Study on the Decorative Patterns and Motifs of Blue and White Porcelain Unearthed in Malacca City

Study on the Decorative Patterns and Motifs of Blue and White Porcelain Unearthed in Malacca City

Wang Feiran., Asyaari Muhamad* and Yasmin Amirah

Institute of the Malay World and Civilization (ATMA), the National University of Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

*Correspondence Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000265

Received: 14 August 2025; Accepted: 21 August 2025; Published: 05 September 2025

ABSTRACT

Blue and white porcelain is the principal category of artifacts unearthed in Malacca City, characterised by a wide range of decorative motifs. From the perspective of art anthropology, ceramics function not only as utilitarian commodities for daily life but also as cultural carriers that reflect human thoughts, aesthetic preferences, and socio-political ideologies embedded in specific historical contexts. As such, the interpretation of decorative motifs is essential for uncovering processes of cultural exchange, hybridity, and transmission. This study examines the decorative motifs found on blue and white porcelain recovered from archaeological contexts in Malacca City. Employing iconographic analysis, this research categorises and interprets key visual themes, while comparative analysis is applied to establish stylistic and chronological parallels with blue and white ceramics from shipwreck assemblages and kiln sites in China. The analysis reveals that the majority of the specimens originate from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, with a concentration in the Jiajing and Wanli periods. Moreover, the motifs exhibit strong influences from Islamic geometric and floral patterns, Chinese literati painting traditions, and both Taoist and Buddhist religious symbolism. These findings suggest that the decorative schemes of Malacca’s blue and white porcelain were shaped by complex transregional artistic interactions, reflecting the vibrant cultural entanglements facilitated by maritime trade networks. This study contributes to the understanding of how material culture—especially decorative motifs—can serve as visual records of cross-cultural encounters, and highlights the role of export ceramics as active agents in the circulation of artistic and ideological traditions across maritime Asia.

Keywords: blue and white porcelain, decorative motifs, cross-cultural interaction, Malacca City

INTRODUCTION

Blue and white porcelain is a hallmark of Chinese art that has fascinated collectors and scholars for centuries. Blue and white porcelain is a type of underglaze-coloured ceramic. Cobalt pigment is applied to the porcelain body, followed by a layer of transparent glaze. During firing at around 1300°C, the pigment fuses with the glaze, resulting in vivid blue patterns that appear clear, elegant, and vivid (Chinese Ceramic Society, 1982). Although early prototypes of blue and white porcelain can be traced back to the Tang dynasty, the form matured and flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties, synthesizing indigenous artistic traditions and foreign influences. Its appeal extended beyond China, influencing ceramic production across Asia and Europe, making it a crucial artifact in studying global trade and cultural interactions.

Among the most significant archaeological discoveries illuminating this context are the finds from Malacca City, particularly those dating to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. One such discovery is the Pulau Melaka shipwreck, which is generally attributed to the Ming periodbelieved to date back to the early 15th century and provides valuable insights into the maritime trade networks that connected China to various regions, particularly Southeast Asia and the Islamic world. Malacca was a vital maritime artery that facilitated the exchange of goods and the spread of ideas and cultural practices. Artifacts unearthed in the city provide an essential lens for studying the complexity of these cross-cultural interactions, especially regarding blue and white porcelain decorative motifs. These artifacts primarily originate from the Pulau Melaka shipwreck and the Syahbandar archaeological site.

This study aims to classify and analyse the decorative patterns of blue and white porcelain unearthed in Malacca City, and to compare them with those found in contemporaneous shipwrecks and Chinese kiln sites. The aesthetic analysis of these motifs also contributes to more precise chronological attribution. In addition, this study will shed light on how internal and external cultural influences shaped these decorative elements.

LITERATURE REVIEW

In studying blue and white porcelain, scholars have traditionally focused on the following three aspects: (1) the artifact itself—shape, decoration, style, etc.; (2) the remains of blue and white porcelain and their dating; (3) the export of blue and white porcelain and its impact. Chinese Ceramic Society (1982) and Garner (1973) introduced the history of blue and white porcelain, with detailed descriptions of the kilns, shapes, decoration, and firing techniques of the different historical periods of each dynasty. This is a great reference for later researchers who want to study the culture of the Ming dynasty’s blue and white porcelain, ceramic firing technology, and the social history and culture of the Ming dynasty. Ma (1999) discusses the main formal characteristics and artistic features of blue and white porcelain from different periods, focusing on aspects such as shape, glaze, decoration, and year marks. Cao (2008) stages and cross-dates the blue and white porcelain of the Ming and Qing dynasties and gives a detailed and in-depth discussion of the production process in each period. Mikami (2000) presents the concept of the “Ceramic Road” as opposed to the “Silk Road,” an archaeological explanation of how Chinese ceramics have been sold to overseas countries since ancient times. The text mentions the flourishing export of blue and white porcelain brought about by Zheng He’s voyages to the West but does not discuss the connection between Islamic art and blue and white porcelain.

Recent studies have categorized popular decorative motifs in blue and white porcelain, revealing a rich interplay of cultural elements. Medley (1982) and Pierson (1996) explore how Jingdezhen artisans incorporated elements of Chinese iconography, such as floral designs, mythical creatures, and religious symbols, into their work. These motifs were not static but evolved, reflecting artistic trends and changes in consumer preference. Long (2005) discusses how Islamic geometric patterns and motifs were increasingly integrated into Jingdezhen porcelain during the Ming dynasty due to expanding trade with the Islamic world. This integration of foreign elements demonstrates Jingdezhen’s role as a cultural intermediary, where local craftsmanship met global demand. The research suggests that the artisans of Jingdezhen were highly responsive to the aesthetic tastes of their international clientele, modifying traditional designs to create products that would appeal to a broader market. Zhao and Chi (2021) analyse the artistic characteristics of blue and white porcelain in the context of Chinese literati painting and philosophical traditions. These motifs often go beyond decoration to embody deeper meanings associated with nature, spirituality, and cultural identity. These studies emphasize the role of blue and white porcelain as a medium for conveying complex ideas and cultural narratives rather than simple ornamentation.

The study of blue and white porcelain found on shipwrecks in Southeast Asia during the Ming and Qing dynasties has received increasing attention, providing important insights into historical trade dynamics, cultural exchanges, and artistic trends. W. Chen and Zou (2021)investigate the distribution patterns of blue-and-white porcelain, highlighting how these artifacts reflect trade routes and interactions among various cultures. Kintanar (2020) and Brown (2009) provide a comparative analysis of Ming and Qing porcelain motifs found in Southeast Asian shipwrecks, focusing on stylistic elements and production techniques, revealing how these stylistic differences reflect the changing tastes and market demands of the time. These studies demonstrate the intricate relationship between art and commerce.

In addition, Clunas (2006) adopts the method of iconographic analysis to interpret the political, social, and cultural meanings behind images, by tracing their historical development and the narratives they convey through specific art forms from the Ming Dynasty. This is a new research perspective, which borrows the picture stories handed down by the ancients to view the “visual culture” in the social life of the Ming Dynasty, and this narrative method inspires the writing of this article.

In recent years, material culture theory has increasingly emphasized the agency of objects—their capacity to shape social meaning, transmit ideology, and act within historical processes (Gell, 1998; Hodder, 2012). Within this framework, export ceramics such as blue-and-white porcelain are not passive commodities but active participants in cultural translation and visual exchange. This study draws on such perspectives to interpret motifs not only as ornamental designs but as culturally encoded agents embedded in cross-regional interactions.

In summary, the exploration of blue and white porcelain, especially in its historical, cultural, and economic significance, reveals a multifaceted narrative beyond mere aesthetic appreciation. Previous studies have provided valuable insights into porcelain’s technical and artistic development through various dynasties, emphasizing the dynamic interplay of cultural influences, particularly between Chinese and Islamic artistic traditions. However, there is still a lack of evaluation of how these cultural interactions specifically affect the evolution of motifs over time. Often focusing on phenomenal descriptions and rarely analysing and interpreting them in conjunction with physical illustrations or historical documents, there is insufficient theoretical depth to understand the laws of artistic development.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study employs a qualitative analysis to examine and classify the decorative motifs of blue and white porcelain unearthed in Malacca City. By employing an interdisciplinary approach, the study combines art historical analysis, iconography, archaeology, and comparative studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the visual aspects of porcelain and the cultural influences that shaped its design.

Data Collection and Analysis

The data sources are in two parts. (1)One is  the photographic records and existing catalogues of the blue and white porcelain discovered in Malacca City. (2)The second comprises reference samples of Ming dynasty blue-and-white porcelain recovered from shipwrecks and Chinese kiln sites, as documented in museum catalogues and archaeological reports.

The archaeological assemblage primarily derives from surface finds and previously published excavation reports from Pulau Melaka and the Syahbandar site, without stratigraphic documentation. As such, chronological attribution in this study relies on stylistic parallels with securely dated shipwrecks and kiln sites.

This study also draws on secondary sources, including scholarly articles, books, and exhibitions that discuss the historical context, cultural influences, and artistic evolution of Chinese blue and white porcelain. These sources help to situate the analysis within the broader context of global trade and cultural exchange during the Ming dynasty.

The primary method used to analyse the decorative patterns is iconographic analysis, which involves identifying and interpreting visual motifs on porcelain. This analysis highlights the influence of various cultural narratives, including religion and Chinese literati aesthetics, on the decorative choices made by artisans.

Prior to comparative analysis, all decorative motifs were catalogued and classified based on thematic typologies observed in archaeological and museum specimens. A basic coding framework was developed to distinguish recurring subjects such as flora, fauna, auspicious symbols, and landscape scenes, drawing from existing typological systems (Tie, 2002). Visual motifs were grouped according to dominant iconographic elements, vessel form, and context of occurrence.

The patterns were comparatively analysed based on three criteria:

(1) Motif Type: Are the patterns primarily Chinese in origin, or do they incorporate foreign elements?

(2) Motif Adaptation: How were foreign elements integrated into traditional Chinese porcelain motifs?

(3) Cultural Context: What cultural factors influenced the design of porcelain, and how do porcelain workers respond to the demands of the international market?

In order to assess the extent of different cultural influences, this study conducts a contextual analysis. This involves identifying design features unique to the art in different cultural contexts, such as geometric motifs, arabesques, and religious patterns, and tracing their use in the production of Chinese porcelain. Historical records of China’s trade relations with other regions can support the analysis of these cross-cultural exchanges.

Decorative Patterns Of Blue-And-White Porcelain Unearthed In Malacca City

As an essential part of ceramic decoration, the pattern is a unique cultural phenomenon of Ming Dynasty blue and white porcelain. From a functional perspective, decorative treatment enhances the visibility of the image. From an artistic point of view, decoration represents one of the earliest forms of human artistic expression. Wölfflin (2009) points out that the history of art is primarily a history of decoration. The history of decorative art forms a central thread in both human art history and the development of ceramics. It has played a vital role in shaping ceramic art and driving its evolution.

In this article, the collected samples are categorized explicitly into four major groups: animal patterns, plant patterns, landscape and human figure patterns, and other patterns. Among them, animal patterns include lion motifs, crane motifs, dragon and phoenix motifs, qilin motifs, etc.; plant patterns include lotus motifs, chrysanthemum motifs, peony motifs, etc.; and other patterns include calligraphic, religious, and auxiliary motifs. In some cases, composite patterns appear—for example, plant and animal motifs depicted together in a single composition. In such cases, classification is based on the dominant motif—for instance, if the central decoration is an animal, it is categorized under animal patterns.

Animal Patterns

Animal patterns are a significant category in the traditional decorative patterns of Chinese porcelain, including birds, beasts, and aquatic animals. The dragon and phoenix motif is rare on blue-and-white porcelain from folk kilns, especially during the early and mid-Ming dynasties. The qilin motif, which symbolizes good luck, appears widely on blue and white porcelain of all periods, while the lion-playing-embroidered-ball motif and the fish motif are common on Ming dynasty folk kiln porcelain. Among the collected samples, lion-playing-ball and crane motifs appear most frequently, followed by deer, qilin, fish, and other decorative types.

The lion embodies wisdom and strength and symbolises good luck and the power to ward off evil. The embroidered ball is a common Chinese folklore mascot, meaning good fortune and auspiciousness. Therefore, the lion-playing-ball motif symbolises the dispelling of evil and the arrival of good fortune. According to current evidence, blue and white plates from Jingdezhen folk kilns decorated with lion-playing-ball motifs were popular during the Blank Period and the mid-Ming dynasty, typically featuring a single or paired lion playing with a ball in the centre (Tie, 2002).

Figure 4: Fragment of a blue and white plate with lion-and-ball motif, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

Figure 5: a) Blue and white lion-and-ball plate, Zhengtong period; b) Blue and white lion-and-ball plate from North Reef.

Source: Qiu and Yao (2005); Yao (2013)

The lion-and-ball motif fragment collected in Malacca (Figure 4) presents a realistic, lively, and vivid depiction. The two lions, positioned in the centre of the plate within a double blue-and-white circle, are outlined in fine lines, featuring large heads and small bodies, round eyes, fluttering ribbons, and decorations of miscellaneous treasures. The mouth of the plate is decorated with coins along the edge. The ribbon motif forms a vortex-like shape, outlined with a brush that begins heavily and transitions into lighter, more flexible strokes, showing dynamic variation in line thickness and smooth execution. Similar decorations are also found at the Jingdezhen kiln site (Figure 5a) and the North Reef of the Paracel Islands (Figure 5b). The glaze appears whitish-green, and the blue-and-white hues are rich and vibrant, in terms of overall composition, brushwork, and painting style, it is undoubtedly a product of the Jingdezhen folk kilns during the Ming Dynasty’s Blank Period (1436–1464).

Figure 6: a) Fragment of a blue and white peony-lion bowl, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Blue and white floral-lion bowl from the Wanli shipwreck.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); Y. Liu (2015)

The outer wall of the bowl is painted with a peony-and-lion motif featuring entwined branches (Figure 6a), and the base bears the Chinese inscription “玉堂佳器” (meaning “fine vessel for the Jade Hall”). The shape and decoration of the bowl closely resemble those of a specimen from the Wanli shipwreck (Figure 6b), which is typical of the Wanli period (1573–1620).

The crane holds a significant place among bird motifs, second only to the phoenix. The crane is often combined with pine, clouds, and the Eight Trigrams, implying longevity, purity, and wealth. Crane motifs were uncommon in the early Ming Dynasty and became popular only after the mid-Ming Dynasty.

Figure 7: Fragment of a blue and white pine-and-crane plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

Figure 8: Blue and white pine-and-crane plate, Hongzhi period.

Source: Meng (2019).

Figure 9: Fragment of a blue and white pine-and-crane plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

The crane motifs collected from the Pulau Melaka shipwreck in Malacca City are all pine-and-crane motifs. As shown in Figure 7, the crane depicted in the centre of the plate is disproportionately large, standing prominently beneath an abstracted pine tree. The cranes are painted in a freehand style, with their forms spreading freely, emphasizing the effect of both form and spirit. The mouth of the plate is decorated with the seawater motif common in the mid-Ming period. The characteristics of this era are evident and correspond to those found in Ming Hongzhi period porcelain (1488–1505), as seen in Figure 8. In Figure 9, the crane no longer occupies the centre of the plate, and its proportions have returned to normal. The cranes are painted in a realistic, relaxed form, strolling underneath a pine tree. The outline is first sketched with a single line, and the inside is flatly painted, presenting a clear pattern and sharp colour contrasts, which are common in Ming dynasty folk kilns.

The deer is a common theme in traditional Chinese painting, symbolising longevity, happiness, harmony, and prosperity, and expressing the aspiration for a better life. Deer patterns are often combined with other elements to form auspicious motifs, such as pairing with pine trees to symbolise longevity and wealth. Pine-and-deer motifs became common in the late Ming dynasty, particularly on export porcelain plates.

Figure 10: a) Fragment of a blue and white pine-and-deer plate, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Blue and white pine-and-deer plate from the Wanli shipwreck.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); Sjostrand and Idrus (2007)

The blue-and-white deer plate (Figure 10a) unearthed in Malacca City is Kraak porcelain, featuring two deer gazing at each other beneath pine trees, seemingly chasing and playing, with a flower blooming at their feet. The rim is decorated with foliate radiating panels, while the interior is painted with floral motifs separated by columns. The craftsman rendered the deer and vegetation in an exaggerated yet vivid form, using simple lines to emphasise their movement. This vivid expression aligns more closely with popular folk aesthetics, and the subject matter reflects a lively engagement with everyday life. The decoration and composition of this plate are nearly identical to those of the example from the Wanli shipwreck (Figure 10b), suggesting that both are products of the Wanli period (1573–1620).

Qilin is an ancient mythical beast symbolising peace and longevity, said to appear only during times of peace and prosperity. The qilin motif appeared on blue and white porcelain during the Yuan Dynasty and was widely used to decorate blue and white porcelain during the Ming Dynasty. The form of the qilin varied across different periods, as did the accompanying decorative elements.

Figure 11: Fragment of a blue and white qilin plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

The blue and white qilin plate (Figure 11), recovered from the Malacca shipwreck, features a qilin galloping in the centre of the plate, the head like a dragon with horns, and the body is like a deer, the tail is raised like a lion’s tail, the whole body is painted with scales. Scales are carved in detail, so pay attention to the depiction of the limbs. The body is decorated with flame patterns, surrounded by mountains, rocks, flowers, and auspicious clouds. The Hongzhi period (1488-1505) of folk kilns in blue and white is typical of the painting.

In the early Ming Dynasty, the dragon and phoenix motifs were reserved for imperial use, symbolising royal authority and prohibited in folk decoration. Late Ming Dynasty, in order to complete a large number of porcelain firing orders, the official kilns began to subcontract part of the order to the folk kilns. The court for Jingdezhen porcelain production management is lax, so the once exclusive dragon and phoenix motifs came to be widely and often unauthorisedly used in private-sector wares.

Figure 12: a) Fragment of a blue and white chi-dragon dish, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Fragment of a chi-dragon dish from the Guanyinge kiln site.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); X. Liu et al. (2009).

The Chi dragon motif is one of the typical patterns of Ming and Qing porcelain decoration. Ming dynasty porcelain Chi dragon motif has coiled Chi dragons, group Chi dragons, double chi dragons, and other forms, to the folk kiln wares for the most common, and pattern tendency is pronounced. A blue-and-white fragment featuring a group of chi-dragons was collected in Malacca City (Figure 12a). The underglaze-blue colour appears greyish-black, and the pattern is finely detailed. The bottom of the centre group Chi dragon motif is also seen in Jingdezhen Hutian kiln and Guanyinge kiln site (Figure 12b), the era when the Wanli later.

The phoenix was regarded as an auspicious bird in ancient times, as the king of all birds, and its image is very mysterious and strange in the tradition. Porcelain by the phoenix pattern composed of double phoenix, group phoenix, Kui phoenix, etc., often with peonies, a variety of birds, flying dragons, Qi, the red sun, etc., composed of images, to the Xuande (1426-1435), Chenghua (1465-1487), Jiajing (1522-1566), Wanli (1573 -1620) four dynasties survived more artifacts.

Figure 13: a) Fragment of a blue and white phoenix plate, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Fragment of a blue and white phoenix pattern, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Figure 14: Fragment of a blue and white phoenix pattern from the Nan’ao No. 1 shipwreck.

Source: C. Chen (2018).

At the centre of the blue-and-white phoenix plate (Figure 13a) is a phoenix with a long, flat head and an “S”-shaped neck decorated with linear feathers. Eyebrows and eyes are clear and vivid, which is more clearly seen in another phoenix plate fragment (Figure 13b). The body is painted with a scale pattern, the legs are long and slender, and the tail is curled and divided into two in the middle, leaving white space. The shape and decoration of this plate are almost the same as those from the Nan’ao No. 1 shipwreck (Figure 14) in the Wanli period, and it is a typical product of the Wanli period.

Figure 15: Fragment of a blue and white gold pheasant pattern, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Golden pheasant motifs usually appear in pairs and are known as a symbol of wealth and good fortune because of their magnificent feathers. It was widely used during the Ming Dynasty’s Jiajing period (1522-1566) at the latest. A blue-and-white gold pheasant plate fragment collected in Malacca City (Figure 15) depicts a pair of golden pheasants standing on the stone in the centre of the plate, surrounded by swallows flying low, and supplemented by rocks and various grasses and trees, the inner rim of the mouth is painted with entwined flowers and grasses. The tail feathers are meticulously depicted, and the use of dots and dyes highlights the pattern of the tail feathers, demonstrating the realistic style of traditional Chinese painting. The overall picture is elegantly composed, with clear layers of density and light, full of natural vitality and vigor.

Figure 16: Blue and white fish bowl, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Fish symbolises abundance, wealth, and prosperity, making it a common motif in porcelain decoration. Fish often form fish-algae motifs with algae. The blue-and-white fish bowl (Figure 16) features a fish in a swimming posture at its centre, with a light drawing technique of a one-shot, freehand, focusing on the embodiment of the fish charm, surrounded by a light ink-stained sea wave pattern. The glaze is blue-black, a typical style of Dehua kilns in the early Qing Dynasty.

Plant Patterns

Plant patterns are a common decorative element in Ming dynasty blue-and-white porcelain, encompassing flowers, trees, fruits, and vegetables, depicted either realistically or in a stylised manner. They occupy an important position among all decorative themes.

The peony, with its full flower shape, large head, and bright colours, is known as the “king of flowers,” representing wealth and auspiciousness. The peony motif is one of the typical motifs of porcelain decoration, flourishing for a long time in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. It is mainly used as the main pattern, decorating the main parts of bottles, bowls, plates, and jars (Feng, 1998). It is also combined with other decorations, constituting the branch peony and entwined peony patterns.

Figure 17: Fragment of a peony bowl, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Among the wares unearthed in Malacca City, there are many peony motifs, either as the main motif in the bottom centre of the bowl or connected with branches of flowers and leaves for decoration, mostly from the Jiajing and Wanli periods. The single peony shown on the left in Figure 17 is more realistic, with the flower and leaf veins clearly depicted. Variations in ink intensity—whether wet or dry—are employed to achieve a vivid artistic effect. The peony also combines with the scrolling grass pattern to form an entwined peony motif, which spreads across the belly of the vessel, as shown in the middle of Figure 17. Clear lines represent the branch peony shown on the right in Figure 17, and the stamens are arranged in short, tight lines with a strong sense of order. The leaves are no longer visible in their original form but have been transformed into a curly, grassy pattern, which is blurred with light ink.

Figure 18: a) Fragment of a blue and white branch peony bowl, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Fragment of a blue and white branch peony bowl from the Beijiao No. 3 shipwreck; c) Fragment of a blue and white branch peony bowl from the Nan’ao No. 1 shipwreck.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); Yao (2013); C. Chen (2018)

There is also a class of small blue and white bowls, the centre of which is decorated with a branch of peony (Figure 18a), first outlined and then filled with blue pigment. The Beijiao No. 3 shipwreck site (Figure 18b) and the Nan’ao No. 1 shipwreck (Figure 18c) produced large quantities of these decorated objects, which are contemporaneous.

Chrysanthemum has a strong temperament and can endure frost and cold, so it is known as the gentleman of flowers. Since the Yuan Dynasty, the image of chrysanthemums in various forms has been a common motif in the decoration of blue and white porcelain. The composition of the pattern has the whole chrysanthemum and the branch chrysanthemum as the main picture. There are also entwined chrysanthemums as the edge of the decorations, and often with other patterns to form a composition.

Figure 19: Fragment of a blue and white branch chrysanthemum plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

Figure 20: Fragment of a blue and white chrysanthemum bowl, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Three chrysanthemum motif decorations are found in the blue and white porcelain from Malacca City. One is the branch group chrysanthemum, which is painted on the centre of the plate (Figure 19), with short, rounded petals and more layers, and the composition is full of lines or small strokes to show the texture of the flowers. The other type of chrysanthemum is the entwined chrysanthemum, painted on the wall of the bowl (Figure 20). The main body of the chrysanthemums is no longer finely engraved with cascading petals. However, with radiating spikes in place of petals. The entwined branches are rendered with a single stroke of flowing curved lines. Although the image has been extremely simplified, the characteristics of the original entwined chrysanthemums are still retained and depicted in a new way.

Figure 21: Fragment of a blue and white chrysanthemum plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

The third type is the exotic chrysanthemum motif, painted on the inside of the plate. The chrysanthemum motif on the left in Figure 21 is more abstract, surrounded by Arabic characters that produce a striking visual effect. The same pattern of objects in the Desaru shipwreck was also found and is believed to be the product of the early Qing Dynasty. Figure 21, right, is Kraak porcelain, and the chrysanthemum motif is repeated in panel decorations, typical of the early Qing Dynasty.

The lotus flower symbolizes purity of character and has been praised by literati and writers throughout the ages. In addition, the lotus flower has many lotus seeds, with the auspicious symbolism of the prosperity of children and grandchildren. The lotus is also a sacred symbol of Buddhism. So, the lotus motif has been respected by successive generations and is widely used to decorate artifacts.

Figure 22: Fragment of a blue and white lotus plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

The blue and white porcelain from Malacca City has realistic and distorted forms of the lotus flower. Figure 22, left, shows a realistic lotus flower, using different ink colours to highlight the layers of lotus petals, surrounded by lotus pouches and leaves. The middle picture in Figure 22 is more freehand style, with simple brushstrokes and leaving white space to show the dynamism of the object. The right picture in Figure 22 is a distorted lotus flower, with petals turned out, and the lotus leaves can no longer be seen in their original form, and they have become curly grass patterns, which tends to be more graphic.

Figure 23: a) Fragment of a blue and white orchid plate, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Blue and white orchid plate from the Tek Sing shipwreck.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); Peng (2022).

Orchids are pure and fragrant, known as the “Four Gentlemen,” with plum blossom, bamboo, and chrysanthemum. Yuan dynasty double outline filled colour orchids, and Ming and Qing dynasty blue and white porcelain on the orchid decoration theme is usually composed of pictures with the longevity stone. Malacca City found an orchid plate (Figure 23a), painted Taihu stone in the centre of the plate, stone stretched out several orchids, the left and right of the painting of various flowers. The orchid form is created with a single stroke, vivid and spontaneous, and the decoration reflects the ink and brushwork style of Chinese freehand painting. The same type of ware is found in the Tek Sing shipwreck (Figure 23b) and the town of Longmantan in Dehua County (J. Chen, 1999), which are believed to be the products of the Dehua kilns in the Qing Dynasty.

Figure 24: a) Fragment of a blue and white grapes bowl, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Fragment of a blue and white grapes bowl from Malindi.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); Yao (2013)

Due to their abundant fruit, grapes were endowed with symbolic meanings of fertility and family prosperity, representing people’s hopes and aspirations for a better life. In the early Ming Dynasty, the grape pattern was almost invisible on the porcelain of the folk kilns. However, from the Chenghua period (1465-1487), the grape motif on the porcelain of the folk kilns appeared in large quantities, and it was more widely popular in the late Ming Dynasty. Grapevine motifs often appear as entwined branches, as shown in Figure 24a, with evenly spaced leaves, fruits, and spring-like vine whiskers. The same kind of decoration is found on the central east coast of Kenya, located in Malindi, about 15 kilometres southwest of the ancient city of Gedi site (Figure 24b). It is believed to date back to the Jiajing period.

Figure 25: a) Fragment of a blue and white lingzhi bowl, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Blue and white lingzhi bowl from the Tek Sing shipwreck.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022); Peng (2022).

The lingzhi motif is an auspicious design based on the theme of the “immortal herb,” symbolising longevity, which was gradually applied to ceramic decoration by craftsmen in the Ming and Qing dynasties. As shown in Figure 25a, the plate inside the bottom of the centre is painted a circular spiral pattern, surrounded by two layers of radiating petal-shaped panels painted within the panels of branching lingzhi flowers. The outer wall is also decorated with lingzhi flower motifs. The pattern resembles a blooming lotus flower, with sparse and smooth brushwork. The whole body is covered with gray and white glaze, and the blue material is dark, considered the product of the Dehua kiln in the Qing Dynasty. This type of decoration is also found in Tek Sing shipwreck (Figure 25b) in large quantities and appears in sets of bowls, plates, cups, saucers, spoons, and other tableware.

Landscape and Human Figures Patterns

Landscape and human figure patterns refer to decorative themes derived from literati painting traditions and depictions of refined lifestyles. These patterns not only reflect the scholarly ideal and an appreciation for nature but also convey a unique philosophical view of life. Such motifs became prominent in the decorative repertoire of blue-and-white porcelain during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

Figure 26: a) Fragment of a blue and white donkey-riding bowl, unearthed in Malacca City; b) Fragment of a blue and white landscape plate, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Figure 26a depicts a donkey-riding scholar wearing a bucket hat and a straw raincoat, seemingly on a journey. The background is minimal, adorned with only a few stylised cloud motifs. During this period, riding a donkey was not regarded as a sign of diminished status among the literati; instead, it symbolised a noble spiritual pursuit. As noted by Sturman (1995), the “donkey-rider” figure embodied the ideal of the cultivated scholar.

The blue-and-white landscape plate (Figure 26b) features a central landscape motif. The rocks are rendered in short, expressive strokes, with a wide expanse of open space reserved for a river scene, where a lone figure is depicted on a boat. The composition is compact yet detailed. This “man–boat” motif does not merely portray a boatman or fisherman; rather, it symbolises the literati’s vision of a reclusive and harmonious life in nature.

The inner wall near the rim of the plate is decorated with a dense and regular brocade-like ground pattern interspersed with floral designs. This style of decoration is characteristic of Zhangzhou kilns in Fujian.

Other Patterns

Porcelain character decorations mainly feature Sanskrit inscriptions and auspicious characters. Based on kiln site and shipwreck evidence, the use of Sanskrit in porcelain decoration first appeared during the Chenghua period and remained popular through the Hongzhi and into the Jiajing period, although the characters became more simplified over time. Sanskrit inscriptions are generally found on bowls, while plates decorated with Sanskrit are relatively rare. Auspicious characters, by contrast, were more commonly used in the mid-to-late Ming dynasty.

Figure 27: Fragment of a blue and white Sanskrit bowl, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Figure 28: Fragment with double happiness and entwined flower motifs, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

The Sanskrit-decorated blue-and-white fragment (Figure 27), found on the exterior wall of a bowl, features two bands of neatly arranged Sanskrit characters and is thought to be a product of the Dehua kilns. Some examples combine Sanskrit characters with entwined floral motifs. Similar bowls have been found at Dehua and Anxi kiln sites, as well as in the Tek Sing shipwreck. Figure 28 shows a bottle fragment decorated with the character “囍” (double happiness), formed by repeating the character “喜” (happiness). This motif, traditionally used in Chinese weddings, was widely adopted as a decorative element on blue-and-white porcelain in the Qing dynasty.

Figure 29: Fragment of a blue and white pestle bowl, unearthed in Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Figure 30: Blue and white pestle bowl from the Santa Cruz Shipwreck.

Source: C. Chen (2017).

Some decorative motifs are not based on natural forms but are symbolic creations. The pestle motif refers to a double-headed vajra pestle, a ritual object used in Buddhist ceremonies, often shown crossed in an “X” shape. A ribbon is sometimes added, forming the so-called ribbon pestle motif. This design first appeared in Yuan dynasty blue-and-white porcelain and became especially prevalent during the mid-Ming period. In the pestle-decorated bowl from Malacca (Figure 29), the centre is painted with a double-headed pestle entwined with floral scrolls. Similar motifs are found on wares from the Santa Cruz shipwreck (Figure 30) and the Ko Samui shipwreck in Thailand.

Figure 31: Fragment of molded decoration bowl from Malacca City.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Moulded decorations have also been found in Malacca (Figure 31), created by carving a pattern into a mould, applying blue pigment, and impressing it onto the porcelain body. Although this technique often results in duller colour tones and less vivid imagery, it allows for neater, more standardised motifs that are suited to mass production and export.

Auxiliary patterns support and frame the principal motif, playing an indispensable role in blue-and-white porcelain decoration. These are typically continuous band designs, evenly distributed across the surface of the vessel. They not only balance and unify the composition but also serve as filler motifs around corners or edges.

Figure 32: Lotus petal pattern.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Figure 33: Scroll pattern.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Figure 34: Entwined branch pattern.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

Figure 35: Seawater pattern.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

The lotus petal pattern (Figure 32) derives from natural lotus imagery, gradually stylised into a fixed decorative band typically applied around the foot or base of bowls. The scroll pattern (Figure 33) abstracts floral forms into a two-way continuous band, commonly used along rims, feet, or necks of vessels. The entwined branch pattern (Figure 34) features wave-like plant stems as the structural framework, decorated with flowers, leaves, and buds, and is often used on necks, shoulders, and upper bellies of vessels to create a rhythmic visual effect. The seawater pattern (Figure 35) simplifies natural wave forms into layered curves topped with “spoondrift” motifs, typically applied around the mouths, rims, and lower portions of larger vessels.

Figure 36: Hui pattern.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

Figure 37: Coin pattern.

Source: Melaka Museums Corporation (2022).

Figure 38: Circle point pattern.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

Geometric patterns emphasise order and symmetry, with a high degree of structural discipline. Examples found in Malacca include the Hui pattern (Figure 36), coin pattern (Figure 37), and circle point pattern (Figure 38). The Hui pattern typically appears along the rim of bowls and plates and consists of simplified, two-way continuous “回” motifs. The coin pattern features a circular form enclosing an inward-curved square, symbolising harmony between roundness and squareness, and is applied to various parts of vessels including the rim, neck, or belly. The circle point pattern, characteristic of Dehua kiln products, is usually painted just below the outer rim.

Figure 39: Dark Eight Immortals pattern.

Source: Department of National Heritage (2022).

The Dark Eight Immortals motif, while based on objects rather than human figures, symbolises the same auspicious meaning as the Eight Immortals themselves, particularly longevity and blessings. This motif gained popularity in the mid-to-late Ming dynasty and flourished during the Qing dynasty. It may appear as the central motif on vessel facades or be arranged as an auxiliary decoration around the rim. In Malacca City, porcelain fragments featuring this motif (Figure 39) were found with floral patterns along the inner rim—typical of export porcelain.

ARTISTIC CONNOTATIONS AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES

Ming dynasty blue and white porcelain is a product of cultural exchange and mutual understanding, and its colourful decorative motifs reflect the political, economic, and cultural life of the period. The blue and white porcelain unearthed in Malacca City fully embodies the influence of various religious and cultural traditions on ceramic decoration.

Islamic Culture

The Ming Dynasty marked the peak of Islamic development in China, during which the Ming court adopted a policy of tolerance, protection, and encouragement towards Islam. In such a social context, Islamic culture strongly influenced the decoration of blue and white porcelain during the Ming dynasty. For example, plant and flower motifs were used in the decoration. They were abstracted and deformed to make them prominent decorative motifs, including the representative Islamic entwined, Islamic geometric, and Hui patterns. These have also been heavily decorated on the porcelain from the Malacca shipwreck.

In Islamic decorative arts, the reason for such a wide range of plant motifs is closely related to religious beliefs. According to Islamic teachings, Allah creates everything in the world, and therefore, everything is illusory, but the Creator is eternal and everlasting. Allah is invisible, so it can not be compared and symbolized by the image of any person or animal (Bloom & Blair, 2019). However, Islam considers plants to be inanimate. Therefore, plant motifs have developed rapidly in Islamic art. The Islamic entwined branch pattern is generally based on vine plants, and its main feature is that it has soft curves and moving branches like grape vines, with flowers and leaves interspersed and overlapped with each other, with a rhythmic beauty.

The influence of Islamic culture on the decorative composition of blue and white porcelain is also significant, mainly reflected in the concentric circle layout and panel decoration method. Concentric circles are mainly used in the decoration of plates and bowls, and the centre to the rim of such plates is often composed of decorative motifs of different subject matter, gradually expanding outward from the centre of the decoration, with as few as three or four, and as many as several. Early in the 14th century, Chinese ceramic artisans applied the concentric-circle decorations of Islamic metal vessels to blue and white plates and continued to develop this decorative style during the Ming dynasty.

Panel decoration refers to using different shapes and contours to draw their separate decorative areas on the surface of the porcelain to form a prominent independent picture. This type of layout has been introduced to China from the Islamic region since the Song Dynasty and has since become the most typical feature of Kraak porcelain. The conditions in China during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, when the folk kilns were free to create, coupled with overseas trade during the Age of Sail, gave further impetus to the development of Kraak porcelain.

Literati Painting

Literati paintings refer to paintings with literati sentiments and thoughts. Painters generally avoid social reality, mostly taking landscape, ancient wood, bamboo and stone, flowers and birds as subject matters, emphasizing ink and wash, and expressing their feelings with the expressive method of freehand style.

During the Ming dynasty, especially after the mid-Ming period, new productive forces and production relations emerged in China, generating new cultural ideas. These changes greatly stimulated the mental state of the literati, which led to their conscious fit into civic life and constantly close to secular society. The work of folk kiln painters took place amid this broader social and cultural atmosphere. Whether in terms of subject matter, painting methods, or painting styles, folk kiln blue and white paintings have similarities with literati paintings (Fu, 1957).

In terms of subject matter, there are a large number of flower and bird paintings, landscapes, shrimps and crabs, and beasts, all of which are in accordance with the subject matter of literati paintings of the Ming Dynasty. Literati painting is known for its freehand style, dashing brushwork, and simple and concise modelling, with very little ink and brush to express the vivid image. Porcelain painters absorbed literati painting brush and ink techniques, highlighting the pattern of decoration, forming a combination of painting and decorative beauty of a unique art. These fresh painting styles had already appeared in some folk kilns in the late Jiajing and Wanli periods. In the late Wanli period, this painting style with a strong literati flavor had been fully formed and continued throughout the 17th century.

Buddhism

Since the introduction of Buddhism into China, it has been combined with traditional Chinese culture, forming a unique Han Buddhism. The influence of Buddhism also permeated ceramics, and Buddhist motifs appeared in many Ming Dynasty ceramics. In Malacca City, Buddhist elements in the assemblage include lotus flowers, lions, and vajra cross-pestles.

The lotus flower’s nature of remaining untainted by mud aligns with the Buddhist idea of transcending the mundane world. Therefore, the lotus flower is used as a symbol of Buddhism and is honoured as the “holy flower of Buddhism.” With the spread of Buddhism in China, the lotus flower also became a popular decoration for blue and white porcelain. The lion is not an animal native to China. However, due to the close relationship between the image of the lion and Buddhism, the image of the lion gradually became popular after Buddhism spread to China(W. Chen & Zou, 2021). In Buddhist culture, lions are generally guardian animals of Guanyin and are regarded as an auspicious image. The vajra pestle is regarded in Buddhism as a sacred dharma instrument that represents wisdom and power and can break through evil and difficulties. The Chenghua period saw a surge in the use of cross-pestle motifs, inseparable from the development of Buddhism and the emperor’s support.

Although these motifs have undergone secularisation, which gradually weakened its religious symbolism, in contrast, auspicious and decorative symbolism is gradually strengthened and is still the most popular decoration in blue and white porcelain.

Taoism

Taoism, a native Chinese religion, was extensively developed and secularized during the Ming Dynasty. The Jiajing and Wanli emperors of the Ming Dynasty were devout followers of Taoism. The worship and promotion of Taoism reached the peak of the extreme, so this period witnessed an explosion of Taoist-themed motifs and influenced the development of ceramic decorations in later generations. Taoist elements found in Malacca City include cranes, deer, lingzhi, and the Dark Eight Immortals.

The crane is inextricably linked to Taoist culture and is the sacred bird of Taoism. Taoism attaches great importance to the cultivation of life and the pursuit of immortality, and the crane is the mount of the Taoist priests after ascending to heaven and becoming immortal. Emperor Jiajing was obsessed with longevity and favoured cranes, and crane motifs also appeared in many blue and white porcelain decorations. The deer lives in quiet mountain areas, and their tranquil nature is consistent with the Taoist way of cultivation. During the Jiajing and Wanli periods, deer motifs appeared frequently on blue and white decorations.

The development of lingzhi culture was mainly influenced by Taoism, which believes that one can become immortal through internal cultivation and external alchemy, of which lingzhi is a kind of immortal medicine, so Taoism worships lingzhi in particular. The Eight Immortals usually refer to the figures of eight Taoist deities: Tie Guaili, Han Zhongli, Lan Caihe, Zhang Guolao, He Xiangu, Lu Dongbin, Han Xiangzi, and Cao Guojiu. Stories of the Eight Immortals appeared in folklore during the Tang Dynasty. However, the specific images and characteristics of the Eight Immortal figures were not clearly defined until the Ming Dynasty, which was inseparable from the atmosphere of the Ming Dynasty that honored Taoism. The “Dark Eight Immortals” is a system of decoration formed independently by the Eight Immortals’ hand-held artifacts, namely gourds, fans, baskets, fishing drums, lotus flowers, swords, bamboo flutes, and castanets, which not only figuratively represent the iconic objects of the Eight Immortals but also symbolically imply the concepts of nature, transcendence, and harmony that the Taoists revere.

CONCLUSION

The blue and white porcelain found in Malacca City is mainly from the Jingdezhen folk kilns of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. The decorative motifs include animals, plants, landscapes, and geometric patterns. These motifs demonstrate not only the technical skills of the craftsmen but also the evolving aesthetic preferences of the time, shaped by the interaction of multiple artistic traditions.

Cultural exchanges played an essential role in shaping the decorative style of Chinese blue and white porcelain. The motifs reflect traditional Chinese aesthetics and the increasing fusion of foreign elements, such as patterns and motifs derived from Chinese literati paintings and religious themes. The stylistic evolution observed in these decorations is a testament to how artisans adapted to the changing needs of the global marketplace, reflecting both domestic tastes and international consumer preferences.

On a broader level, this study emphasizes the importance of blue and white porcelain as a key artifact of cross-cultural interaction during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The decorative motifs are artistic expressions and historical markers of cultural integration and global trade. By understanding these patterns, it is possible to gain a deeper appreciation of how material objects such as porcelain functioned not merely as carriers of artistic style or trade commodities, but as dynamic agents in shaping visual regimes, ideological meanings, and broader cultural affiliations in early modern Asia.By understanding these patterns, we can gain a deeper understanding of how art and commerce were intertwined in the early modern period, reflecting a complex network of cultural influences that transcended geographical boundaries.

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