is a key ingredient for ensuring accelerated growth. Youth empowerment programs are most likely to be successful if they are designed and implemented in collaboration with young people, youth organisations, and others with an interest in the future of young people. Youth may also be included in community development projects, contributing to the enhancement of their leadership skills and civic awareness (Mothibi et al., 2025; Mukorera, 2020). Existing youth empowerment sector interventions that aim to reduce unemployment and poverty, such as combating drug abuse, need to be scaled up with the prospect of being well-funded, which will also lead to the relative sufficiency of the youth empowerment intervention, as expressed by Ishor and Ioramee (2020).

Civil Society Organizations and Peacebuilding  in Liberia

Indeed, according to Maigari (2022), the participation of civil society organizations in peacebuilding has been identified as an important ingredient  for the success of post-conflict transitions. They play a key role in promoting reconciliation and humanitarian assistance, as well as support for the policy changes necessary to address the underlying causes of violent conflict (Hellmüller, 2020). Because they can work at a grassroots level and thereby engage communities to address the underlying causes that generate conflict, civil society actors are an important component in peacebuilding activities.

While Liberia has a vibrant CSO sector, capacity building and funding to support their activities remain the major impediments. However, it is worth noting that a significant way to promote more inclusive and responsive governance is to strengthen the country’s civil society, which supports peace, human rights, and good governance. Effective participation of civil society in peacebuilding is impossible without addressing the root causes of conflict, advancing inclusive governance, and helping to lead reconciliation efforts. The contribution of CSOs to peacebuilding is universally considered as one of the keys to post-conflict transitions (Avis, 2020). They also work towards achieving peace, providing humanitarian relief, and implementing policy changes that address the root causes of conflict. Peacebuilding activities must be inclusive and participatory, involving all sectors of society, including the underprivileged and people with disabilities. There can be no overemphasis on the role of CSO in the democratization process (Dahal, 2020).

Local Ownership and The Limits of Liberal Peacebuilding

Liberia’s post-conflict transformation, however, is hindered by several challenges, including corrupt leadership, weak state institutions, and limited economic opportunities. To achieve this, long-term investments in institutions, transparency, accountability, education, health, and infrastructure are necessary to deliver inclusive growth. The only way these challenges can be met and a transparent, accountable society in which peace is sustained is through good governance.

Peace programs should be broadly based and participatory, encompassing all sections of society, particularly those who were the greatest losers of the war. Unity and reconciliation go hand in hand in a culture of dialogue that fosters Justice and healing. “National reconciliation and social cohesion, reached through dialogue, Justice, and healing, are an absolute prerequisite for sustainable peace. When effective, a local conflict management system enables local communities to address their conflicts without direct intervention, ultimately leading to ownership of a peace process in the long run; this, in turn, increases the possibility of sustainable peace and genuine reconciliation (Muluken, 2020). This is also relevant to Liberia, where the role of customary law in many societies is widely recognized. This includes, but is not limited to, alternative methods for resolving disputes, complementing traditional methods, and not relying solely on the formal legal system.

Liberal peacebuilding, despite its advocacy for democracy, human rights, and the rule of law (Arrey, 2023), has been unable to address the complexities of post-conflict Liberia in its linear approach. That there is a place for local knowledge, values, and mechanisms is often sidelined within this one-size-fits-all approach, but they are key to understanding what is needed to respond (Paffenholz, 2021). In Liberia, this emphasis on elections and state institutions has diverted attention away from addressing social Justice and historical injustices. International peacebuilders should recognize that all actors involved are motivated by their interests and that local initiatives are not inherently legitimate (Krampe et al., 2021). This is particularly the case in Liberia, where complex power relations exist within communities, and village chiefs are known to favour the interests of a select few community members over the entire community.

Successful peacebuilding must be multidimensional and allow for diverse international and local voices, including those of individuals who do not meet a predetermined international standard. The value of local knowledge about drivers and dynamics of conflicts, as well as context-specific interpretations of peace, is crucial. It is essential not to miss its significance. This would include “inclusive dialogue and participation, building the capacity of local institutions, and empowering communities to take up (peacebuilding) for themselves” (Kendhammer & Chandler, 2021). For example, in Liberia, this means engaging across the board – including traditional leaders, women’s and youth organisations, and even religious leaders – to develop locally relevant peacebuilding responses in their communities. It is also about being ready to confront the structural nature of power and fight for the rights of excluded groups, including a role in peacebuilding.

Rebuilding in post-war Liberia faces numerous obstacles with historical and social origins. These are problems that go beyond the initial legacy of violence, and Liberia’s post-war recovery continues to be dogged by problems that have become entrenched in its past and its social fabric. Moreover, these challenges extend far beyond the immediate legacy of violence and dispossession; they are inextricably linked to historical issues of corruption and inequality. Overcoming such challenges will require a comprehensive approach that acknowledges the backdrop of deep-seated, ethnically and politically divided, and weak state institutions, as well as an economy overly reliant on natural resources, which characterizes Liberia. There must be an unwavering dedication to promoting inclusive governance, advancing social Justice, and providing economic opportunity for all Liberians. Liberia’s post-war reconstruction efforts are fraught with challenges that are primarily derived from its history and social structure. These issues go beyond the fallout of violence and displacement, and are also bound up in a host of bedrock problems of corruption and inequality. To overcome such barriers, a sensitive approach is necessary that considers Liberia’s unique context of ethnic and political cleavages, weak state institutions, and overdependence on natural resources.

There must be an unwavering commitment to promoting inclusive governance, social Justice, and economic development for every Liberian. Overcoming the many challenges will require a nuanced strategy that reflects Liberia’s distinct historical context, characterized by ethnic and political fragmentation, weak state institutions, and a natural resources-based economy. Liberians must consistently promote inclusive governance, social Justice, and economic opportunities for all Liberians. Certainly, Liberia’s postwar recovery is rife with challenges, many of which are embedded within its historical and social context. These are not only problems that have festered in the wake of violence and displacement; they are bound up with other legacies of corruption and inequality. Tackling these challenges, which require a sophisticated response, is complicated by the specificities of Liberia, a country marked by a history of ethnic and political tensions, weak state structures, and economic dependence on primary commodities. There has to be an unwavering commitment to facilitate inclusive governance, social Justice, and equitable economic opportunities for all Liberians.”

A Model for Action & Long-Term Sustainability

Based on the study of Liberia’s experiences, on one immediate level – dealing with the root causes of political instability, ethnic schisms, and economic inequalities – the following closely related series of recommendations can be put forward, inspired by Liberia’s experience as a basis for consolidating a system of durable and sustainable development. The practical implementation of these recommendations will rely, in part, on coordinated and collaborative efforts among government, international actors, civil society, and the private sector. Civilian and military justice groups are convinced that the rescaling and reactivation of the military and justice sectors are key to achieving a lasting peace.

Firstly, the intensive capacitating of the military and police, accompanied by strong civilian oversight and accountability mechanisms. This necessitates the creation of clear lines of authority, the independence of supervisory bodies, and the development of a professional ethos within security structures. Better transparency around defense budgeting and spending is also suitable for governance, and to the extent that fighting corruption is a goal (see Sedra 2013), it gives numbers to aim for. It is vital to encourage more women to join security institutions, in line with the spirit of UN Security Council Resolution 1325, in the interest of inclusiveness and for greater operational effectiveness. This could relate to structural impediments to the recruitment and advancement of women, or to creating a safe and equitable workplace.

Secondly, to stabilize and build peace, addressing economic insecurity is critical and multidimensional- it will have to be addressed through job creation, boosting investment, and financial inclusion. A national program for economic expansion is necessary to reduce the country’s reliance on natural resources for its development. Strategic sectors with potential in Liberia and elsewhere include agriculture, sustainable tourism, and support for small and medium-sized enterprises. Public-private partnerships with the private sector in priority infrastructure sectors, such as energy and transportation, can facilitate capacity building, leading to the faster delivery of services. Improving business registration and property rights to reduce friction for the private sector’s entry is also important. Investment in Technical Vocational Education that is responsive to labor market demands is crucial for addressing skills gaps and enhancing economic opportunities Furthermore, expanding access to financial services, such as microcredit, for marginalized groups, including the poorest women and youth communities, can foster their self-reliance and increase participation in low-level economic activities (Atta-Aidoo et al., 2023).

Thirdly, the best guarantee for security and sustainable economic progress is reconciliation, and social cohesion – and that, in turn, can only be achieved through the full participation of all Liberians. To prevent a return to violence, old wrongs will have to be righted, ethnic animosities put aside, and public faith in the corridors of power restored. National and local fora for dialogue between community leaders, youth, women, and victims of conflict can be a domain for both truth-telling and common understandings to mend/distinct and bridge localities (Lederach, 1997). It is necessary to establish reparation programs for all victims of war, particularly for the women and children (or their decedents) who were raped and subjected to sexual violence based on their gender in the past, and who are potential categories of victims for whom reparation programs will help them in their healing.  Curriculum on Peace education should be developed and taught in schools along with public awareness campaigns to develop a culture of peace, human rights, and acceptance of others.

Fourthly, the rule of law and good governance are necessary for peace and sustainable development. Key factors depend on the independence of the judiciary, open appointment processes, and access to Justice for all citizens. Adopting government-business-non-government-citizen partnership models, which incorporate citizen participation mechanisms for decision-making, such as participatory budgeting, public consultations, and online petitions, can enhance accountability and responsiveness to citizens in government (Krulisova et al., 2025). Fighting corruption, promoting transparency in government budgets, and guaranteeing freedoms are the fundamentals of good governance.

Finally, these are crucial actions that are necessary for strengthening the culture of peace in post conflict settings. Liberia should work towards sustaining the peace and accelerating growth and providing more opportunities for its people. Gender mainstreaming should be a major component of all aspects of developing which intentional actions should be taken to ensure that youths and the disabled are incorporated in the task of state building.

Summarizing Specific Obstacles and Ways of Addressing:

CONCLUSION

Liberia’s transformation from a brutal civil war to peace and development is not only a phenomenon that can be understood on multiple levels, but also a precious experience that should serve as a guide for other countries in the world as they transition from war to peace. Peace starts when the fighting stops, but that is not the same as peace. Within this framework, post-conflict reconstruction is a complex interplay of political, institutional, economic, social, and cultural dynamics.

The review of Liberia revealed that it has been a lengthy and arduous process. Despite the democratic elections, the security sector reform, and the recent early signs of economic recovery, the country continues to grapple with a host of severe problems, including corruption, weak institutions, inequality, gender discrimination, and extremely high levels of unemployment. A key finding of the study is that gains can be reversed if these issues are not addressed. The study offered some suggestions applicable to both Liberia and future research in post-conflict societies and recovery.

About the Author

Dr. Nat B. Walker (Nathaniel Benjamin Walker, Ph.D.) is a development, peacebuilding, political governance, humanitarian and social policy scholar-practitioner with over 20 years of experience working in post-conflict environments. He is currently the Political Advisor and Early Warning Liaison Officer for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in Liberia, while serving as an adjunct faculty member and researcher at the Kofi Annan Institute of Conflict Transformation at the University of Liberia.   He earned the degree of Master of Arts (MA) from the Center for Justice and Peacebuilding at Eastern Mennonite University in Harrisonburg, Virginia, USA, and his Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) at the College of Psychology and Community Service at Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota. USA.

REFERENCES

1. Affairs, U. N. D. of E. and S., & Perry, J. (2021). Trust in Public Institutions: Trends and Implications for Economic Security. UN-DESA Policy Brief. https://doi.org/10.18356/27081990-108
2. Akenten, W. N., Boateng, C., & Kiros, H. panel). Capital Markets and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence from Ghana. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3530744
3. Ali, Y. (2020). Exploring the Role and Challenges of Ethical Values to Impart Good Governance: The Case of Dessie Town, South Wollo, Ethiopia. International and Public Affairs, 4(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ipa.20200401.11
4. Arrey, W. H. (2023). IMPACT OF LIBERALISM THEORY ON THE UNITED NATIONS AND THE AFRICAN UNION IN THE MAINTENANCE OF WORLD PEACE AND SECURITY. African Journal of Law, Political Science and Administration, 6(1), 62. https://doi.org/10.52589/ajlpra-gwphexew
5. Atta-Aidoo, J., Bizoza, S., Saleh, A. O., & Matthew, E. C. (2023). Options for Financial Inclusion in Post-conflict and Fragile States: The Case of Burundi. Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2216996
6. Avis, W. (2020). International Actors’ Support on Inclusive Peace Processes. https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/15136
7. Ayisha, M., & Latip, H. A. (2023). Sustainable Socioeconomic Development of Women: A Blueprint from Vulnerability to Empowerment. International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarems/v12-i2/16662
8. Ball, N., & Hendrickson, D. (2006). SSR in Review: Trends and Developments in Security Sector Reform. IDRC.
9. Bjarnesen, M. (2023). Hybrid Security Governance in Post-UN Intervention Liberia. Conflict Security and Development, 23(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2023.2178100
10. Boampong, M. (2021). Introduction Towards the Development of Youth in Ghana. https://libeprints.open.ac.uk/76355/
11. Costantini, I. & Milton, S. (2021). Researching conflict and post-conflict. In L. Charles, I. Pappé, & M. Ronchi (Eds.). In “Researching the Middle East: Cultural, Conceptual and Methodological Issues and Issues of Power, C. Philip (pp. 26–38). Edinburgh University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474440325-004
12. Dahal, K. (2020). Civil Society and Good Governance in Nepal. Journal of Political Science 20: 99. https://doi.org/10.3126/jps.v20i0.31797
13. De La Rey, C., & McKay, S. (2006). Peacebuilding as a gendered process. Journal of Social Issues, 62(1), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00443.x
14. Denney, L., Mallett, R., & Mazurana, D. (2015, February). White paper on peace building and service delivery. United Nations University Centre for Policy Research. https://bpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/sites.tufts.edu/dist/5/7316/files/2018/02/UNU-Peacebuilding-and-Service-Delivery-2015-carnegie-paper.pdf
15. Dewi, G. D. P. (2021). Women’s Empowerment and Socioeconomic Development in Singapore. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science, 729(1), 12098. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/729/1/012098
16. Ellis, S. (1995). LIBERIA 1989–94 ECCELESIASTICAL VIOLENCE AND ETHNIC CONFLICT. African Affairs, 94(375), 165. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098806
17. Fernando, F., Johnson, J., Christopherson, K., Yiadom, A., Yazid, H., & Thiemann, C. (2022). Overcoming Legal Barriers to Women’s Economic Empowerment. IMF Working Paper, 2022(37), 1. https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400203640.001
18. Gadkari, A. (2022). Peacebuilding as New Imperialism: A Case Study of Liberia and Sierra Leone. Lentera Hukum, 9(2), 333. https://doi.org/10.19184/ejlh.v9i2.31125
19. Gallo‐Cruz, S., & Remsberg, R. (2021). Peacebuilding, Liberian Women, and the Invisible Hand of Conflict in Postwar Liberia. “The Journal of Social Encounters, 5(2), 77. https://doi.org/10.69755/2995-2212.1094
20. Geza, W., Ngidi, M. S. C., Ojo, T. O., Adetoro, A. A., Slotow, R., & Mabhaudhi, T. Youth Participation in Agriculture: A Scoping Review (Review of Youth Participation in Agriculture: A scoping review). Sustainability, 13(16), 9120. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169120
21. Gheyle, N., & Jacobs, T. (2017). Content analysis: A brief introduction (Centre for EU
22. Studies Working Paper). http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.33689.31841
23. Gloria, D., Supi, A. T., & Opoku, C. B. (2022). Economic empowerment of women in rural society: A case study of rural enterprise program (REP) in Ghana, West Africa. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 14(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.5897/jaerd2021.1287
24. Gautam, S. (2021). Situational Analysis of Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equality. NUTA Journal, 8, 124. https://doi.org/10.3126/nutaj.v8i1-2.44110
25. Hellmüller, S. (2020). The Role of Civil Society in Peacebuilding/Peace and Security. In Routledge eBooks (p. 407). Informa. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351172202-36
26. Ishor, D. G., & Ioramee, S. T. (2020). Enhancing the Effectiveness of Government Policies on Youth Empowerment in Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 9(5). https://doi.org/10.24940/ijird/2020/v9/i5/may20067
27. Kamara, A. M., & Safari, E. (2021). The Relationship between Gender Mainstreaming Approaches and the Performance of Rice Growers’ Cooperatives in Bugesera District, Rwanda. International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research and Management, 6(2), 16. https://doi.org/10.36282/ijasrm/6.2.2021.1790
28. Kendhammer, B., & Chandler, W. (2021). Locating the “Local” in Peacebuilding. https://doi.org/10.37805/lpbi2021.1
29. Krampe, F., Hegazi, F., & VanDeveer, S. D. (2021). Consolidating peace through improved natural resource governance: Three possible pathways for environmental peacebuilding. World Development, 144, 105508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105508
30. Krulisova, K, O’Sullivan, M, & Wolfert, J. (2025). Women, peace, and security in CEE: Conference report 2024. Institute of International Relations.
31. Lederach, J. P. (1997). Sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. USIP Press.
32. Levey, E. J., Oppenheim, C. E., Lange, B. C. L., Plasky, N. S., Harris, B. L., Lekpeh, G. G., Kekulah, I., Henderson, D. C., & Borba, C. P. C. I get angry, but there is nothing I can do about it: A qualitative analysis of dispositional and situational coping among youth in post-conflict Liberia. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-016-0114-7
33. Maigari, M. A. (2022). The Role of Civil Society Organisations in Peacebuilding: Perspective on Post-Conflict Societies: Kenya and Nigeria. Global Journal of Sociology: Current Issues, 12(1), 40. https://doi.org/10.18844/gjs.v12i1.6594
34. Makki, M., & Iftikhar, W. (2021). PIPS brief on Political Economy Transformation of Post-Conflict North Waziristan, Pakistan. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 57 (3), 497. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096211021866
35. Marshall, A. I., Kantamaturapoj, K., Kiewnin, K., Chotchoungchatchai, S., Patcharanarumol, W., & Tangcharoensathien, V. (2021). Participatory and responsive governance in universal health coverage: an analysis of legislative provisions in Thailand. BMJ Global Health, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004117
36. Mansoor, M. (2021). Trust in the government among the public regarding the elements of good governance and the agency’s dissemination of accurate information through social media about COVID-19. Government Information Quarterly, 38(4), 101597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101597
37. Masitoh, D. (2020). The Women’s Role in Peacebuilding: An Assessment of the Liberia Experience. Journal of Governance, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.31506/jog.v5i1.7951
38. Mensah, R., Cater‐Steel, A., & Toleman, M. (2020). Determinants of e‐government adoption in Liberia: A practitioner view. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 87(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12161
39. Mothibi, N. H., Malebana, M. J., & Rankhumise, E. M. (2025). Predictors of Entrepreneurial Intentions among Vocational College and University Students in Gauteng Province of South Africa: A Theory of Planned Behavior Approach. Sustainability, 17(9), 4175. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17094175
40. MUÇI, S. (2022). Transitional Justice Reform and Its Evolution. Jus & Justicia, 16(2), 40. https://doi.org/10.58944/upqs2960
41. Mudzusi, T. N., Munzhedzi, P. H., & Mahole, E. (2024). Challenges of Governance in Delivering Municipal Services: The Case of Vhembe District Municipality. Africa’s Public Service Delivery and Performance Review, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr.v12i1.749
42. Mukorera, S. (2020). Is entrepreneurship the key to women’s empowerment in South Africa? Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 25(1), 2050003. https://doi.org/10.1142/s108494672050003x
43. Munive, A., Donville, J., & Darmstadt, G. L. (2022). Public leadership for gender equality: a framework and capacity development approach for gender transformative policy change (Review of Public leadership for gender equality: a framework and capacity development approach for gender transformative policy change). EClinicalMedicine, 56, 101798. Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101798
44. Newiak, M., Wane, A. A., & Segura‐Ubiergo, A. ( 2022 ). Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa. By The International Monetary Fund IMF Publication date: ones extLinkServlet series: ones ISBN13: ones eISBN: ones documents 2020 03 trust 09 Browse Descriptors Europe, This website desi porn collections. International Monetary Fund. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781513584058.071
45. Ntakarutimana, E. (2023). Peacebuilding in an Interfaith Context in the Great Lakes Region of Africa: The Dilemmas of Developing New Paradigms. Journal of Moral Theology, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.55476/001c.84395
46. Paffenholz, T. (2021). Endless Peacebuilding: A New Paradigm to Break Away from the Linearity of Liberal Peacebuilding. [out of 8 volume 20 number 3 article] Kemp, R. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 15(3), 367. https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2021.1925423
47. Pugh, M. (2005). The political economy of peace building: Critical theory perspectives. International Journal of Peace Studies, 10(2), 23–42.
48. Rensburg, W. J., van Zyl-Gous, N., & Heinecken, L. (2022). Parliaments’ Contribution to the Security Sector Governance/Reform and Sustainable Development Goals: A Test Of Parliaments’ Commitment to Security Sector Governance in the Face of COVID-19. https://doi.org/10.5334/bcr
49. Sedra, M. (2013). Security sector reform. In R. Mac Ginty (Ed.), Routledge handbook of peacebuilding (pp. 211–224). Routledge.
50. Sesay, M. (2020). Promoting the rule of law: strengthening governance through the internationalisation of legal standards. Third World Quarterly, 42(5), 956. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2020.1831379
51. Triangulation in Research – What& How? Types, Example 1. Posted on January 3, 2022, by Pritha Bhandari. Revised on June 22, 2023.
52. Victoriano, J. J., Villaruz, R. T. & Alimen, R. A. (2022). Teaching and Instructors? Situation and Instructors? Key Competencies in the CME: Marine Engineering Students? MatrixXd-Evaluation Study. TransNav the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 16(2), 241. https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.16.02.06
53. Weston, W. (2021). Browse by Type: United Nations Sustainable Development Goals: 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions. https://libguides.sdsu.edu/c.php?g=1112492&p=8111296
54. Witinok-Huber, R., Radil, S. M., Sarathchandra, D., & Nyaplue-Daywhea, C. (2021). Gender, place, and agricultural extension: An analysis of farmers’ needs in Liberia using a gender-responsive mixed-methods approach. The journal of agricultural education and extension, 27(4), 553. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224x.2021.1880453
55. Woodrum, E. (1984). “Mainstreaming” content analysis in social science: Methodological “advantages, “Obstacles,” and “solutions.” Social Science Research, 13(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/0049-089x(84)90001-2