Work Design, Work-Family Conflict and Mental Health – A Case of National Police Service Officers in South-Rift, Kenya

Work Design, Work-Family Conflict and Mental Health – A Case of National Police Service Officers in South-Rift, Kenya

¹Benjamin Bett Cheruiyot., ²Prof. Williter Rop., ³Dr. Lucy Jumah

¹PhD Student, University of Kabianga

²Associates Professor, School of Business and Economics, University of Kabianga

³Senior Lecturer, School of Business and Economics, University of Kabianga

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000427

Received: 11 September 2025; Accepted: 17 September 2025; Published: 14 October 2025

ABSTRACT

The focus of the study was to examine the nexus between employee work design, work-family conflict and mental health of Kenya National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya. The study was motivated by the concerns on Kenya National Police Service officers’ mental health despite the various approaches to enhance their working conditions. The study adopted correlational and cross-sectional research design. A sample size of 384 respondents were selected from a target population of 13,230 using multi-stage sampling technique and simple random technique. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. A pilot study was conducted on the data collection instrument to pre-test its validity before the main survey, while data reliability was measured using Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient. The study showed significant negative associations between work design and mental health of Kenya National Police officers. Moreover, work-family conflict significantly moderated the link between work design and mental health. The study concludes that addressing mental health requires improvement of employee work design. Given the findings, the study recommends redesigning police roles to enhance autonomy and employee support. Furthermore, family-inclusive counseling and flexible policies are essential to mitigate conflict spillovers.

Key words: Employee, mental health, work design, work-family conflict

INTRODUCTION

The work design is a critical element to employees as it directly impacts their motivation, satisfaction, performance and wellbeing. Work design is crucial, and it involves structuring tasks and responsibilities to align with the unique demands of policing. Effective work design for police officers includes clear delineation of roles, appropriate deployment of resources, and access to continuous training and skill development to enhance their capabilities in handling diverse situations (Jetelina, et al., 2020). Employees, across the fields, seek work environments that offer flexibility in work design. A good work design eliminates confusion and frustration, thus ensuring efficient workflows and balanced work-loads for employees. As societal awareness around mental health issues continue to rise, there is an increasing demand for better work design that prioritizes employee well-being (Søvold, et al., 2021). Simultaneously, there is a call for policies and practices that acknowledge and support the integration of work and family responsibilities, understanding that a healthy work-life balance is essential for mental well-being (Smith, Fisher, & Ramprogus, 2022). The demand for these improvements stems from a collective understanding that a harmonious and supportive work environment contributes not only to increased job satisfaction and productivity but also plays a pivotal role in reducing the prevalence of mental health issues among employees.

Globally, the mental health problems have been on the increase leading to untimely death, suicides, strokes and other health complications among employees. In the United States of America (USA), work conditions often exhibit a demanding work culture with long hours, limited vacation time and a focus on productivity (Azevedo, Shi, Medina, & Bagwell, 2022). This intense work design can contribute to higher stress levels, burnout and negatively impact mental health.

While some countries have made efforts to address work-related mental health, cultural norms and stigmas around mental health care can hinder progress. In Korea, a study by Park et al., (2020) reveals that skewed work design was associated with negative mental well-being among employees. This is due to increase in stress level and mental health issues associated with insensitive work design.

Statement of the Problem

The importance of mental health of employees in organizations cannot be overemphasized. Good mental health and stability of employees assist both the organization and employees to achieve their full potential. The mental health of police officers is important in enabling them to effectively discharge their key mandate of maintaining law and order. However, there are rising cases of suicides, homicides and general brutality involving police officers across Kenya as revealed by the Kenya National Police Service reports. Police officers operate in dynamic and high-stakes environments, often facing unpredictable situations that need quick decision-making and response. The work conditions for police officers involve a combination of physical and mental demands that require resilience, adaptability and comprehensive support systems to ensure their well-being and effectiveness in serving the community. This aspect points to the increase in work stress and mental illness resulting to physical and mental paralysis and loss of life among other health complications. There is a general outcry of mental health stress affecting the National Police Service officers which might be linked to working hours. If this worrying trend is allowed to persist, it may lead to loss of more lives and increased cases of mental health deterioration among the National Police Service officers; and consequently negating their responsibility of safeguarding the Kenyan population. Limited studies have been carried out on working conditions and particularly work design, and mental health of National Police Service officers, particularly in South Rift, Kenya. Hence, little is known about the relationship of work design, work-family conflict and mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya. Therefore, there was need to carry out a study on the relationship of work design, work-family conflict and mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya. This study helped to identify the most significant employee work designs critical for the mental wellbeing of the National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya, and consequently informs formulation of policies that helped in creating more supportive employee working conditions related to work designs, work family-family conflict and mental health.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to establish the relationship between employee work design, work-family conflict and mental health of Kenya National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.

Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following objectives:

1. i) To examine the relationship between workload and mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.
2. ii) To evaluate the relationship between feedback and the mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.

• iii) To assess the relationship between job rotation and the mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.

1. iv) To examine the moderating effect of work-family conflict on the relationship between work design and mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study may be beneficial to the Kenya National Police Service as it may help in improving the working conditions of the police officers and consequently reducing mental health cases among the officers. Additionally, the study may provide more information that may be adopted by other employees who encounter trauma and unfavourable work situations since it may recommend solutions to work related mental health conditions. The Kenya National Police Service may gain more insight on how to solve the problem of increase in mental health cases as well as find strategies that can be applied to reduce the effect on individual police officers.

The study may also assist in development of policies and legislation that may promote work-life balance as well as stress management practices in solving mental, psychological and emotion related problems. Mental health research holds immense significance for policymakers and legislators as it provides vital evidence-based insights crucial for informed decision-making and policy formulation. Understanding the solution to the rising cases of mental health issues within Kenya National Police Service aids policymakers in identifying priority areas for intervention and resource allocation.

The study may also benefit scholars and researchers as it may offer more information that may assist in research work. The study may provide necessary literature for researchers as well as new areas of research, while on the other hand the scholar may also gain new knowledge.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Empirical Literature

Daniels, Gedikli, Semkina, and Vaughn (2017) looked at well-being, work practices, and job design. The goal of the study was to investigate the effects of alternative employment practices on workers’ performance and well-being, either as tools for or in addition to job redesign. The study used a systematic review of thirty-three intervention studies. The findings showed that job redesign in conjunction with training, system-wide strategies that simultaneously improve job design and a variety of other employment practices, and teaching employees to improve their own occupations can all lead to increased well-being and performance. Additionally, it was discovered that the data was insufficient to draw solid conclusions about the benefits of managers receiving training in job redesign and that the outcomes of using participatory ways to enhance work design were inconsistent. Worker involvement and engagement with interventions, managerial commitment to interventions, and integration of interventions with other organisational processes were all linked to successful intervention implementation. The current study focused on the correlation between employee work design and mental health.

Theoretical Literature

This study was guided by the following theories: Spillover Theory, Work-Family Border Theory, Person-Environment Fit Theory (P-E Fit Theory) and Two Factor Theory.

Spillover Theory

The Spillover Theory, proposed by Campbell and expanded by Marks, posits that experiences in one domain of life can influence or “spill over” into another domain, thereby affecting various aspects of an individual’s well-being. The theory suggests that the boundary between work and family life is permeable, and events in one sphere can have repercussions in another. Hence, the conditions under which the spillover between the work microsystem and the family microsystem is positive or negative (Rosa, 2023). Research documents that if work-family interactions are rigidly structured in time and space, then spillover in terms of time, energy and behavior is generally negative. Research also supports the notion that work flexibility, which enables individuals to integrate and overlap work and family responsibilities in time and space, leads to positive spillover and is instrumental in achieving healthy work and family balance.

Mental health is a critical aspect influenced by the Spillover Theory. Positive spillover from fulfilling work or positive family experiences can contribute to better mental health outcomes. Conversely, unresolved stressors or conflicts in one domain may spill over into the other, potentially contributing to mental health challenges. Therefore, the Spillover Theory highlights the interconnectedness of work and non-work domains in individuals’ lives.

Work-Family Border Theory

According to Clark (2000), Work-Family Border Theory is based on the idea that individuals actively manage and negotiate the boundaries between their work and family domains. The theory suggests that individuals establish mental and physical boundaries to navigate the demands and responsibilities in both work and family life. It highlights the distinct nature of workplace and home, acknowledging their potential influences on each other (Hughes & Silver, 2020).

Work-Family Border Theory is relevant to understanding employee work design in relation to mental health of employees. The theory emphasizes the importance of flexibility and autonomy in allowing individuals to manage and balance their work and family responsibilities effectively. A supportive work design that recognizes and accommodates the needs of employees in balancing work and family can contribute to positive outcomes for both the individual and the organization (Peeters, Van Steenbergen, & Ybema, 2020).

Person-Environment Fit Theory (P-E Fit Theory)

The Person-Environment Fit (P-E Fit) Theory suggests that when there is alignment between an individual’s personality and the demands and nature of work, positive outcomes such as job satisfaction, performance, and well-being are more likely to occur (Aryanti, Sari, & Widiana, 2020). Individuals seek work designs that align with their personality types. The overarching tenet of P-E Fit Theory is that individuals are more likely to thrive and perform optimally when there is congruence between their personal characteristics and the characteristics and nature of their work.

Within this developmental perspective, Person-Environment Fit Theory, postulates that the combination of an individual’s developmental stage and the work design produces adaptive change within the individual (Ketkaew, Manglakakeeree, & Naruetharadhol, 2020). Additionally, everyone has a work design with which they are most compatible. Being fit for a given work design means that a person’s characteristics match those of a particular environment. A person’s characteristics include their beliefs, values, personality, needs, and interests. According to Lewin, an individual’s behavior is dependent on their characteristics and environment. Therefore, optimal behavior is only achieved if the person’s characteristics and environment are a fit.

Two Factor Theory of Fredrick Hersberg

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory identifies two distinct categories of motivation, namely: motivators and hygiene factors. Herzberg Theory explains that the two factors are independent and does not affect the other (Alrawahi, Sellgren, Altouby, Alwahaibi, & Brommels, 2020).

The tenet of the Two-Factor Theory revolves around the idea that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not two ends of the same continuum but rather separate phenomena influenced by different sets of factors. Motivators, such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility, contribute positively to job satisfaction, whereas hygiene factors, like working conditions, salary and company policies, primarily prevent dissatisfaction when present but do not significantly contribute to satisfaction.

The theory shows that individual likes and dislikes of particular aspects at work are, more often than not, as a result of reactions at the same time to the same factors. Poor performance is as a result of lack of motivators. The effect of “hygiene” needs is temporary. The absence of “hygiene” needs makes an individual unhappy, in the presence of the same needs, the effect is not being held. This means that “hygiene” needs are only felt when in times of scarcity and no effect in times of plenty (Bristle, 2023).  Therefore, if hygiene factors are lacking, it may contribute to stress and dissatisfaction, potentially affecting mental health negatively.

Conceptual Framework

This reveals the relationship between independent, moderating and dependent variables. It is an illustration of variables and study objectives, Mugenda and Mugenda (2013). The study considered family responsibilities and social network as moderators.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Source: Researcher, 2025

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study adopted correlational and cross-sectional research design. Correlational research examines the degree of association between variables, aiming to identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships (Mohajan, 2020). Cross-sectional research design, on the other hand, analyzes data collected at a single point in time, seeking to understand associations between variables within a specific population. This design was appropriate due to the constant changes in the deployments and postings of National Polices Service officers from one area to another. Both designs enabled the researcher to explore relationships and patterns in a non-experimental setting, and facilitating the identification of potential connections.

The target population comprised of 13,230 Kenya National Polices Service officers across the five counties in the South-Rift Region: Nakuru, Kericho, Bomet, Narok and Kajiado Counties. The distribution of the target population of the study is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Target Population

Source: Kenya National Police Service Report, 2023

Sample Size and Sampling Procedures

Sample size refers to the number of individual subjects or units included in a research study or survey. The sample size was determined using Cochran’s formula, a standard method for estimating sample sizes in large populations (Cochran, 1977). The study adopted a confidence level of 95%, a margin of error of 5%, population proportion of 50% and population size of 13,230.

A sample size of 384 study participants was selected using multi-stage simple random sampling technique. The size of sample population from the five counties were based on proportion of the target population. Counties formed the first stage of sampling to select sub-counties. Sub-counties then formed the second stage of sampling to select police stations/posts. Police stations/posts then formed the third stage of sampling to select individual police officers who formed the sample population. In the three stages, samples were picked using simple random method in order to give equal chances to all sub-counties, police stations and National Police Service officers in the region. The study sample framework is shown on Table 2.

Table 2: Sample Framework

Source: Adopted and Modified from Kenya National Police Service Report, 2023

Data Collection Instruments

Primary data, that is qualitative and quantitative, was obtained using structured questionnaires. Structured questionnaires are a fundamental tool for primary data collection, offering a systematic approach to gather information in a standardized format (Aithal & Aithal, 2020).

A pilot test for the study was done by carrying out a mock research in Nandi County and data entered into Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS). This assisted to confirm the suitability of the research instrument.

Testing for Validity and Reliability

According to Sürücü and Maslakci (2020), validity refers to accuracy of research instrument. Validating the efficacy of structured questionnaires is paramount in ensuring robust research outcomes. Construct validity was achieved through questionnaire’s alignment with the intended theoretical constructs, and a comprehensive literature review. Face validity, ensures that the questionnaire appears relevant and comprehensive. This was achieved through pilot testing and expert evaluation.

Reliability is crucial in ensuring the consistency and stability of measurements within structured questionnaires (Sürücü & Maslakci, 2020). The current study adopted Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient to assess internal consistency by indicating how closely related a set of items within the questionnaire. A higher Cronbach’s Alpha value of above 0.7 suggests stronger internal consistency among the items, indicating that they measure the same underlying construct reliably.

Data Collection Procedures

A questionnaire was used in collecting primary data for the study. It was structured to capture the study objectives and indicators. After data collection, the collected responses underwent meticulous scrutiny, including data entry, verification, and cleaning to rectify any inconsistencies or errors. Statistical Package for Social Science was used to aid in organizing and analyzing the data to identify relationships within the dataset.

Data Analysis and Presentation

Data analysis for quantitative research involves utilizing descriptive and inferential statistical methods to derive insights and draw conclusions from the collected data (Cooksey, 2020). Descriptive statistics was used to provide a summary of the central tendency and variability within the dataset, offering a clear understanding of the distribution and characteristics of the variables. Inferential statistical techniques were also adopted where simple linear, multiple linear, and moderated multiple regression models were utilized to examine direct and moderated relationships between variables.

Research Findings and Discussions

The researcher began the questionnaire by seeking demographic information from the respondents to reveal their suitability in providing relevant information for the study. The following areas were covered under basic information:

Demographic Information

Gender

Table 3. Gender of Respondents

Table 3 shows that 235 respondents (71.0%) were male and 96 respondents (29.0%) were female. This gender imbalance reflects the traditional male dominance in policing roles in Kenya, though the increasing female participation indicates gradual progress toward gender inclusivity in law enforcement.

Age Distribution

Table 4. Age Bracket

From Table 4, the largest proportion of respondents were aged 30–40 years (47.1%), followed closely by those aged 40–50 years (40.2%), while only 4.2% were above 50 years and 8.5% were below 30 years. This indicates that the majority of police officers in South Rift are in their mid-career stages, likely possessing considerable experience in policing but also facing heightened work and family pressures that could influence their mental health.

Level of Education

Table 5: Education Level

Table 5 reveals that 60.4% of respondents attained secondary education (Form Four), while 26.6% held Bachelor’s degrees and 5.a% had Master’s degrees. A smaller proportion held certificates (6.2%) and diplomas (1.5%). The predominance of secondary-level education aligns with the historical minimum recruitment requirements for police service in Kenya, though the presence of degree and postgraduate holders indicates improved professional qualifications among officers.

Duration of Service

Table 6: Duration of Working with Kenya Police

According to Table 6, 32.6% of respondents had worked between 6–10 years, followed by 22.1% with 11–15 years and 21.8% with 16–20 years of service. Only 13.3% had served for less than five years, while 10.3% had served for over 20 years. This suggests a workforce with diverse experience levels, providing insights into how long-term service and accumulated stressors may relate to mental health outcomes.

Position in Kenya Police

Table 7: Position in Kenya Police

As shown in Table 7, the majority of respondents were junior-level officers (56.8%), followed by middle-level officers (32.6%) and senior-level officers (10.6%). This reflects the hierarchical structure of the police service, where junior-level officers form the operational backbone of policing activities. It also suggests that perspectives on working conditions and mental health predominantly represent officers in operational and supervisory roles.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics were used to summarize responses on the study variables, providing insight into the central tendencies and variability of opinions among National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya. The analysis was based on mean scores and standard deviations derived from responses on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 represented Strongly Disagree and 5 represented Strongly Agree.

Work Design

Work design was measured using six indicators, as shown in Table 8.

Table 8: Work Design Results

Key: 1 – Strongly Disagree (SD); 2 – Disagree (D); 3 – Neutral (N); 4 – Agree (A); 5 – Strongly Agree (SA).

The overall mean score for work design was 3.64 (SD = 0.554), suggesting that respondents generally agreed that their work design was moderately supportive of their duties and responsibilities. The relatively low standard deviation indicates that there was reasonable agreement among respondents regarding their perceptions of work design. The findings suggest that although work design within the police service generally supports skill utilization and equitable workload, opportunities for improvement exist in workload distribution and rotational practices to enhance job satisfaction and mental well-being.

Work-Family Conflict

Work-Family Conflict which is a moderating variable in this study was assessed using four indicators, as summarize in Table 9.

Table 9: Work-Family Conflict

Key: 1 – Strongly Disagree (SD); 2 – Disagree (D); 3 – Neutral (N); 4 – Agree (A); 5 – Strongly Agree (SA).

The overall mean score for this variable was 3.41 (SD = 0.883), indicating moderate agreement among officers that they manage to balance family obligations with work demands, albeit with noticeable challenges in certain aspects. The relatively low standard deviation demonstrates consistent perceptions across respondents. The results reveal a duality in work-family dynamics: strong family understanding and support coexist with significant work interference in family life. This dynamic positions work-family conflict as a critical moderating factor that can either buffer or exacerbate the mental health impacts of challenging working conditions.

Mental Health

Mental health among police officers was assessed using seven indicators focusing on emotional well-being, psychological disorders, and maladaptive coping behaviors.

Table 10: Mental Health Results

Key: 1 – Strongly Disagree (SD); 2 – Disagree (D); 3 – Neutral (N); 4 – Agree (A); 5 – Strongly Agree (SA).

The construct recorded a high overall mean score of 4.31 (SD = 0.698), indicating that most respondents strongly acknowledged the prevalence of mental health challenges within the National Police Service in South Rift. The relatively low standard deviation reflects a high level of consensus among officers regarding these issues. The results emphasize the urgent need for targeted mental health interventions, including counseling services, stress management programs, routine psychological assessments, and policies addressing work-related trauma to safeguard officer well-being and operational effectiveness.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics were employed to examine the nature and strength of relationships among the study variables and to test the research hypotheses. The analyses conducted included Pearson correlation analysis to establish bivariate associations and simple and multiple regression analyses to determine the predictive power of independent variables on the dependent variable (mental health) and test the moderating effect of work-family conflict.

Pearson Correlation Analysis

Pearson correlation analysis was used to determine the linear associations between the independent variables (workload, feedback, and job rotation), the moderating variable (work-family conflict), and the dependent variable (mental health).

Table 11: Pearson Correlation Coefficient Results

Key: WL- Workload, FB- Feedback, JR- Job Rotation, WFC- Work-Life Conflict, MH- Mental Health.

The results reveal that workload (r = –0.522, p < 0.01) has statistically significant negative relationship with mental health, suggesting that excessive workload is associated with increased psychological strain among officers. Conversely, feedback (r = 0.465, p < 0.01) and job rotation (r = 0.556, p < 0.01) shows a statistically significant positive relationship with mental health, implying that inefficient feedback and lack of job rotation, are strongly associated with poor mental health outcomes. The moderating variable, work-family conflict (r = –0.500, p < 0.01), also exhibits a statistically significant negative correlation with mental health, highlighting that increased work-family conflict exacerbates psychological distress among officers. In summary, the correlation results demonstrate strong and statistically significant associations between work design, work-family conflict, and mental health.

Test of Hypotheses

H₀: There is no statistically significant relationship between work design and mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.

Table 12: ANOVA for Work Design against Mental Health

The ANOVA results reveal that the regression model is statistically significant, F(1, 329) = 123.391, p < 0.001, indicating that work design significantly predicts mental health.

Table 13: Beta Coefficients of Work Design against Mental Health

The beta coefficients further show a negative and a statistically significant relationship between work design and mental health (β = –0.434, p < 0.001). This implies that unfavorable work design (inequitable workload, limited job rotation, or inadequate feedback mechanisms) is associated with poorer mental health outcomes among officers. Since the p-value is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis (H₀) is rejected. Therefore, there is a statistically significant negative relationship between work design and the mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift. The findings suggest that improving work design through equitable task distribution, enhancing skill variety, and fostering regular feedback could mitigate mental health challenges among officers in this region.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The primary objective of this study was to establish the relationship between employee work design, work-family conflict and mental health of Kenya National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya. Based on the results of this study, good work design supports skill utilization and consequently enhancing job satisfaction and mental well-being. The findings highlight the dual burden officers face in balancing work and family responsibilities, and the importance of holistic interventions that address both workplace and family dynamics. The findings further indicate that poor work design adversely affected the mental health of National Police Service officers in South Rift, Kenya.

Conclusions

The study concluded that poorly structured work designs marked by rigid roles, limited autonomy, and repetitive assignments significantly contribute to poor mental health outcomes among National Police Service officers. The findings demonstrated that lack of flexibility in task allocation and inadequate clarity in roles exacerbate stress, anxiety, and burnout. Additionally, police officers with high family-related pressures experienced more severe mental distress when working conditions were unfavorable.

Recommendations

The study recommends that the National Police Service undertake comprehensive job redesign initiatives that enhance role clarity and allow greater autonomy. Introducing participatory decision-making processes and rotating assignments to reduce monotony could alleviate stress and promote psychological well-being among officers. Further, programs that promote work-life balance should be instituted, such as family counseling services, peer support groups, and flexible deployment strategies. Addressing family-related stressors alongside workplace reforms will provide a comprehensive framework for enhancing police officers’ mental well-being.

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