Barriers to Takaful Participation: Socio-Economic Insights from Mosque Committee Members in Peninsular Malaysia

Barriers to Takaful Participation: Socio-Economic Insights from Mosque Committee Members in Peninsular Malaysia

Noor Aimi Mohamad Puad¹*, Khairul Anuar Ahmad¹, Ahmad Yani Ismail¹, Aza Shahnaz Azman¹, Fadilah Mat Nor¹, Rubayah Yakob², Nurul Hidayah Md. Razali², Nur Amalina Shafie³

¹Universiti Islam Selangor (UIS)

²Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)

³Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Melaka

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90900065

Received: 25 August 2025; Accepted: 01 September 2025; Published: 29 September 2025

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the socio-economic barriers that hinder Takaful participation among mosque committee members in Malaysia. As respected community leaders, mosque committee members play a crucial role in shaping public perceptions of financial practices. Despite the rapid growth of the Takaful industry in Malaysia, penetration rates remain below expectations, particularly among lower-income and rural groups. This research examines the obstacles to subscribing to Takaful, using semi-structured interviews with committee members from selected mosques. The findings reveal five recurring barriers: (1) affordability and income constraints, (2) age-related eligibility issues, (3) reliance on family support, (4) mistrust of agents and digital platforms, and (5) economic instability leading to policy discontinuation. Even though there is religious motivation and knowledge of Shariah compliance, these socio-economic barriers are more important than the perceived benefits of uptake. This study contributes to the existing literature by highlighting the interplay among financial literacy, socioeconomic vulnerability, and religious leadership in promoting financial inclusion. Suggested policy implications include subsidized community-based Takaful programs, enhanced financial literacy initiatives through mosques, and improved consumer protection systems to restore confidence in Takaful operators.

Keywords: Takaful, socio-economic barriers, mosque committees, financial inclusion, Islamic finance, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

The Takaful industry in Malaysia has witnessed significant growth since the enactment of the Takaful Act 1984 and subsequent regulatory refinements under the Islamic Financial Services Act (IFSA) 2013. Positioned as a Shariah-compliant alternative to conventional insurance, Takaful is grounded in ta’awun (mutual assistance) and tabarru’ (voluntary contribution) principles. Similarly, with the global increase in the Muslim population, the demand for Takaful products is expected to rise. However, penetration rates remain low despite their ethical characteristics. According to Bank Negara Malaysia, family Takaful penetration is approximately 20% of the population, which means that most households are still not protected by Islamic risk-sharing systems.

Mosque leaders hold significant moral authority within their communities, influencing both their immediate families and broader social networks. Analyzing their perspectives on Takaful offers critical insights into adoption patterns. Despite their roles in religious and social leadership, many mosque leaders demonstrate limited understanding of Takaful and do not participate due to prevailing socio-economic barriers.

This paper aims to fill the research gap by investigating the socio-economic challenges faced by mosque committee members in Peninsular Malaysia. This study aims to address the primary research question: What socio-economic barriers prevent mosque committee members from participating in Takaful schemes? As esteemed religious and community leaders, their viewpoints offer significant insights into the impact of awareness, affordability, and financial vulnerability on decisions regarding Takaful participation.

This paper is divided into four main sections. The literature review section discusses Takaful and Islamic Finance in Malaysia, socio-economic determinants of insurance participation, religiousity and Takaful participation, and barriers to financial inclusion. Section three features the elaboration on the methodology and design of the study involved. Then, section four presents the substantial findings, and the final section contains the concluding comments.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Takaful and Islamic Finance in Malaysia

The concept of Takaful has gained prominence within the insurance industry. It is variously termed Islamic insurance, Halal insurance, ethical insurance, or community insurance. Takaful represents a substantive alternative to conventional insurance models (Noordin et al., 2014; Salman & Kwata, 2022). In response, many conventional insurers now offer Islamic insurance products to serve Muslim clients seeking Shariah-compliant protection against risks such as disability, death, fire, theft, and to facilitate retirement planning and business coverage (Hussain et al., 2021).

A Takaful agreement involves a collective of participants who mutually support one another against risks or losses. Each participant contributes a sum, termed tabarru’ (donation), to a pooled fund that functions as a communal safety net (Naim et al., 2018). This structure differs from conventional insurance, where risk is transferred to an insurer in exchange for a premium. Both models aim to mitigate financial losses (Yasin & Ramly, 2011). Takaful, however, must adhere to Shariah principles, which prohibit interest (riba’), excessive uncertainty (gharar), and gambling (maysir) (Rifas, Rahman & Buang, 2023).

In Malaysia, a predominantly Muslim nation, the adoption of Shariah-compliant financial products, including takaful, is on the rise. The country has ambitious plans to position itself as a leading global hub for Islamic finance (Mohd Noor et al., 2014). Over the past few decades, the Malaysian takaful industry has expanded significantly, currently boasting fifteen takaful operators that offer both general and family takaful services to the market (Alam et al., 2023; Che Arshad, Abdul Halim, & Irijanto, 2020).

Socio-Economic Determinants of Insurance Participation

Empirical research consistently reveals that socio-economic criteria such as income, education, and employment stability are among the most significant factors of insurance participation (Chatterjee, Aditya & Choudary, 2025 Meixia, Baikady & Ali,2025). Beck and Webb (2003) highlighted that higher-income families are more inclined to invest in risk management instruments, whereas Outreville (2014) observed that educational attainment enhances financial literacy and the ability to comprehend complex financial products. Employment security also plays a vital role, as those with permanent or steady occupations are more confident in committing to regular premium payments. In contrast, persons in unstable employment or informal industries tend to regard insurance as an unaffordable or unneeded expense.

Within the context of Takaful, affordability has been consistently highlighted as a recurring concern. While Takaful is created as a Shariah-compliant alternative to conventional insurance, its accessibility is hampered when premiums are seen as exorbitant relative to household income. This is particularly visible among the B40 group in Malaysia, who must prioritize everyday essentials such as food, housing, and education over long-term financial planning. As a result, Takaful funds are typically seen as discretionary expenses that can be postponed or cancelled in times of financial pressure. Previous studies on Takaful adoption demonstrate that socio-economic vulnerability trumps religious incentive, as even individuals who value Shariah compliance are unable to sustain involvement when faced with economic difficulty.

Furthermore, socioeconomic factors interact with more general concerns about social safety nets and financial literacy. People frequently underestimate the significance of Takaful in offering long-term protection due to a lack of knowledge about risk management products, which exacerbates affordability issues. In place of official coverage, many households rely on government healthcare services, community-based programs, or family support. Even though these unofficial systems offer temporary respite, they expose families to high financial risks in the event of a serious illness or death. This emphasizes the need for Takaful operators and policymakers to develop affordable, adaptable products and to enhance financial literacy initiatives targeting vulnerable and low-income populations. Takaful can only fulfill its potential as a tool for promoting inclusive development and as a financial protection mechanism by addressing these socioeconomic determinants.

Religiosity and Takaful Participation

Religiosity has long been acknowledged as a crucial factor influencing engagement with Islamic financial products, such as Takaful. Mansor and Abu Bakar (2018) demonstrated that Muslim consumers’ religious beliefs have a significant impact on their choice of Shariah-compliant financial services. Many people don’t prefer conventional insurance because it involves riba’, gharar, and maisir. Takaful, on the other hand, is based on ta’awun (mutual assistance) and tabarru’ (voluntary contribution), which makes it a theologically sound option. This religious connection has made Takaful more than just a means to generate income; it is often viewed as a moral and spiritual obligation that aligns with Islamic principles of social justice and solidarity.

However, religious motivation alone does not always ensure active engagement. Many Muslims say they support Takaful in principle, but in practice, the number of people who actually use it is often limited by other economic factors (Yaacob, Rosly & Masruki,2013; Mansor & Abu Bakar, 2018). Households facing affordability issues, inconsistent incomes, or urgent financial obligations may postpone or cease contributions, even though they acknowledge the religious merit of Takaful. This difference between what people want to do and what they actually do reveals how religiosity and socioeconomic constraints interact. For example, faith-based preferences may be set aside due to financial difficulties. In certain instances, individuals exhibit symbolic support by recognizing the advantages of Takaful while depending on informal financial protection methods, such as familial aid or community funds.

Moreover, religiosity may be influenced by contextual factors including financial literacy, trust in Takaful operators, and perceptions of equity in claims resolution (Md. Husin & Ab Rahman, 2016). For example, customers might like that Takaful follows Shariah law, but they might not want to buy it if they think the business isn’t open or they don’t understand how tabarru’ works. Likewise, differing levels of religious commitment among individuals and communities influence participation rates (Dunbar, 2020). Those exhibiting greater religiosity may be more inclined to prioritize Takaful, whereas others may take a more pragmatic stance, reconciling religious principles with economic viability. These dynamics suggest that although religiosity is a necessary condition for Takaful adoption in Muslim societies, it is not a sufficient determinant on its own. Policies and outreach strategies must therefore incorporate both faith-based appeals and socio-economic factors to promote sustainable participation.

Barriers to Financial Inclusions

Barriers to accessing financial services can be categorized as structural or behavioural. Demirgüç-Kunt et al. (2017) identify high service costs, distrust in banks, limited access to reliable information, and socio-cultural norms as significant obstacles. For low-income households, high transaction fees and stringent eligibility criteria impede access. Additionally, misconceptions about financial products contribute to reluctance in engaging with the formal financial sector (Lu, Li, & Lu, 2024; Senduk et al., 2024). In many Muslim communities, concerns regarding Shariah compliance further discourage the use of conventional financial products.

In Malaysia, these barriers play out differently across various demographic groups. For instance, people living in rural areas often deal with geographical obstacles, with fewer bank branches nearby and limited outreach from financial institutions (Lundvig Hassen & Lima, 2025; Alimukhamedova,Filer & Hanousek, 2017). Although digital banking should make things easier, issues like digital illiteracy and infrastructure gaps mean that rural communities sometimes can’t take full advantage of these services (Mookerjee,2025). Additionally, elderly individuals face exclusion, not just because they may be unfamiliar with digital tools, but also due to age-related restrictions imposed by financial providers on long-term products such as insurance and Takaful. These structural challenges deepen existing inequalities, resulting in vulnerable populations being left out, even when inclusive financial policies are present at the national level.

Beyond these structural problems, socio-cultural norms also play a critical role in shaping engagement with formal financial services (Nwosu & Ilori, 2024; Anyangwe, Vanroose & Fanta, 2022). In many communities, individuals rely on informal financial support mechanisms, such as family loans, rotating savings groups, or community funds (Astuti & Hardi, 2022). Although these systems provide immediate assistance, they often lack long-term sustainability and increase financial vulnerability. Addressing skepticism toward financial institutions, particularly Islamic banks and Takaful operators, requires building trust through transparent practices, authentic Shariah compliance, and targeted financial literacy initiatives.

METHODOLOGY

Comprehensive strategies are necessary to position financial inclusion as a driver of socio-economic empowerment. Readiness of mosque committee members to embrace and promote Takaful as a way to safeguard their financial future in an Islamic way. Since the problem is deeply ingrained in society and involves religious leadership, community influence, and ethical finance, a qualitative method was selected. Rahman (2017) affirms that qualitative methods allow researchers to grasp human experience in a deeper and more nuanced way, giving them insights that go beyond numbers. Ryan et al. (2009) are also in the opinion that in-depth interviews are specifically helpful at revealing the core of what people think, believe, and intend to do. This method can be very advantageous when analyzing the ways individuals see their responsibilities and positions within a religious and social context.

The study used a basic interpretive qualitative design, which aims to understand how people generate meaning from their experiences in a particular scenario. A purposive selection technique was used to identify people who presently serve on committees at certain mosques in Peninsular Malaysia. These people were chosen because they might have an influence on how people interpret and discuss religion, especially when it comes to Islamic financial issues.There was a total of twenty (20) semi-structured interviews that conducted in person. These interviews gave participants an opportunity to discuss their perspectives in an open but guided way.Semi-structured interviews facilitated flexibility in exploring significant themes while maintaining coherence with the primary research topics.

The six-phase framework created by Braun and Clarke (2006) served as the basis for data analysis through theme analysis.The first step was to write down what transpired in the interviews and read them over and over again to get an understanding of the content.The first codes were made and put into larger groups that showed trends connected to Takaful knowledge, how important it seemed, religious influence, communication preferences, and structural impediments. This process of interpretation made it possible for important discoveries to come out of the participants’ everyday experiences.Through repeated analysis, the themes were improved in order to ensure sure they comprised the main points of the participants’ narratives and answered the main research objectives.In this case, thematic analysis was more than just a technical procedure; it was also a way to reflect about the viewpoints of those who are currently in the positions of leading communities in mosques. Table 1.0 illustrates the details of the demographic details of the 20 mosque committee members who participated in the interviews, including their employment background, roles within the mosque, and state of residence. This breakdown is crucial to understand the diversity of respondents contributing to the findings.

FINDINGS & DISCUSSION

Affordability and Income Constraints

Affordability emerged as the most pressing challenge. Monthly contributions of RM100–200 were perceived as burdensome, especially for retirees, pensioners, and those in the B40 group. Several respondents admitted that unstable household finances forced them to discontinue policies.

“Masa tu ekonomi saya masih lagi stabil.. Lepas tu tak mampu lagi nak teruskan, berhenti.” (Chairman, Masjid At-Taqwa, Pahang)

“Saya rasa RM200 masih boleh mampu lagi… tapi kalau ekonomi tak stabil, Takaful jadi perkara pertama yang dipotong.” (Bendahari, Masjid At-Taqwa, Pahang)

This reflects the fragile financial planning capacity of rural communities, where Takaful is often viewed as a discretionary expense rather than a necessity. Income fragility significantly restricts participation in cost-oriented risk-sharing mechanisms such as Takaful. This observation is consistent with the literature on financial inclusion, which indicates that low-income households frequently prioritize immediate necessities such as food, education, and housing over uncertain long-term protection schemes (Demirgüç-Kunt et al., 2017). Although micro‑Takaful options may offer low monthly premiums, these products often remain inaccessible to economically vulnerable groups. Research indicates that micro‑Takaful must be specifically tailored to the income patterns of B40 households, with contributions as low as RM5 to RM10 per month and delayed claim settlements to alleviate financial pressure (Abdullah et al., 2019; Shamsuri & Thaidi, 2024)

Innovative approaches that integrate Islamic social finance instruments can address affordability constraints. Qualitative research demonstrates that zakat and waqf funds may subsidize micro‑Takaful premiums, thereby increasing accessibility for underserved populations. Integrating zakat and waqf into the development of micro‑Takaful schemes can establish a sustainable risk pool and compensate for the limitations of conventional micro‑insurance models (Yusof, Khairuddin & Rahman, 2021). Evidence indicates that takaful providers, zakat institutions, and regulatory authorities generally support the combination of social funds with micro‑Takaful to enhance equity and inclusion. Implementing such partnership models may substantially reduce cost barriers for mosque leaders and their communities, ensuring that financial hardship does not undermine religious motivation.

Age and Eligibility Restrictions

Older respondents expressed frustration at being excluded from coverage or facing high premium rates. Age-related restrictions discouraged participation, particularly among retirees who felt they needed protection the most.

“Sekarang yang tak bolehnya sebab atas umur. Atas umurlah insurans taknak ke saya ni.” (R1)“QUEPACS CARE dulu ada, tapi bila dah sampai umur titrant, dia stop terus.” (R4)

This reveals a systemic exclusion, where the elderly, despite acknowledging risk, are unable to access coverage. The exclusion of older individuals exemplifies the ‘protection paradox.’ Although awareness of vulnerability to risk increases with age, formal financial systems often impose eligibility limits that restrict access to necessary protection. In Takaful, a system grounded in solidarity (ta’awun) and fairness (ʿadl), such age-based restrictions may conflict with the ethical principle of inclusion. Insurance market studies indicate that actuarial pricing typically disadvantages older age groups due to elevated health and mortality risks (Nyman, 2019). In contrast, the Takaful model’s cooperative ethos is at odds with strict commercial risk-rating, creating a tension between financial sustainability and the Maqasid Shariah objective of safeguarding human life (hifz al-nafs).

At the policy and industry levels, this issue highlights the need to develop Takaful products that accommodate the needs of senior participants. International research indicates that hybrid models, including community-based health Takaful and family-subsidized schemes, can distribute risk more equitably across age groups (Ismail, 2021; Billah, 2020). In Malaysia, integrating zakat and waqf mechanisms may lower financial barriers for elderly participants. Additionally, state-supported reinsurance pools could help operators manage actuarial risks. In the absence of these reforms, older individuals remain excluded from participation. This exclusion undermines financial inclusion objectives and may diminish public confidence in the Takaful sector as an equitable alternative to conventional insurance.

Reliance on Family Support

Cultural norms of intergenerational support serve as a substitute for formal risk protection. Instead of subscribing to Takaful, many respondents expressed reliance on children and extended family.

“Saya lebih bergantung kepada anak-anak kalau jadi apa-apa, bukan pada Takaful.” (R19)

“Kalau sakit atau kecemasan, saya harapkan anak-anak saya tolong.” (R15)

This indicates that Takaful uptake is constrained not only by affordability but also by entrenched social safety nets. From a socio-economic perspective, reliance on family demonstrates the persistence of informal safety nets, which are frequently regarded as more trustworthy and immediate than formal institutions. In collectivist societies such as Malaysia, family-based reciprocity remains a primary mechanism for managing financial shocks, especially among lower-income and rural populations (Astuti & Hardi, 2022). Although intergenerational support offers short-term relief, it does not ensure long-term sustainability. Demographic changes such as smaller household sizes, rural-to-urban migration, and rising living costs reduce the capacity of families to provide ongoing support. This situation results in a protection gap, where families intend to assist but increasingly lack the resources to manage substantial or unexpected financial burdens.

From a policy and industry perspective, this reliance indicates that Takaful operators should position their products as supplements to family solidarity, rather than as substitutes. Community-based Takaful models, especially those distributed through mosques, can present participation as an extension of familial duty. Integrating the concepts of ta’awun (mutual assistance) and tabarru’ (donation) into the framework of family responsibility aligns Takaful with prevailing community values and may increase acceptance. Financial literacy programs should clarify that, although family support is valued, formal Takaful coverage offers structured protection and alleviates long-term dependency on younger generations. Without this reframing, persistent dependence on informal safety nets is likely to constrain the expansion of Takaful adoption.

Mistrust of Agents and Digital Platforms

Trust issues were frequently raised. While some respondents acknowledged agents as the primary source of information, others complained about aggressive sales tactics and inefficiencies in the claims process. Digital channels, although accessible, were perceived as unsafe.

“Saya lebih selesa dengan agen sebab kalau guna peranti takut scam.” (R9

“Pernah dengar orang claim accident, tunggu berbulan-bulan… agen macam tak buat kerja.” (R6)

“Kalau call telefon terus, saya tak percaya… takut scammer. Lebih baik berdepan.” (R13)

These experiences reinforced caution and slowed broader adoption, as reliability and trustworthiness were seen as central to financial decision-making. The findings demonstrate that trust and credibility are essential prerequisites for participation in Takaful. Respondents’ preference for face-to-face interaction indicates a need for personal assurance in financial transactions, particularly among rural and elderly populations. This observation is consistent with previous research identifying trust deficits, such as perceived opportunism by agents, lack of transparency in product disclosures, and delays in claims processing, as major barriers to insurance participation. In the context of digitalization, respondents’ concerns regarding scams and fraud underscore the ongoing tension between financial innovation and consumer protection. Although digital platforms offer increased efficiency and reduced costs, their adoption remains limited when users perceive these platforms as risky, impersonal, or inadequately regulated.

This mistrust highlights the need for stronger governance, transparency, and consumer protection in the Takaful industry. Operators should improve claims management and enhance agent professionalism through certification, monitoring, and ethical training. Digital transformation should focus on building trust by implementing secure authentication, clear complaint processes, and visible Shariah compliance. Research indicates that hybrid models, which combine personal advisory with digital convenience, are effective in communities with limited digital literacy but strong personal trust networks (Mookerjee et al., 2025). Without addressing these governance and trust challenges, Takaful adoption will likely remain limited by skepticism toward both agents and digital platforms.

Economic Instability and Policy Discontinuation

Even when respondents initially enrolled in Takaful, economic shocks often led to discontinuation. Rising living costs and unstable incomes made it difficult to sustain contributions.

“Dulu ada ambil untuk anak, tetapi sekarang saya berhenti sebab tak mampu nak teruskan.” (R12)

“Kalau ekonomi tak stabil ni semua… kita potonglah Takaful dulu.” (R8)

This illustrates that participation is not only about entry but also continuity, financial vulnerability directly affects persistence in Takaful schemes. This finding underscores a documented trend in insurance and Takaful markets: lapse rates increase during periods of economic volatility. When households experience inflation or income shocks, they typically reduce discretionary expenditures and deprioritize protection products such as Takaful. For low- and middle-income families, Takaful products may initially appear attractive; however, maintaining coverage is challenging in the absence of adequate financial reserves. This pattern indicates that sustained participation in Takaful depends on both household economic resilience and consumer awareness.

At the policy level, these findings indicate a need for counter-cyclical mechanisms within the Takaful industry. Operators should implement flexible contribution schemes, including temporary payment holidays, adjustable premium structures, and group-based pooling through mosques, to support members in maintaining coverage during periods of financial stress. Integration with Islamic social finance instruments such as zakat, waqf, and sadaqah can provide targeted subsidies to ensure continuity for vulnerable groups. Regulators should also establish policies that require operators to create stability reserves or government-backed reinsurance to absorb shocks during crises. In the absence of these innovations, economic instability is likely to undermine both individual participation and the long-term sustainability of the Takaful sector as a central component of financial inclusion. Table 2.0 summarizes the barriers, consequences and preventive or mitigation strategies.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The findings of this study indicate that barriers to Takaful participation among mosque committee members are primarily shaped by socio-economic factors rather than solely by limited awareness or religious motivation. To address these challenges, Takaful operators should implement affordable and flexible contribution schemes specifically designed for lower-income groups. Micro-Takaful products, characterized by reduced premiums and simplified coverage, may facilitate access for households facing financial constraints. Integrating Takaful products into established community-based networks, such as mosque institutions, can improve accessibility and foster trust and collective ownership.

It is recommended that financial literacy programs be intensified to address the specific role of mosque committee members as community leaders. These individuals influence public perceptions and behaviors; however, their effectiveness is contingent upon their understanding of Takaful products and benefits. Customized workshops, seminars, and training modules can equip committee members with the necessary knowledge to promote Takaful accurately and confidently. Enhancing their capacity as advocates is likely to increase both their participation and the reach of Takaful initiatives within the broader Muslim community.

At the institutional level, regulators and policymakers should encourage Takaful operators to adopt innovative distribution channels that bridge digital and traditional approaches. While digitalization is necessary to reduce costs and improve efficiency, rural and elderly populations face challenges of digital literacy and access. A hybrid approach combining mobile applications with in-person advisory services at mosques or community centers would ensure inclusivity. Furthermore, policy frameworks could incentivize operators to design socially responsible products aligned with Maqasid Shariah principles, thereby balancing commercial objectives with the broader goals of social protection and financial justice.

In summary, Takaful represents a Shariah-compliant mechanism with considerable potential for financial protection and community empowerment. Realizing this potential necessitates addressing interconnected barriers related to affordability, literacy, trust, and accessibility. This study contributes to the literature by offering socio-economic perspectives from mosque committee members in Peninsular Malaysia, who act as intermediaries between Takaful providers and the broader community. Implementation of the proposed recommendations may enhance both participation and sustainability in the Takaful sector, thereby promoting financial security and inclusive development consistent with Islamic values.

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