Exploring Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Competencies: Insights from Employers of BS Entrepreneurship Graduates

Exploring Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Competencies: Insights from Employers of BS Entrepreneurship Graduates

Armie C. Sabugo., Mediah Perle F. Layaoen

Business Administration Department, Mariano Marcos State University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000404

Received: 09 September 2025; Accepted: 17 September 2025; Published: 13 October 2025

ABSTRACT

Entrepreneurship education plays a vital role in equipping graduates with the competencies needed to succeed in business creation and management. This study examined employer feedback on the importance and performance of Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) among Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship graduates, with a particular focus on gender differences. Using a descriptive research design, data were collected from 30 employers—managers, supervisors, and senior staff—who had direct supervisory experience with BS Entrepreneurship graduates. A validated questionnaire was used to assess the perceived importance and extent of performance of ten PECs, including opportunity seeking, risk-taking, commitment to the work contract, and self-confidence.

Findings revealed that most graduates were employed in well-established organizations, particularly in the construction and education sectors, and had been in their positions for less than five years. Employers perceived differences between male and female graduates in both the importance and performance of entrepreneurial competencies. Male graduates were generally viewed as exhibiting higher levels of entrepreneurial behavior, particularly in risk-taking, self-confidence, and networking, while female graduates were noted for their strong commitment and reliability in fulfilling work responsibilities.

Results indicated significant gender-based variations in employer perceptions, suggesting that societal expectations and workplace norms may influence how entrepreneurial traits are recognized and valued. Male graduates tended to be associated with assertiveness and leadership, whereas female graduates were often perceived as dependable and team-oriented.

The study underscores the importance of promoting gender-inclusive approaches in entrepreneurship education to ensure equitable recognition of competencies across genders. It recommends integrating experiential learning opportunities that allow all students to develop leadership, decision-making, and innovation skills. Strengthening partnerships between universities and employers can further align expectations, ensuring that graduates—regardless of gender—are assessed and developed based on their actual entrepreneurial capabilities rather than perceived stereotypes.

Keywords: Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies, gender differences, employer feedback, Entrepreneurship graduates, curricula improvement

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurship has emerged as a vital field of study, with numerous universities offering Bachelor of Science (BS) in Entrepreneurship programs to equip students with the necessary skills to tackle the challenges of starting and managing businesses. The competencies developed through these programs are essential for success in today’s competitive market, where skills such as opportunity recognition, risk-taking, and innovation are highly sought after by employers ^[1]. Employers play a pivotal role in evaluating the competencies of graduates, providing valuable feedback that can inform educational practices and curriculum development.

The BS in Entrepreneurship program is designed to foster an entrepreneurial mindset among students, encompassing a diverse curriculum that includes financial management, marketing, and product development ^[2]. This educational framework aims to prepare students not only for entrepreneurship but also for various roles within established organizations, thereby enhancing their employability. Research indicates that graduates with strong entrepreneurial competencies, such as creativity, strategic thinking, and effective communication, are better positioned to contribute to organizational success ^[1].

In recent years, the exploration of gender differences in entrepreneurial competencies has gained traction. Studies suggest that male and female entrepreneurs may exhibit distinct strengths and weaknesses in specific competencies, which could impact their performance and the importance they assign to various entrepreneurial skills ^[3]. However, the extent of these differences among BS Entrepreneurship graduates remains under-researched.

This paper aims to investigate employer feedback regarding the performance and importance of entrepreneurial competencies among BS Entrepreneurship graduates, with a particular focus on gender differences. By surveying employers who have hired these graduates, the study seeks to provide insights into how well these individuals meet industry expectations and identify areas for improvement within educational curricula. The findings will be instrumental in guiding universities to refine their programs, ensuring that graduates are well-prepared for the entrepreneurial challenges they will face in the workforce. Additionally, understanding gender dynamics in entrepreneurial competencies will inform the development of targeted mentoring and support programs for aspiring entrepreneurs.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies in the Workplace

Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) are essential traits that empower individuals to perform effectively in their roles and contribute to organizational success. Key competencies such as risk-taking, commitment to the work contract, demand for efficiency and quality, self-confidence, systematic planning and monitoring, persuasion and networking, goal setting, information seeking, persistence, and opportunity seeking play a critical role in enhancing workplace performance.

Risk-taking refers to the willingness to engage in uncertain situations with potential loss or failure. This mindset is crucial in dynamic environments where adaptability is key. Commitment to the work contract is considered a crucial competency as it reflects an entrepreneur’s dedication to fulfilling their responsibilities and obligations, fostering reliability and trust within their teams ^[4].  Committed employees are more likely to go above and beyond their job descriptions, contributing positively to organizational culture.

A demand for efficiency and quality drives individuals to optimize processes and ensure high standards in their work outputs. This competency promotes continuous improvement within organizations as employees actively seek ways to enhance performance while minimizing waste ^[5]. Self-confidence enables employees to believe in their abilities and make decisions with assurance, which is vital for effective leadership ^[6]. Confident employees are more likely to take initiative, voice their ideas, and inspire others.

Systematic planning and monitoring involve setting clear objectives and tracking progress toward those goals. Employees skilled in this area can manage their time effectively and adapt strategies as needed ^[7]. This competency ensures that projects remain on track and that resources are utilized efficiently. Persuasion and networking skills enable employees to build relationships that facilitate collaboration within the organization ^[8]. Effective networking can lead to new opportunities for partnerships or resource sharing, enhancing overall organizational effectiveness.

Goal setting is a fundamental aspect of personal development that drives motivation and performance. Employees who set specific, measurable goals tend to achieve higher levels of success ^[7], aligning individual objectives with organizational goals and fostering a sense of purpose. Information seeking involves actively searching for knowledge that can inform decision-making processes.

Persistence is the ability to continue striving toward goals despite obstacles or setbacks. This trait is particularly important in entrepreneurial settings where challenges are common ^[9]. Persistent employees contribute to resilience within teams and organizations. Lastly, opportunity seeking involves identifying potential avenues for growth or improvement within the organization. Employees who actively look for opportunities can drive innovation and help organizations stay competitive ^[10].

The integration of these Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies within the workplace not only enhances individual performance but also contributes significantly to organizational growth and adaptability. By fostering these competencies through training programs, supportive environments, and effective leadership practices, organizations can cultivate a workforce that is innovative, resilient, and committed to excellence.

Gender Differences in Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies

In the workplace, gender differences in the performance of Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) significantly influence organizational dynamics and outcomes. One of the most pronounced differences is risk-taking behavior. Research indicates that men often exhibit higher levels of self-confidence and are more willing to take risks compared to women ^[11]. This tendency can lead to men pursuing leadership roles or innovative projects more aggressively, while women may hesitate due to a greater fear of failure. This fear can stem from societal expectations and internalized beliefs about their capabilities, which can limit their entrepreneurial aspirations despite possessing similar competencies ^[12].

Commitment to the work contract is another area where gender differences manifest. Women often display a strong commitment to teamwork and collaboration, which enhances organizational culture and fosters a supportive work environment ^[13]. However, societal pressures regarding family responsibilities may lead women to prioritize these commitments over their professional ambitions, potentially impacting their engagement in entrepreneurial activities within the workplace ^[14]. In contrast, men may focus more on individual achievements and career progression, which can drive them to seek out entrepreneurial opportunities more aggressively.

Regarding the demand for efficiency and quality, studies suggest that women tend to excel in practical planning and attention to detail, which are crucial for maintaining high standards in business operations ^[11]. However, systemic biases can undermine women’s contributions in these areas, often leading to their efforts being overlooked or undervalued. In terms of information-seeking and networking, men often leverage broader networks that facilitate access to resources and opportunities within their organizations ^[8]. Women may have smaller networks but tend to build strong relationships within those networks. Furthermore, persistence is a critical competency where gender differences are evident; while women often demonstrate resilience in overcoming obstacles, they may be less likely than men to actively seek out new opportunities due to societal conditioning that discourages assertiveness ^[9].

Overall, while both men and women possess valuable Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies in the workplace, the performance of these competencies is influenced by various factors including societal expectations, self-efficacy beliefs, and access to resources. Addressing these disparities through targeted training programs and supportive workplace environments can help foster an inclusive entrepreneurial landscape that empowers individuals regardless of gender.

METHODOLOGY

The study employed a descriptive research design to systematically obtain information and describe the company and employment profiles, level of importance and extent of performance of the PECs among the graduates. Before data collection, the researchers obtained approval from the University Research Ethics Review Board (URERB) and engaged with local agencies and external organizations via email. Respondents were informed about the study’s purpose and assured that their responses would remain confidential and used solely for research purposes. Data collection was facilitated by employed graduates who administered online questionnaires, while some printed versions were distributed locally. Following data collection, the researchers proceeded to analyze the data.

A questionnaire was the primary instrument for data collection, divided into four parts: company profile, graduates’ employment profile, the level of importance of the PECs and their extent of performance. The questionnaire was content-validated by an employer, the Program Coordinator, and the Dean of the College. The Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies were based on studies by Management Systems International and McBer Team.

The study utilized purposive sampling, targeting 30 respondents who were managers, immediate supervisors, or senior staff familiar with the performance of BS Entrepreneurship graduates. The 30 respondents were selected from the data gathered by another group of researchers who investigated graduate tracer to ensure that only respondents with direct supervisory experience of BS Entrepreneurship graduates were included.  Data analysis involved frequencies and percentages to present company and employee profiles, and means were used to assess the level of importance and extent of performance of various competencies as perceived by the respondents. The results were tabulated and disaggregated by sex to examine potential gender differences in competencies and performance perceptions among graduates. A t-test was used to determine the difference in the importance and the performance of graduates on PECs between males and females.

RESULTS

This section presents the organizational profile and the BS Entrepreneurship graduates’ employment profile and the level of importance and extent of performance of the Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies.

Tables 1-6 shows the Company profile.

Table I Company Category

The findings indicate that the majority of the employers of the BS Entrepreneurship graduates are in the construction industry, followed by educational institutions.

Table II Years of existence

Most graduates are employed by organizations that have been in existence for over 25 years.

Table III Number of Workers

In terms of workforce size, graduates predominantly work in companies with more than 25 employees, a trend consistent across genders.

Table IV Start-up Capital

Regarding start-up capital, most employers initiated their ventures with over PhP 250,000.00.

The findings illustrate a complex landscape for BS Entrepreneurship graduates, characterized by a strong presence in traditional industries, a mix of organizational types, and a significant level of start-up capital. The emphasis on established firms may provide graduates with valuable experience, while the inclusion of newer organizations suggests a budding interest in innovation and entrepreneurship among the younger workforce. As the economy continues to evolve, these trends will likely shape the future of entrepreneurship education and the professional paths of its graduates.

Tables 5 to 7 shows the employee profile.

Table V Number of Years in the Company

The majority of BS Entrepreneurship graduates, regardless of gender, have been employed for less than five years, indicating that they are still relatively new to their positions. This presents an opportune time to assess the competencies they acquired during their studies. Furthermore, most graduates, both male and female, are already permanent, suggesting they have met the requirements to become regular employees within their respective organizations.  Similarly, given their short tenure, most graduates currently occupy rank-and-file positions, a trend consistent across genders.

The short tenure of these graduates suggests they are still navigating the transition from academia to the professional world, facing a steep learning curve. One research highlights that early career experiences are crucial in shaping future professional development ^[15]. Therefore, evaluating the competencies developed during their studies is essential, as these will influence their effectiveness in their current roles and potential for advancement.

Table VI Statis of Employment

The observation that most graduates, regardless of gender, have achieved permanent employment status is a positive indicator of their employability and the demand for their skills in the labor market. Achieving regular employment suggests that these graduates have met the performance criteria set by their employers, which may include demonstrating relevant skills, adaptability, and a strong work ethic ^[16].  This stability can provide graduates with a solid foundation for further career development and opportunities for professional growth.

Table VII Number of Years in the Company

Most graduates currently occupy rank-and-file positions, reflecting a common entry point for individuals entering the workforce. This trend is consistent across genders, indicating that both male and female graduates are likely to start in similar roles as they build their experience. Rank-and-file positions often serve as a critical stepping stone, allowing graduates to gain practical experience, develop professional networks, and enhance their skill sets. In a study, the majority of business graduates also occupy rank-and-file positions ^[17].  Over time, these experiences can lead to promotions and more advanced roles within their organizations.

Table VIII Level of Importance of the Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies

Employers rated the PECs of male graduates as “extremely important,” with an overall mean of 4.68, while female graduates’ PECs were rated as “very important,” with an overall mean of 4.36. These findings suggest that employers’ perceptions, rather than direct measures of actual competence, may influence how male and female graduates are appraised in terms of entrepreneurial potential and workplace value.

Employers rated risk-taking and self-confidence highest among male graduates. This pattern reflects common perceptions that men are more willing to take risks and assert themselves in business settings—traits traditionally associated with entrepreneurial success. Risk-taking is often regarded as essential for driving innovation, as individuals who embrace uncertainty tend to challenge norms and pursue new opportunities ^[18]. However, this association may reflect societal expectations rather than actual performance differences. Research has shown that while men are often perceived as greater risk-takers, women are equally capable of making calculated, evidence-based decisions that also lead to innovation and business sustainability ^[19]. Hence, the higher importance employers place on male graduates’ risk-taking may indicate a bias toward visible assertiveness rather than an objective assessment of entrepreneurial ability.

Similarly, self-confidence was viewed as particularly extremely important for male graduates. Employers may associate self-confidence with leadership effectiveness and decision-making capability, leading to a perception that confident men are more competent leaders ^[20]. This perception often creates a self-reinforcing cycle, where men exhibiting confidence are more likely to be entrusted with leadership roles, thus gaining further experience and recognition. Conversely, female graduates may face implicit bias, as societal stereotypes sometimes question women’s leadership abilities despite comparable levels of competence ^[21]. This demonstrates that employers’ evaluations may emphasize perceived confidence rather than demonstrated capability, perpetuating gender disparities in entrepreneurial advancement.

Interestingly, commitment to the work contract was rated “extremely important” for female graduates (mean = 4.63). This suggests that employers view women as dependable, hardworking, and collaborative—qualities consistent with [13] findings that women tend to be perceived as strong team players who value cooperation and consistency. While this perception is positive, it may also limit women to supportive or administrative roles, as employers may overlook their potential for leadership and innovation.

For both male and female graduates, systematic planning and monitoring were rated as “very important,” reflecting recognition that these competencies are universally relevant to entrepreneurial success. The convergence in ratings suggests that employers equally value structured thinking and strategic execution among graduates, regardless of gender.

Table IX Extent of Performance of the Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies

The assessment of the extent of performance of entrepreneurial competencies among BS Entrepreneurship graduates reveals a notable difference between male and female employees as evaluated by their employers. Male graduates were rated to perform these competencies to a “very great extent” with a mean of 4.72, while female graduates were rated to perform them to a “great extent” with a mean of 4.11. This indicates that employers perceive male graduates as demonstrating stronger entrepreneurial competencies in their current professional positions.

The male graduates, who were employed as purchasing staff, product quality staff, warehousemen, assistant branch managers, bookkeepers, sales executives, and co-owners, exhibited high levels of performance particularly in risk-taking, persuasion and networking, commitment to the work contract, and persistence. These competencies are essential for roles that require decision-making under uncertainty, strategic negotiation, and proactive engagement—characteristics often associated with entrepreneurial success.

Risk-taking—defined as the willingness to engage in activities that involve uncertainty and potential loss—is a cornerstone of entrepreneurial behavior ^[22]. Empirical studies have shown that men generally score higher in risk-taking than women, partly due to cultural and social norms that associate risk propensity and assertiveness with masculinity ^[23]. Consequently, male graduates occupying decision-oriented positions, such as assistant branch manager or sales executive, are perceived to perform at a higher level in managing uncertain business conditions.

Moreover, persuasion and networking emerged as competencies where male graduates also excelled. These are critical in positions involving customer relations, supplier coordination, and stakeholder engagement. Men tend to possess broader social networks and are often more assertive in their communication, which facilitates effective persuasion and business relationship-building ^[24]. Such competencies align with their performance in sales and managerial roles.

Conversely, while female graduates were rated to perform their entrepreneurial competencies to a great extent, their slightly lower performance rating may stem from societal expectations that discourage risk-taking and assertive behavior among women ^[25]. Nonetheless, their strong sense of commitment and reliability reflects consistent and structured performance in their assigned duties—qualities that are equally vital to entrepreneurial success, especially in organizational settings requiring attention to detail and compliance with work contracts.

Commitment to the work contract reflects an employee’s dedication to fulfilling responsibilities, meeting obligations, and demonstrating reliability in their assigned roles. Employers rated this competency as performed to a very great extent among male BS Entrepreneurship graduates, indicating that male employees are perceived as highly dependable and consistent in executing their work duties. This high level of performance may be attributed to their positions—such as assistant branch manager, warehouseman, bookkeeper, and purchasing staff—which require adherence to procedures, accountability, and sustained performance standards. Although previous research has noted that women tend to exhibit strong commitment in collaborative and team-oriented environments  ^[13], the current findings suggest that male graduates, within the context of their job placements, demonstrate exceptional work contract commitment. This may be linked to traditional gender expectations that associate men with career stability and professional reliability ^[25].  Consequently, employers may interpret the consistent attendance, task completion, and long-term dedication of male employees as indicators of higher contractual commitment.

Table X Difference on the Importance of Personal Entrepreneurial  Competencies between male and female

The analysis reveals a statistically significant difference in how employers perceive the importance of Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) between male and female BS Entrepreneurship graduates (p = 0.017). Employers rated the importance of PECs among male graduates (M = 4.8280) higher than among female graduates (M = 4.1610). This indicates that, from the employers’ perspective, entrepreneurial competencies are considered more essential or more evident among male graduates in the workplace.

This difference may reflect varying expectations or observed behaviors in professional settings. Employers may perceive male graduates as demonstrating stronger entrepreneurial traits such as assertiveness, opportunity seeking, and risk-taking—competencies traditionally associated with entrepreneurial success. Conversely, female graduates may exhibit different expressions of these competencies, such as collaborative decision-making, adaptability, or empathy, which employers may not always equate with traditional entrepreneurial characteristics.

The findings suggest that gender perceptions continue to play a role in how entrepreneurial competencies are valued and recognized in actual work environments. Thus, entrepreneurship education programs may benefit from reinforcing gender-inclusive approaches that highlight diverse expressions of PECs and sensitize employers to appreciate these competencies equally across male and female graduates.

Table XI Difference on the Performance of Personal Entrepreneurial  Competencies between male and female

The results show a statistically significant difference in the performance of Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) between male and female BS Entrepreneurship graduates as rated by their employers (p = 0.034). Male graduates obtained a higher mean performance score (M = 4.7000) compared to female graduates (M = 4.0950), indicating that employers perceived male graduates to demonstrate stronger entrepreneurial competencies in the workplace.

This finding suggests that male graduates are viewed as more capable in exhibiting key entrepreneurial behaviors such as initiative, persistence, and opportunity seeking, which may contribute to better overall performance evaluations. On the other hand, the relatively lower ratings for female graduates may be influenced by differences in role expectations, communication styles, or workplace dynamics that affect how their entrepreneurial performance is perceived.

The result reinforces the notion that gender-related perceptions continue to shape employers’ evaluation of entrepreneurial performance. Consequently, this highlights the need for educational institutions and organizations to promote gender equity and awareness in recognizing and nurturing entrepreneurial competencies across all graduates.

This study was limited by its small sample size (n = 30) and the use of purposive sampling, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to all employers of BS Entrepreneurship graduates.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings reveal a multifaceted journey for BS Entrepreneurship graduates. With a strong presence in traditional industries and a growing interest in innovative and entrepreneurial roles, these graduates face a complex professional landscape. The fact that they have only been in their current positions for a short time suggests that they are in the process of transitioning from academic theory to practical application, emphasizing the importance of the skills they learned while studying. Achieving permanent employment status demonstrates their employability and the value of their skills in the labor market, providing a solid foundation for future career advancement. Rank-and-file positions, which are frequently their entry point, provide valuable opportunities to gain experience, network, and improve their skills, paving the way for future advancements. In essence, the early professional experiences of BS Entrepreneurship graduates are critical. As they adapt and grow, the skills and competencies they dev

The study also reveals a significant disparity in how employers perceive the level of importance of the PECs of male and female graduates. Such perceptions can have lasting consequences: males may be fast-tracked into leadership and innovation roles, while women—despite equal competence—may be confined to supportive positions. This undermines the potential of female graduates and perpetuates inequality in entrepreneurial ecosystems.

The employers’ perceptions of the extent of performance of the PECs among BS Entrepreneurship graduates are shaped not only by observed performance but also by gendered expectations. When male graduates are placed in roles that demand assertiveness and strategic decision-making, they are more likely to be seen as entrepreneurial.

To address these perception gaps, the BS Entrepreneurship program should continue to provide gender-inclusive experiential learning opportunities that allow both male and female students to practice leadership, decision-making, and risk-taking in authentic entrepreneurial settings such as business plan preparation and implementation. The program should also regularly map graduate employment to assess whether current work roles provide sufficient opportunities for the performance of PECs. This can be integrated into the regular alumni tracer activity of the program. Developing a rubric to evaluate the alignment between job functions and entrepreneurial competencies can also guide both program enhancement and employer engagement.

The BS Entrepreneurship program shall ensure that all graduates—regardless of gender—are equally encouraged and evaluated based on competence rather than perception to strengthen the entrepreneurial ecosystem and support inclusive growth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors express their gratitude to Mariano Marcos State University for funding the research on Employers’ Feedback on the Performance of BS Entrepreneurship Graduates. They are also grateful to the employers who contributed time and effort to completing the questionnaires and to the alumni who helped distribute and collect the questionnaires.

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