The Experience and Efficacy of Digital Diplomacy in the Conduct of Kenya’s Foreign Policy

The Experience and Efficacy of Digital Diplomacy in the Conduct of Kenya’s Foreign Policy

Kiplagat K. Ian^*, Dr. Kurgat K. Paul, Dr. Matui N. Bramwel

Department of History, Political Science and Public Administration, Moi University, Kenya.

^*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000605

Received: 20 September 2025; Accepted: 26 September 2025; Published: 22 October 2025

ABSTRACT

Digital diplomacy has reshaped traditional diplomatic practices by incorporating emerging technologies into foreign policy practices. The article examines Kenya’s experience by highlighting how various digital platforms enhance transparency, public participation, and nation branding; while pointing to dynamic challenges such as digital inequality, misinformation, and cybersecurity threats. The study finds that online engagement has influenced diplomatic practices and has improved communication. This is a reflection of the general impact of digital platforms in foreign policy space. It has significantly reduced operational costs and ensured inclusivity in the global engagement. Online mediums enable timely participation through virtual meetings that is as effective as the face-to-face interactions. Nevertheless, there are persisting barriers that include unequal access to technology and differing digital infrastructure. As a way of addressing these challenges, states strive to better digital literacy, expand connectivity, and strengthen data privacy. In Kenya, such measures as adoption of secured internet systems and well-established boardrooms underscore institutionalization of digital diplomacy. The approach has transformed Kenya’s foreign policy leading to incorporation of digital pillar. There is need however for a long-term strategy to address structural inequalities and ensure a sustainable digital capacity in line with global diplomatic trends.

Keywords: Digital Diplomacy; Effectiveness; Foreign Policy; Platforms; Diplomatic Communication

INTRODUCTION

The changing technology has influenced the landscape of international relations leading states to adopt digital diplomacy in the conduct of foreign policy. Digital diplomacy involves usage of digitals technology and spaces to achieve foreign policy objectives, a component that is critical in the contemporary society. Scholars highlight the importance of digital platforms in enabling faster information dissemination, reaching wider audiences at lower costs. Digital tools also shape narratives and enhance soft power in ways that traditional diplomacy could not (Bjola & Holmes, 2015; Manor, 2019).

Foreign policy relates to the “legislative” aspect of inter-state relations. It reflects the general aims pursued by states in their interactions and is implemented through diplomacy, which serves the executive function of defending national rights and interests, negotiating, and peacefully resolving global disputes. Policy, therefore, refers to actions designed to achieve specific goals (Kurgat, 2017). With the emergence of new technologies, the integration of digital diplomacy in Africa is gaining momentum, as countries increasingly embrace technology to boost international visibility, strengthen diaspora engagement, and advance economic diplomacy.

Kenya has positioned itself not only as a regional hub for innovation but also for economic and security cooperation. The Ministry of Foreign and Diaspora Affairs has enhanced its visibility by incorporating digital tools into its communication strategies, particularly through social media platforms. These tools are used to promote investments, respond to global challenges, and foster international partnerships. Nonetheless, questions remain about the extent to which these efforts translate into effective foreign policy outcomes. Unequal internet access, cyber vulnerabilities, and limited institutional capacity continue to constrain Kenya’s ability to maximize the potential of digital diplomacy.

In examining the effectiveness of digital diplomacy in Kenya’s foreign policy, this article assesses the practical use of digital platforms in advancing national interests, while also evaluating emerging challenges and potential outcomes in Kenya’s diplomatic engagements. In doing so, it contributes to enriching scholarly debates on the determinants and impacts of digital diplomacy in the Global South.

REVIEWED LITERATURE

Diplomacy, as defined by Heywood (2011), is the “process of negotiation and communication between states, seeking to resolve conflict without recourse to war; an instrument of foreign policy.” In contemporary practice, the growth of technology has reshaped how states conduct these interactions, giving rise to what is now widely referred to as digital diplomacy. Digital diplomacy integrates modern information and communication technologies (ICTs), including the internet, social media platforms, and virtual conferencing tools, into the traditional frameworks of diplomatic practice (Olubukola, 2022). Unlike earlier periods when diplomacy relied heavily on face-to-face negotiations or slow communication channels, today’s digital tools provide instant connectivity and global reach. Importantly, digital diplomacy is not static; it is constantly evolving due to rapid technological innovation. Modifications in software, data compression techniques, advanced databases, and continuous upgrades of digital platforms have all transformed how states exchange information, negotiate, and engage both with one another and with global publics.

The head of state is the number one diplomat although diplomacy is known to arise in different ways. The regime in power influences foreign polices despite of different diplomatic actors. The coherence that is a result of different diplomatic actors lead to different diplomatic styles, partnership efforts and different strategies less of force (Hutchings & Suri, 2015). Digitization is a daily reality across the world in both developing and developed countries irrespective of their technological infrastructures. The emergence of COVID- 19 pandemic accelerated digital diplomacy adaptation that became part of daily operations. Almost everything is done digitally cutting across education, financial transactions, political engagements, religious activities like preaching, and socializations. Various digital enablers became associated with certain activities and the public leveraged these platforms at their own volition or in collaboration with government and non-government entities in shaping government policies (Mare, 2024).

Digital spaces have become facilitators for public to raise issues of concern that shape foreign policy not only as individuals and groups but also through digital activism. This has created a digital democratic zone even though governments have widened their public monitoring. Some end up interfering with the internet in order to deflate digital activism. The public and other various entities by using these tools help to align various foreign policy goals and the citizens at the diaspora play the role of expanding international alignments and improving their countries’ economies through remittances. Their views therefore matter and the direct interactions among the public and engagement of non-state actors have influenced countries attention to the online spaces in strengthening their relationships globally (Deos, 2015).

The new technology enables instant access of information that has led to widespread use of digital mediums by diplomats and government officials. The internet amplifies citizen opinions and their interests are included in policymaking. These tools enhance the speed of communication through the internet, whether the information is accurate or not, but is greatly cost effective. Technology and digital spaces were highly depended on, especially during the period of COVID-19, whereby Google Meet and Zoom, among other digital mediums, facilitated decision-making meetings, conferences, and other diplomatic engagements with virtual decision-making processes taking shape (Olubukola, 2022). Digital diplomacy is crucial in the area of problem-solving since issues such as bilateral crises are confined to government officials as nations, with the subsequent adoption of diplomacy gaming and simulations to foster good relations and improve their understanding with perceived opponents (Shehadey, 2013). Technological integration has enhanced such diplomatic negotiations, although face-to-face talks remain vital.

China in 2009 established Weibo as a digital medium for information sharing that saw many embassies joining. The US and UK embassies are among the most popular with an estimated 4.8 million followers. The platforms are used to advocate for the respective states foreign policy agendas. The US for instance used Weibo account in 2018 to criticize China for what they termed as imposing their political ideas on US citizens and their businesses while the UK through their embassy had to engage on assertions that it was in support of Hong Kong’s agitation for independence. The embassies of Netherland and France would later use Weibo to urge Beijing set free jailed human rights activists, priests and journalists (Timsit & Li, 2021). The state uses censors to prevent user-sharing of such information and disabling comments or even giving users phantom thinking that the post is viewable while actually hidden. The Chinese foreign ministry representative in the year 2020 used twitter to link COVID- 19 to the US army while Liu Xiaoming, then China’s ambassador to UK used twitter to critique UK government’s foreign policy. In such scenarios where online space is heavily controlled and other foreign news channels are banned; social media facilitates foreign governments’ explanation and promotion of their policies.

Kenya’s foreign policy has undergone notable changes aimed at enhancing its position within the international system. The government adopted a quieter approach in its relations with neighboring states, marking a departure from the Cold War and 1990s strategies, while at the same time advancing regionalism as a framework for promoting development (Odiemo and Okoth, 2020). Digital mediums have increasingly demonstrated their capacity to influence the public and project a country’s image globally. Many African leaders, ministries of foreign affairs (MFAs), and government departments operate official social media accounts with substantial followings. The COVID-19 pandemic further expanded the use of these tools, with several MFAs employing them to monitor citizens abroad, extend consular assistance, and sustain ties with other countries (Olubukola, 2022). Platforms such as Instagram encourage user-generated content, and with an estimated one billion monthly users, it plays an integral role in digital diplomacy through hashtags and geolocation data. Although Kenya’s MFAs 2014–2018 strategic plan did not fully adopt these tools, the pandemic accelerated progress through video conferencing platforms such as Skype, Zoom, and Webex. Consequently, digital diplomacy channels have increased multilateral engagement, enhancing visibility and strengthening virtual presence in global affairs.

The President of Kenya serves as the chief driver of foreign policy, given the central role the office holds in appointing senior officials at the Ministry of Foreign and Diaspora Affairs (MFDAs) and accrediting diplomats. A Kenyan daily, for instance, highlighted President William Ruto as the most influential African leader on Twitter (X) in 2022. This recognition was drawn from the World Leader Power Ranking Report by Burson Cohn and Wolfe’s (BCW) Twiplomacy, where he was placed 13^th globally, marking a significant rise of nine positions from the 2021 ranking. Within Africa, South Africa’s President Cyril Ramaphosa and Uganda’s President Yoweri Museveni followed in second and third positions respectively (Lumbe, 2022). Such visibility and influence across digital diplomacy platforms underscores the capacity of the presidency to shape and advance foreign policy priorities in the contemporary era.

Through digital diplomacy, Kenya to has reached the diaspora who in turn support the country’s economic growth and development through huge cash back to the country. Maluki and Njagi point to an estimated 276.8 billion as remittances received by the Kenyan government as at June 2019. The digital media has also been used by Kenyan embassies abroad in sharing investment opportunities back home. Additionally, through the Ministry of Tourism, Kenyan government has continued to do the “Brand Kenya” as it widens its global scope in nation branding and marketing. Kenya’s global standing in athletics has taken the advantage to post positive image and campaign for both foreign and domestic policies (Maluki & Njagi, 2020). Kenya has used digital diplomacy through Ministry of Foreign and Diaspora Affairs (MFDAs) and other ministries in delivering clear policy signal in international issues of importance like trade, climate change, migration, peace and terrorism. Kenya is able to communicate to other governments, international organizations that contribute in shaping the international system and other intergovernmental agencies in improving the situations of global concern.

Digital diplomacy mediums have their shortcomings that arise from cyber security. There are emerging fake digital media accounts that are misused in relaying wrong information to the public and that may ruin state relations. Pseudo accounts are created on commonly used channels by the targeted government officer or office, or certain non-state actors. An example is an imitated account for Israeli diplomats residing in different states globally and those of ambassadors and consuls in Uruguay, India, Ecuador, Romania, Finland and Albania (Schneider, 2022). Such operatives create an almost identical accounts to the envoys original that would in many instances require interventions and deletion of those accounts by the respective companies. The imposter accounts end up receiving official information or personal inquiries that can easily spread falsified information. Such instances can easily trigger hostilities hence defacing the general image of a foreign ministry in relation to foreign residences. Countries depending on their levels of technological embrace and innovation could set up divisions to monitor and operate MFAs in different platforms like TikTok and YouTube in varying languages. Dirty tactics used include getting photos from digital platforms unlawfully and uploading them on other sites to look as though genuine then sharing parallel activities of the ambassador. In so doing, the public and followers are dupped into believing the authenticity of the account and profile leading to a total trust who end up being consumers of fake information. Twitter for example was down globally on Thursday July 14, 2022 and the users could not access it on mobile app and the website as a result of what was termed server issues. It was observed that some of the server users were receiving an alert reading “503 Service Unavailable” an alert that says “the Twitter servers are up, but overloaded with requests”. Additionally, on attempt to open or read tweets, users were met with an error reading, “something went wrong” (K24 Digital). Such challenges on digital platforms that are uncontrollable or as a result of cyberattacks could interfere with diplomatic activities as well as communications with the target audiences.

Theoretical Perspective

This study was anchored on Henry Jenkins’s participatory culture theory and organizational institutional theory. Participatory culture theory connects discussions on the digital divide to opportunities for inclusive participation, thereby fostering the creation of distinct cultures. Within this framework, digital mediums serve as facilitators between content producers and consumers, and in the diplomatic sphere, they function as connectors between the public and diplomats. The advancement of technology has transformed digital diplomacy from the earlier reliance on traditional media, which was largely characterized by one-way communication to passive receivers (Wang and Saxton, 2014). In such systems, responsible institutions exercised full control over media production, leaving audiences with no power to influence content. By contrast, digital diplomacy mechanisms have broadened the public space, allowing citizens to raise issues that directly shape foreign policy, even as traditional diplomatic practices persist. Organizational institutional theory, on the other hand, provides insights into the relationship between institutional environments and technology use. It highlights how established structures such as norms, rules, and regulations define social interactions (Scott, 2005). The theory also emphasizes regulative, cognitive, and normative dimensions in relation to digital transformation and institutional adaptation, offering a framework for understanding the effectiveness of digital diplomacy through the interaction of organizations, social environments, and technological innovations.

METHODOLOGY

The study used mixed method research because of its ability to incorporate positivist and interpretivist ideas (Fetters, 2016). It has the advantage of overcoming limitations in adopting a single method approach. Questionnaire and interviews were used to collect data from knowledgeable respondents that had an understanding of the focus area of the research. The targeted institutions were categorized into strata comprised of Ministry of Foreign and Diaspora Affairs, Embassies or High Commissions to Kenya, and the National Defense and Foreign Relations Committee of the National Assembly as shown in table below.

Table 1: Shows the Strata

Source: Field Data, (2023)

Strategic purposive sampling method was applied in categorizing and selecting the respondents. A sample size of sixty respondents was used out of which fifty-one responded, representing a responsive rate of 85%. Collected data was analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively corroborated by secondary data to derive facts. Questionnaires were issued to the targeted participants through both hand delivery and digital means facilitated by emails and WhatsApp. Conducted interviews were also physical and digitally online through virtual means depending on the choice of the participant. The findings were analyzed and supported by the secondary data.

Effectiveness Of Digital Diplomacy in Kenya’s Foreign Policy

Diplomacy continues to ensure that state interests are safeguarded while at the same time fostering mutual understanding with other states. Traditionally, diplomacy has always been viewed as the central instrument through which states articulate, defend, and advance their core interests while minimizing the risks of open conflict. This explains the various missions established abroad, embassies and consulates spread across continents, and the reliance on structured diplomatic engagements such as bilateral agreements and multilateral summits. Central to this practice is the idea of reciprocity and cooperation, where international relations are sustained by mechanisms that encourage states to work together to solve collective problems. The existing ties are often boosted by international cooperation aspects that generate mutual benefits, sometimes referred to as win-win outcomes. At the same time, alignments and non-alignments emerge on arising issues and trends, largely influenced by anticipated outcomes or strategic priorities. During the Cold War, for instance, alignments were heavily defined by ideological blocs, but in the post-Cold War and digital era, alignments are increasingly fluid, shaped by immediate interests and even public opinion mobilized online. In today’s interconnected world, these practices have evolved further as digital tools reshape the conduct of diplomacy, redefining how states communicate both with each other and with their citizens.

Olubukola (2022) observed that digital platforms became essential at the onset of COVID-19 in 2020, when restrictions on movement and quarantines limited physical interaction. What had initially been considered supplementary to traditional diplomatic practices suddenly became central, as global leaders, ministers, and diplomats shifted their engagements to online platforms such as Zoom, Webex, and Google Meet. This was not just a matter of convenience; it was a necessity that ensured the continuity of state-to-state relations in the face of unprecedented global disruption. More recently, in June and July 2024, Kenya experienced a political uprising dubbed the “Gen Z movement,” which was organized largely online through the X platform. Tweets, retweets, hashtags, and viral videos mobilized thousands of young Kenyans to resist the Finance Bill 2024, which was seen as burdensome and unjust. The scale of the mobilization caught the attention of the president and forced drastic responses. Among these were shelving the finance bill entirely and addressing youth grievances in nationally televised addresses. To calm tensions further, the president dismissed the entire cabinet only excluding the Prime Cabinet Secretary, and later reappointed many of the dismissed members into different dockets under the banner of a “broad-based government.” This dramatic episode illustrates how digital tools not only serve as platforms for communication but can decisively influence government operations and reshape the political landscape within a very short period.

The study found that 73.4% of respondents agreed that digital diplomacy is effective in implementing foreign policy due to its ability to enhance timely coordination and execution of diplomatic tasks. This suggests that beyond its political dimensions, digital diplomacy has practical, administrative, and operational benefits. Digital platforms reduce the reliance on physical travel, allow for quick consultations between foreign ministries, and enable diplomats to respond rapidly to crises. Moreover, these platforms were seen as reducing corruption compared to traditional approaches, where leaders and ministry officials often relied heavily on costly international travel, which was sometimes prone to misuse or abuse. Jenkins’s participatory culture theory reinforces this finding by showing how digital diplomacy fosters public participation, turning online engagement into political acts that influence foreign policy. In participatory culture, citizens are no longer passive recipients of information but are actively involved in creating, shaping, and amplifying discourse. In a digital diplomatic context, this means that citizens can play an indirect but significant role in shaping how states project themselves internationally. On the other hand, organizational institutional theory stresses the need to evaluate digital diplomacy in terms of institutional legitimacy and compliance with international best practices. It suggests that institutions adapt their practices to align with prevailing technological norms but must still conform to standards of legitimacy, transparency, and accountability if their efforts are to be accepted by domestic and international audiences.

Pamment (2013) underscores that digital platforms have broadened the scope of diplomacy by creating more inclusive spaces, allowing a wide range of stakeholders—who were once excluded from high-level international forums—to actively participate in global conversations. Kenya’s adoption of these tools illustrates their potential to bridge physical and social divides while fostering cooperation across multiple fronts. By embracing participatory culture, Kenya has been able to engage in more open and inclusive dialogues, not only with other states but also with non-state actors such as civil society organizations, the diaspora community, and ordinary citizens. This shift has transformed diplomacy from a rigid, hierarchical practice into a more flexible and networked form of interaction where diverse voices can influence policy direction. As a result, Kenya has strengthened its commitment to cultivating strong relations with other nations while collaborating on critical global issues, including peacekeeping missions, climate change negotiations, and international trade initiatives.

The findings further demonstrated that the shift from traditional communication channels—such as telegraphs, print media, and radio—to modern digital platforms has dramatically enhanced the efficiency of diplomatic practice, with 100.0% of respondents acknowledging this improvement. In contrast to earlier decades when official correspondence between capitals could take several days or even weeks, contemporary digital platforms facilitate instantaneous consultations, allowing governments and diplomats to respond promptly to emerging issues. Nevertheless, the study also highlighted persistent risks, including the spread of misinformation, disinformation, and the proliferation of fake accounts, which Schneider (2022) identifies as significant threats to trust and credibility in digital spaces. Walker and Ludwig (2017) further caution against the rise of “sharp power,” whereby digital technologies are weaponized to manipulate public opinion or destabilize societies in pursuit of narrow strategic interests. Despite such vulnerabilities, 83.3% of respondents affirmed that virtual meetings have fundamentally reshaped African states’ relations with other nations and international organizations by eliminating logistical and geographic barriers. Kenya, in particular, has capitalized on these digital opportunities to advance critical foreign policy priorities, including trade negotiations, climate diplomacy, and peacebuilding in fragile regions, thereby positioning itself as an active and adaptive player in the evolving global order.

The study further revealed that digital diplomacy tends to be most effective when it is strategically applied to specific issues and directed toward carefully identified publics, with 80.0% of respondents affirming this view. This finding resonates with the principle of audience segmentation in communication studies, which emphasizes tailoring messages to distinct audiences in order to maximize relevance and impact. For example, economic diplomacy initiatives may be more effectively communicated through professional networking platforms such as LinkedIn, which attract business-oriented stakeholders, whereas humanitarian campaigns are more likely to gain visibility and engagement on mass-oriented platforms like Twitter or Facebook. Nonetheless, the study also uncovered persistent concerns regarding unequal access, as many citizens face technological or financial barriers that limit their ability to subscribe to or follow official diplomatic channels. Pamment (2013) observes that digital diplomacy cannot simply operate as a broadcasting tool; rather, it must create genuine interactive spaces where citizens co-create policy discussions. This insight highlights the importance of adapting digital diplomacy to diverse audiences, particularly in African contexts where the digital divide remains a pressing challenge, to ensure inclusivity and equitable participation in shaping foreign policy.

Another significant finding of the study was that digital diplomacy has considerably reduced operational costs, with 73.3% of respondents agreeing that digital platforms save financial resources that would otherwise be spent on international travel, physical meetings, and traditional forms of communication. This outcome strongly resonates with organizational institutional theory, which emphasizes how institutions continually adapt their practices to align with evolving technological norms while maintaining both efficiency and legitimacy. By embracing digital tools, Kenya has been able to hold virtual meetings that allow its diplomats to participate in high-level international negotiations and multilateral forums without incurring prohibitive expenses, thus democratizing access to diplomatic spaces. However, alongside these benefits, pressing challenges remain, particularly in the realm of cybersecurity. Internet infrastructure is largely controlled by private providers, often dispersed across national borders, which complicates regulation and oversight. Schneider (2022) warns of the risks posed by cyberattacks and disinformation campaigns, while Walker and Ludwig (2017) caution against digital manipulation. These risks demonstrate the necessity for Kenya to strike a careful balance between digital and traditional diplomatic methods to safeguard credibility and legitimacy.

Globally, other countries have embraced digital diplomacy as well. Switzerland, for example, launched its digital foreign policy strategy in 2020, strengthening governance and chairing the UN Open-Ended Working Group on Cybersecurity (Kurbalija and Hone, 2021). Cybersecurity now directly influences national security, while digital media boosts economic and social services such as health and education, particularly evident during COVID-19. Similarly, the European Union has invested heavily in digital diplomacy, appointing special representatives for digital affairs and creating structures within the European External Action Service to manage cyber issues and global digital governance. The United States, through its State Department, has institutionalized “21st-century statecraft,” which integrates digital tools into foreign policy to advance openness, transparency, and global collaboration. Asian countries such as Singapore and South Korea have also emerged as leaders in digital diplomacy, leveraging their technological infrastructure to project soft power and advance national interests.

Overall, digital diplomacy has made communication more efficient and broadened engagement across states, ministries of foreign affairs, and publics. The evolution from earlier technologies like telegraphs and telephones to modern platforms such as Zoom, Twitter, and Google Meet has reshaped international relations. Scholars have noted its use in achieving foreign policy goals, such as the U.S. State Department’s initiatives, Sweden’s use of Twitter for nation branding (Christensen, 2013), and studies of e-diplomacy in East Africa (Ipu, 2013). Nevertheless, effectiveness should be measured not only by online activity but also by tangible policy outcomes. Cultural and contextual differences also shape digital diplomacy’s impact, requiring comparative studies to identify best practices. Importantly, digital diplomacy supplements rather than replaces traditional diplomacy, as seen with Switzerland’s digital foreign policy strategy. Laverty (2013) emphasizes the need for foreign policy experts to understand emerging technologies to integrate them into policy work. By reducing costs, improving speed of interaction, and enhancing inclusivity, digital diplomacy strengthens foreign policy implementation.

To effectively address the challenges associated with digital diplomacy, governments must adopt a comprehensive and forward-looking approach. This involves deliberate investment in bridging the digital divide through improved ICT infrastructure and affordable internet access, particularly in developing countries where inequalities in connectivity remain stark. Equally critical is the strengthening of cybersecurity frameworks to safeguard sensitive diplomatic communications from external threats, alongside promoting media and digital literacy to empower citizens to critically engage with online content and counter misinformation. Governments should also prioritize the creation of multilingual content and culturally sensitive messaging to enhance inclusivity, while fostering partnerships with technology companies to harness innovation for diplomacy. For Kenya in particular, capacity-building for diplomats and institutional reforms that align with international best practices are essential. By taking these steps, Kenya can enhance its foreign policy effectiveness, project influence regionally, and adapt to a future where technology increasingly mediates global diplomacy.

CONCLUSION

This article strived to elaborate the relevance of digital diplomacy to foreign policy by demonstrating its applicability in the Kenyan context by shaping negotiations, engagements and public participation on the global stage. It elaborated how digital platforms are integral to ensuring efficiency through timely communication, ensuring inclusivity and reducing operational costs in diplomatic engagements. Online spaces have enabled wider citizens’ participation influencing the conduct of foreign policy while virtual meetings and other digital outreaches facilitated by online platforms have increased Kenya’s influence. These highlights showcase the country’s adaptability in aligning diplomatic practices with the changing diplomatic practices supported by such aspects as internet connectivity, its reliability and upgraded facilities. There are however persistent challenges arising from technological infrastructure, disinformation and misinformation, cybersecurity threats, and digital divides. Digital diplomacy is not however a substitute of traditional diplomatic practice that requires trust in negotiations through face-to-face approach. Digital diplomacy is effective not only to Kenya but other states although it relies on continuous improvement of infrastructure, innovations and capacity building. Both digital and traditional approaches of diplomacy can be strengthened for effective foreign policy practice in the changing technological landscape.

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