Ethical Business Practices and Gender Inclusion in Igbo Apprenticeship System

Ethical Business Practices and Gender Inclusion in Igbo Apprenticeship System

Bright Chigemecha ONYEIKE^1*, Queendaline Ugochi CHIGBO², Emmanuel Chinonyerem NZEAGWU¹, Victor Chika OKAFOR¹, & Bethel Nte EREFOROKUMA¹

¹Accounting Department, Faculty of Business Administration. University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu State, Nigeria

²Accounting Department, College of Management Sciences. Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000587

Received: 16 August 2025; Accepted: 23 August 2025; Published: 22 September 2025

ABSTRACT

The Igbo apprenticeship system (Igba Boi) is still a core model for business development and grassroots economic empowerment in southeastern Nigeria. Built on principles of mentorship and self-help, the Igbo apprenticeship system has long contributed to business growth and job creation. Despite the recent surge in the female labor participation rate in Nigeria, based on the United Nations Human Development Report. However, gender bias and societal expectations continue to prevent women from fully utilizing the apprenticeship structure. The insufficiency of the existing legal laws in regulating the informal apprenticeship model calls for immediate reform. Using a content analysis design, this study examined the ethical business practices and gender inclusion issues that jeopardize the fairness and sustainability of the system. Findings showed the absence of written agreements and legal safeguards. Hence, the masters and apprentices are exposed to exploitation and abuse. Male predominance in the system is indicative of cultural bias, which was an obstruction to women’s involvement. This study recommended the formalization of the apprenticeship agreements, application of formal legal safeguards, and promotion of gender inclusive practices. The SDG 5 gender equality framework and the proposed Anambra State Igbo Apprenticeship Bill (2024) are commended as a progressive step toward reform. This reform encourages mandatory education, fixed apprenticeship duration, written agreements, and centralized oversight. These reforms are essential in the preservation of cultural heritage with the modernization of apprenticeship practices for equitable and sustainable business development.

Key Words: Igbo Apprenticeship System, Business Ethics, Gender Inclusion, Entrepreneurship.

INTRODUCTION

The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria are famous due to their outstanding entrepreneurial spirit and skills. This spirit is based on their strong cultural tradition of hard work, independence, and innovation. Studies affirm that entrepreneurial activities are key to national development (Ankeli, 2019; Orugun & Nafiu, 2014; Osiri, 2020). According to Ekesiobi & Dimnwobi (2020), entrepreneurial sustainability is an important element in the improvement of economic performance. The informal sector accounts for over 70% of Nigeria’s workforce, according to the ILO. The Igbo business system is a key contributor. The indigenous Igbo Apprenticeship System (IAS), “Igba Odibo” or “Igba Boi,” originated in the pre-colonial era. This system involves young individuals learning trades under experienced mentors. This system gained popularity Post-civil war (1967-1970), as a wealth restoration mechanism, grounded in the Igbo value of “lekọta nwanne gị nwoke” (taking care of one’s brother). This system entails a verbal agreement between the master and apprentice, a training period of 5 to 15 years, and eventual settlement of the apprentice (Ugwu, Njeze & Oluka, 2023; Nnonyelu et al., 2023). Though traditionally male-dominated, this model supports entrepreneurial skill transfer and economic empowerment (Antai, 2024; Obisesan, Aidonojie, Onwubiko & Damina, 2024). The Igbo Apprenticeship System (IAS) supports the attitudes towards business ideas of the indigenous African communities. Proper adoption of this model can lead to the realization of sustainable development goals of Zero Poverty and hunger, Gender equality, and Decent Work (United Nations Foundation, n.d). Despite its prominence, the informal legal frameworks predominant in the IAS leave parties involved prone to exploitation. Ethical inefficiencies ranging from lack of settlements, breach of agreements, and exceeding the duration period render the model unfair and ineffective. While prior research often faults only the masters (Helen, Ihezie & Marilyn, 2024; Okeke & Osang, 2023; Ogbuji & Okereke, 2019), this study adopts a balanced approach, evaluating issues from both the master’s and apprentice’s perspectives. Another significant concern is the gender disparity in the IAS rooted in cultural beliefs. Aladejebi (2020) noted that these social disparities restrict women’s access to entrepreneurship. In agreement, Abogu & Igbokwe (2015) maintained that gender profiling in Nigeria favors men and perpetuates inequality. Though female labor force participation in Nigeria has witnessed a rise from 69% (2021), 77% (2022), 81% (2023), compared with that of males 79%, 86%, 84% (UNDP, 2023). Yet, the Igbo apprenticeship system continues to discriminate against women in its practice.

Such cultural and structural prejudice has questioned the adaptability of the IAS to the modern business ethics and gender equity objectives. These concerns necessitated this study. It aims at the shortcomings of legal protection and gender inclusion. Hence, speculates on the traditional model modification to be in line with the international business practices.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Igbo Apprenticeship System

The Igbo apprenticeship system is a traditional form of vocational training in South-Eastern Nigeria. This system has attracted enormous popularity due to its usefulness in obtaining skills and entrepreneurship development. Built on the mentor-apprentice relationship between youngsters and their masters or so-called Ogas (Ekpenisi et al., 2024). One of the fundamental capabilities of the system is that it facilitates mentorship and expertise transfer. This is done when masters share important knowledge with the apprentice. The apprenticeship agreement is mainly oral, involves residential mentorship, and settlement payment to the mentee at the end (Ezeajughu, 2021). The Igbo apprenticeship system structure fosters resilience and entrepreneurship. However, it also reflects a lack of formal regulation, which can result in exploitation and disputes (Chukwuma, 2017; Mutawalli et al., 2024). Despite this, the Igbo apprenticeship model remains a testament to the ingenuity and cultural sustainability of the Igbo people of Nigeria.

Challenges of the Igbo Apprenticeship System

Despite its merits, the Igbo apprenticeship system is plagued by ethical challenges that undermine its effectiveness and fairness. An ethical apprenticeship system is supposed to promote fairness, safe working conditions, and skills without exploitation. However, verbal contracts, insufficient compensation, and gender discrimination still exist in the Igbo Apprenticeship System (Onyeiwu, 2024; Ekpenisi et al., 2024). Some masters exploit apprentices through long working hours and unfavorable treatment. Ogbuji & Okereke (2019) mentioned that without any specifications, apprentices may be dismissed due to supposed stealing or disobedience. In addition, the absence of formal education or certification has constrained the system’s societal impact in general (Mpi, 2019; Okeke, 2019). Notably, unethical conduct is not exclusive to masters alone. There are situations apprentices break the trust, too. They may engage in stealing, incompetence, or trying to get rich through dubious means (Anigbogu, Onwuteaka & Okoli, 2019; Okeke & Osang, 2021). These challenges have hampered the objectives of the Igbo apprenticeship model.

Gender Inclusion and Igbo Apprenticeship System

Gender disparity remains one of the system’s most critical ethical flaws. The Igbo apprenticeship model was developed to fight against unemployment and economic inclusion. However, it has historically excluded women due to cultural norms and patriarchal values (Agbogu & Igbokwe, 2015; Aladejebi, 2020). The Patriarchal traditions in Igbo land often relegate women to domestic roles. Historically, there have never been instances when women were leaders of the clan (UNIDO, 2014). Recent changes, however, have shown an improvement. Women are now venturing into other occupations, such as furniture-making, technology, and electronics. This is evidenced by the labor participation rate of females in Nigeria, which has significantly improved from 60% in 2022 to 81% in 2023, signaling greater economic inclusion (UNDP, 2023; Okpokwasili & Onwuatuegwu, 2024). However, entrenched obstacles like discriminative mechanisms and inaccessibility to mentorship are one issue that awaits resolution. Finding the right balance between retaining the cultural identity, modernizing, and legally reforming the Igbo apprenticeship model becomes a necessary endeavor (Jancinta, 2024).

Theoretical Framework

This research conceptually involves ethical business practice and gender inclusion. Ethical practice is all about fair treatment, open practice, and the safeguarding of stakeholders’ interests in a system. However, gender inclusion focuses on equal accessibility and participation irrespective of gender. The research stands on two theories: Stakeholder Theory and Feminist Theory. The Stakeholder Theory was formulated by Freeman in 1984. This theory advocates that the interests of all stakeholders, such as masters and apprentices, should be addressed to establish trusting and sustainable relationships. Feminist Theory was founded in 1972 advocate of women’s rights. Mary Wollstonecraft focuses on the elimination of gender biases in business entrepreneurship. The use of the two theories shows the significance of ethics and equal opportunity in the Igbo Apprenticeship business model. Although the Igbo apprenticeship system has been credited for fostering entrepreneurship, its ethical practice and gender inclusion have been questionable. However, existing literatures are usually based on the unethical conduct of the masters (Helen et al., 2024; Okeke & Osang, 2023). Little consideration has been given to the involvement of the apprentices in these problems. Also, the idea of incorporating legal and gender responsive reforms into the system has not received much attention. Hence, this study seeks to fill this gap.

Empirical Evidence

Helen, Ihezie, & Marilyn (2024) conducted a study to examine the challenges and prospects of the Igbo apprenticeship system in the modern world. A survey method was adopted. Responses from 163 male and female traders from different major markets in Enugu state, namely: Kenyetta market, Ogbete market, Timber market Abakpa, Artisans markets, and Gariki market, were analyzed. Though the IAS was noted to have a bright global prospect, respondents complained absence of formal legal protection for apprentices, verbal agreements, and underage involvement at the expense of their education as major challenges. Okeke and Osang (2021) investigated on decline of the potency of the Igbo apprenticeship scheme in Anambra State, Nigeria. The study used an interrogation and observation method on traders in informal workplaces and trading sites in the state. Findings showed that theft, get-rich-quick syndrome, youths’ unwillingness to assume their fathers’ businesses, or to enroll in courses for personal growth, have decreased the scheme’s potency. Abasilim, Ogbobeta & Jesuleye (2024) studied women’s exclusion practices in the Igbo Apprenticeship System and its impacts on the entrepreneurial capacity of Igbo women in Akure, Nigeria. The study adopted a survey design through a questionnaire. A sample size of 360 respondents made up of Igbo businessmen and women from the five Eastern States, namely, Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo, was utilized. Majority (67.4%) of the respondents complained that due to cultural beliefs, women are not allowed to participate in IAS like their male counterparts, also most respondents (67.6%) disagreed that Igbo women in Akure own more SMEs compared to men, while 71.3% of the respondents complained that Igbo women in the study area do not have full access to business loans compared to men hence, they feel marginalized.

Gender Participation Trends in Nigeria (1990-2023)

According to UN Human Development data (1990-2023), the female labor trends have passed through three phases. They include the foundational period (1990-2000), where participation in labor was very low, the stagnation period (2001-2015), where there was a slow progression, and the acceleration period (2016-2023), where female participation recorded an increase. Although this symbolizes the evolution in society, the Igbo apprenticeship system over time has not been fully aligned with these contemporary changes. There are still challenges of low levels of female involvement.

Table 1. Gender Labor Participation Rate in Nigeria

Source: Computed from United Nations Human Development Report 2023

An examination of data from 1990-2023 showed a general trend in female-male labor participation in Nigeria. With female participation rate surging significantly from 40% in 1990, as against male 71% in 1990, to 81% (2023), almost equating male participation 84% (2023). These statistics highlighted the massive female labor participation in the contemporary business era.

Table 2: Foundational Period (1990-2000)

Source: Computed from United Nations Human Development Report 2023

Male labor participation stayed constant between 71% and 66% during the foundational period shown in diagram 5.2. Female participation, on the other hand, increased only slightly from 40% in 1990 to 46% in 2000. The deeply embedded sociocultural norms that restricted Igbo women’s economic opportunities were reflected in the gender gap, which remained at about 30%.

Table 3: Stagnation and Gradual Shift period (2001-2015)

Source: Computed from United Nations Human Development Report 2023

Male labor participation peaked between 2001 and 2015, hovering between 64% and 65%. While still lagging, female participation increased gradually over the course of the 15-year period, going from 47% to 55%. Slow but steady progress is indicated by this modest 8% percentage point increase. Growing awareness of gender equity emerged in the early 2000s as a result of globalization’s effects, policy initiatives, and easier access to education for girls. However, women’s roles in the Igbo apprenticeship system remained mainly ancillary, frequently limited to administrative or supportive roles rather than being essential to the core operations of the apprenticeship.

Table 4: Acceleration Period (2016-2023)

Source: Computed from the United Nations Human Development Report 2023

There was a major change from 2016 to 2023. In just eight years, female participation jumped from 54% to 81%, a remarkable 27% point increase that exceeded the growth of the preceding 25 years put together. Indicating a wider rise in labor force participation, male participation also increased, rising from 65% to 84%. The surge in digital entrepreneurship, tech-based business models, and government-sponsored empowerment initiatives aimed at women all occurred at the same time as the sharp increase in female participation.

Legal Frameworks and Reform

The Nigerian Labor Act (1974, amended 1990) regulates employment and apprenticeships via Section 49. It provides for a written agreement, a maximum duration of five years, and the provision of training and stipends. However, the Igbo apprenticeship system’s reliance on verbal contracts. This contradicts these legal requirements, limiting apprentices’ access to legal actions (Antai et al., 2024). Therefore, contracts of apprenticeship must be written to enhance legitimacy (Okoroafor & Onyeukwu, 2019). To enhance transition to a written agreement, the integration of digital technology presents an opportunity for reform. Mobile applications can function as registries for apprenticeships, recording agreements, and tracking progress. Adoption of e-learning systems may also enhance practical education with financial literacy and business management. A blend of tradition with technology can modernize the Igbo apprenticeship system without losing its cultural integrity.

However, the proposed “Anambra State Igbo Apprenticeship Bill 2024” by Honorable Ejike Okechukwu of the Anambra State House of Assembly seeks to formalize the system. It proposes fixed apprenticeship durations, compulsory education, written agreements, a central database, and dispute resolution mechanisms. During the hearing. An emotional moment occurred. Chidi Obinna, a former apprentice (nwaboi) who currently manages three electronic shops across the southeast, addressed the audience. He fervently supported the bill, saying, “I was lucky. My master settled me well. But I know others who were sent away with nothing. If a law had existed then, they should have a chance to seek justice”.  Hence, to address this concern and ensure adequate enforcement, a mechanism was put in place. At the heart of the bill is the push to create an Igbo Apprenticeship Regulatory Council and a centralized database. This digital database will be maintained by the newly proposed Igbo Apprenticeship Regulatory Council. This Council will oversee the registration of agreements between the master and apprentice. They will also monitor the progress of the apprenticeship and intervene in disputes when necessary.

Upon passage of this bill, it can serve as a better national regulatory policy of ethical and inclusive apprenticeship. Though initiatives such as formalized contracts and legal protections have been proposed. It is imperative to understand how these measures can be implemented within Nigeria’s informal economy. Market unions and trade associations, which are already pivotal in resolving trade disputes, can function as guardians of formal agreements. They will facilitate compliance from both parties concerning the stipulated terms. Furthermore, enforcement should involve local government institutions and traditional councils, which possess considerable legitimacy within their communities. This integrative strategy will help to combine statutory law with traditional authority. Hence, it presents a viable avenue for ethical reforms within the informal apprenticeship framework in Nigeria.

Successful Insight: Germany’s Dual Apprenticeship Model

The German dual apprenticeship system is a very successful model and can give important lessons to reform the Igbo Apprenticeship system.  This System in Germany is a mix of classroom work and on training. The German dual apprenticeship is based on robust agreements with industries and national standards in order to bring consistency.  A solid database is also provided by the Federal Institute of Vocational Education and Training (BIBB). This database monitors training policy, training period, and employment profile. Also, dispute resolution and certification mechanisms assured the effectiveness of this model. Porting these models to be used in the Igbo system would demand some sensitivity to culture. However, the factors of standardized contracts, certification, and state control can be introduced without compromising the values of tradition. These comparative lessons demonstrate that reforming the system of Igbo is possible and is worthwhile as long as reforms can be properly adapted.

Sustainable Development Goal 5 and the Need for Reform

Sustainable Development Goal 5 advocates for gender equality and empowerment. Abasilim, Ogbobeta & Jesuleye (2024) revealed that in a nation like Nigeria, male dominance prevails in governance, often at the expense of marginalized women. Aligning the Igbo Apprenticeship system with SDG 5 requires reforms that eliminate gender discrimination laws. This reform will expand women’s participation in government and access to legal counsel (UN, 2021). Leal et al (2021) posited that Gender equality is inextricably related to the global push to accomplish the Sustainable Development Goals. Nigeria’s ongoing gender gap highlights the urgency for such reforms. The global gender gap index 2025 report shows that Iceland (92.6%, 1^st) continues to lead for 16 consecutive years. However, Finland (87.9%, 2^nd), Norway (86.3%, 3^rd), the United Kingdom (83.8%, 4^th), New Zealand (82.7%, 5^th), and Sweden (81.7%, 6^th) have regularly performed well (WEF, 2025). These instances show that targeted efforts can result in significant progress in developing economies like Nigeria.

Integrating women into the Igbo apprenticeship framework can unlock their potential and enhance socio-economic developments in Nigeria. To foster this, it is imperative that community leaders, market associations, and religious organizations engage actively in the process. For instance, trade unions could establish minimum representation quotas for female apprentices. Non-governmental organizations may provide sponsorship for women pursuing careers in unconventional sectors as automotive repair or electronics. Furthermore, community educational initiatives can work to dismantle prevailing stereotypes regarding women’s inclusivity. The implementation of these strategies has the potential to cultivate a culture of inclusivity within the Igbo apprenticeship model

METHODOLOGY

This study employed a qualitative research design, a content analysis approach, to be specific. The research study was based on a systematic review of existing literature on the subject matter, government reports, legal instruments, and documentation to investigate ethical practices and gender inclusion within the Igbo apprenticeship system. This method was chosen due to its effectiveness in revealing underlying themes, cultural patterns, and regulatory gaps surrounding the subject matter.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The findings of the study reveal ethical issues affecting both masters and apprentices. Past studies have mainly focused on maltreatment and exploitation of apprentices by masters. However, this study establishes that apprentices are also capable of insubordination to their masters. Findings show that the lack of formal agreements to govern ethical practices also fuels the continuity of these conflicts. This aligns with the study of Onyeiwu (2024) and Ekpenisi et al. (2024), who pointed out the vulnerability of trust-based verbal arrangements of the Igbo apprenticeship system. Findings also showed that gender discrimination was prevalent in this system. The Igbo apprenticeship system is not easily accessible to women. This challenge is attributed to cultural beliefs that restrain women to domestic roles. Over time, there have been significant advancements in the labor participation of women in Nigeria. Despite that, the Igbo apprenticeship structure on gender inclusion has not changed. There is still a presence of cultural beliefs that do not allow women to enter the necessary entrepreneurial channels (Aladejebi 2020; Agbogu & Igbokwe, 2015). Findings also showed that there is an absence of legal regulation guiding the Igbo apprenticeship system. Section 49 of the Nigerian Labor Act did not capture the informal nature of the Igbo apprenticeship system. The Igbo apprenticeship system is conducted without any written contract or legal safeguards. Yet, recent solutions suggest themselves to fill in those holes, such as the Anambra State Igbo Apprenticeship Bill 2024. This bill provides for the establishment of an Igbo Apprenticeship Council as an oversight body. This council will ensure registration and master-apprentice formal agreements are captured using a database. The bill also provides for a specific apprenticeship duration and dispute resolution through the Council. The establishment of a centralized database and an Igbo Apprenticeship Council will enhance enforcement. Germany’s successful dual apprenticeship system of education and hands-on training can serve as a framework for the Igbo apprenticeship system reform.

CONCLUSION

This study concludes that while the Igbo apprenticeship system remains an effective tool for entrepreneurship and youth empowerment, its continued relevance is threatened by ethical issues, gender exclusion, and a lack of legal structure. The informal nature of the model, once its strength, now exposes both masters and apprentices to abuse and exploitation. Women remain marginalized due to entrenched societal stereotypes, and legal instruments meant to regulate apprenticeships are largely ineffective within the informal sector. To retain its economic and cultural relevance, the system must undergo reform aligned with global development standards like the SDGs. The uniqueness of this study lies in its dual analysis of ethics and gender, offering a more integrative perspective than existing literature.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings, the following recommendations were made. First, ethical business practices should be institutionalized by formalizing master-apprentice agreements. These should be documented, witnessed, and monitored by trade associations or government agencies. Orientation programs should also teach ethical obligations and dispute resolution mechanisms. Second, gender inclusion must be deliberately promoted. Cultural awareness campaigns and policy support can help break stereotypes. Women should be given access to apprenticeships, particularly in male-dominated sectors. Support from NGOs and state programs can enhance gender inclusivity. Finally, legal reform is essential. The Anambra State Apprenticeship Bill 2024, which provides for compulsory education, a written contract, and legal protections for all participants, should be adopted nationwide. Adoption of electronic applications for contract registration should be encouraged. Collaboration between the trade associations, government and traditional institutions will help grassroot enforcement and preserve cultural integrity, while implementing modern labor standards.

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