The Effect of Human Capital Investment on Sustainable Development: A Case of Selected West African Countries

The Effect of Human Capital Investment on Sustainable Development: A Case of Selected West African Countries

Kayode David Toluhi, Prof. Sumaila A. Joseph Obansa, Modestus Chidi Nsonwu

Department of Economics, Veritas University Abuja, Nigeria

DOI : https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8110255

Received: 14 November 2024; Accepted: 19 November 2024; Published: 23 December 2024

ABSTRACT

The clamour for sustainable development in countries around the world has elicited intense researches on its important determinants with many researchers pointing to human capital investment as a key determinant. This study investigated the effect of human capital investment on sustainable development in West Africa using a panel data of four (4) selected West African countries. The study covered the period 2015 to 2022. The variables adopted for the study were the sustainable development proxied by the sustainable development index, government health expenditure proxied by the government total expenditure on health as a percentage of GDP, government education expenditure proxied by government total expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP and literacy rate proxied by the education index of the selected West African countries. Using the PMG model, the research found a positive relationship between government education expenditure and sustainable development both in the short run and long run. Government health expenditure was negatively related to sustainable development in the short run but showed positive connections to sustainable development in the long run. Education index was negatively related to sustainable development in the short run but was positively related to sustainable development in the long run. Based on the findings of the research, the study recommended increased investment by the government and private sector in the education and health sector West African countries to improve education and health outcomes and increase the chances of achieving the sustainable development goals.

Keywords: Sustainable development, Human capital investment, Education Index.

JEL Classification: B14, C23, C31, D10

INTRODUCTION

In recent times, the issue of sustainable development has become one of the burning developmental issues conversed all over the world. The idea of sustainable development is centered on the argument that the current drive of industrialization, population expansion, manufacturing and the general productive activity of man at the current rate may exhaust the resources available hence leaving nothing behind for the future generations. Hence the argument is that resources should be optimally utilized such that the activities of the current generation does not affect the volume of resources available to the future generations. In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 agenda for sustainable development coined “a blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future” (United Nations, 2015). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is a call to action to end poverty and inequality, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy health, justice and prosperity towards transforming the world (United Nations, 2015). According to United Nations (2018), there is a global context of slow economic growth, social inequality and environmental degradation leading to unprecedented challenges for the international community making it unviable to continue with the current patterns of production, energy and consumption as before.

In achieving sustainable development, the United Nations through its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development identified 17 Goals and 169 targets. The development of human capital remains an important pathway to achieving sustainable development. This is evident as the two basic components of human capital development; healthcare and education form an integral part of the 17 goals enumerated by the United Nations (United Nations, 2015)

The United Nations which is at the heart of the campaign for sustainable development all around the world has stressed the importance of human capital development in attaining sustainable development. According to United Nations (2018), obtaining a quality education is the foundation to improving people’s lives and sustainable development. It further stressed that ensuring healthy lives and promoting the well-being for all at all ages is essential to sustainable development (United Nations 2018). Therefore, Countries desirous of attaining sustainable development might need to consider improving their education and health sectors with the aim of achieving sustainable development.

Despite West Africa’s huge potentials in natural resources which include vast land, water bodies, huge and diverse mineral resource deposits across the country and a favourable climate, the sub-region has maintained a slow pace in its development stride. This can partially be attributed to poor human capacity development. The level of development attained by the developed countries of the world today is on the platform of research and development, innovation, discoveries which are products of human capital investment. According to Anyanwu, Adam, Obi and Yelwa (2015) successive researchers have identified human capital development as a key prerequisite for a country’s socio-economic and political transformation. Similarly, the advancement of the developed countries in the post Second World War era has been attributed to an aggressive development of both human and institutional capacity (Aluko & Aluko, 2012).

Human capital development is only possible through huge investments is education, trainings and skill acquisition programmes, access to quality health care and better livelihood (Toluhi, 2023). According to Anyanwu et al (2015), human capital development is achieved through increased knowledge, skills and capabilities attained through education and training by people in a country. Therefore, the level of investment in human capital development will determine the productivity and development of a nation.

This research is aimed at examining the contribution of human capital development on the achievement of sustainable development in West Africa with particular reference to key components of the HDI index which are life expectancy, access to knowledge and a decent standard of living.

THEORETICAL REVIEW

Human Capital

The concept of human capital development is not new to economic literature. Several economists have attempted to define and explain this very important concept. In his book “The Economics of Welfare” (1932) Pigou stated that there exists observable as well as unobservable person’s characteristics which have an impact on agent’s income and which causes skewness of its distribution. Irving Fisher in his book “The Nature of Capital and Income” (1906) stated that a concept of capital should include land and other natural resources, objects owned by household and government, the bodies of human beings -perhaps theirs mind too.  Theodore W. Schultz’s in 1961 addressed the American Economic Association on Investment in Human Capital in an attempt to draw the attention of economists and educational planners to the concept of human development.  He stressed the need of including the acquired abilities of man that augments his productivity as a form of capital, which he considered a form of investment. Schultz’s argument was that education should be treated as an investment in man, and regarded its outcome as a form of capital.

Bowen (1977) formulated a detailed definition of the concept of human capital. He considered human capital to consist of acquired knowledge, skills, motivation and energy, which people have and can be used for a certain period of time in order to produce goods and services. According to Okojie, (1995) the concept of human capital refers to the abilities and skills of the human resources of a country, while human capital formation refers to the process of acquiring and increasing the number of persons who have the skills, education and experience that are critical for the economic growth and development of a country. This means that human capital refers to the human assets a country possess while human capital development entails the processes of improving these human assets to achieve specific goals of improving productivity, poverty reduction and economic growth in the country. However, recent technological developments seem to have implication on labour as a factor as machines, robots and other computer applications capable of performing various productive activities currently provided by labour poses a potentials treat to the place of labour in the production function. Hence in the nearest future if the current trend of scientific expansion is sustained, labour is likely to be adversely impacted. This does not however, erode or place of human capital in ensuring growth and sustainable development.

Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development is not a recent development but has gained a lot of attraction in recent times especially after the 2030 sustainable development agenda adopted by the United Nations in 2015. An attempt at understanding the concept of sustainable development requires a little historical analysis. While it cannot be disputed that literature on Sustainable development abounds, issues regarding the concept’s definition, history, pillars, principles and the implications of these for human development, remain unclear to many people (Mensah, 2019).

Development, as a concept, has been associated with diverse meanings, interpretations and theories from various scholars. Development is defined as ‘an evolutionary process in which the human capacity increases in terms of initiating new structures, coping with problems, adapting to continuous change, and striving purposefully and creatively to attain new goals (Peet, 1999). Todaro and Smith (2006) also define development as a multi-dimensional process that involves major changes in social structures, attitudes, and institutions, as well as economic growth, reduction of inequality, and eradication of absolute poverty.

Literally, sustainability means a capacity to maintain some entity, outcome or process over time (Basiago, 1999). Stoddart (2011) defines sustainability as the efficient and equitable distribution of resources intra-generationally and inter-generationally with the operation of socio-economic activities within the confines of a finite ecosystem.

Basically, the concept of sustainability dwells on the ability of the earth to adequately cater for its inhabitants continuously over time without exhausting itself. The discussion regarding whether the capacity of the Earth’s limited natural resources would be able to continually support the existence of the increasing human population gained prominence with the Malthusian population theory in the early 1800s. As far back as 1789, Malthus postulated that human population tended to grow in a geometric progression, while subsistence could grow in only an arithmetic progression, and for that matter, population growth was likely to outstrip the capacity of the natural resources to support the needs of the increasing population. Similarly, Meadows in 1972 while studying the Limits of growth concluded that since the world is physically finite, exponential growth of population, industrial production and pollution would eventually reach the limit (Mensah, 2019). The concept of sustainable development basically concerns itself with the concern that current resource utilization might impair or limit resource availability in future or to future generations. Hence the push for cautious resource utilization to reduce the rate of depletion and the attendant environmental effects.

In 1987, the United Nations Brundtland Commission defined sustainability as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Mensah & Ricart, 2019). This has subsequently led to an action plan to ensure sustainable development among countries of the world beginning the Millennium Declaration at the Millennium Sumit in 2000 which led to the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to reduce extreme poverty by 2015 (United Nations 2000). The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of Implementation, adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa in 2002, reaffirmed the global community’s commitments to poverty eradication and the environment (United Nations 2002) and the 2030 agenda of sustainable development adopted by the United Nations constitute the current drive at attaining sustainable development with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which was termed an urgent call for action by all countries – developed and developing to focus on ending poverty and other deprivations as well as promote strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and promote economic growth , while tackling climate change and working to preserve the oceans and forests (United Nations 2015). 

Romer’s Model of Technological Change

The study is hinged on the Romer’s model of Endogenous Technical Change of 1990 identifies a research sector specialising in the production of ideas. This sector invokes human capital along with the existing stock of knowledge to produce ideas or new knowledge. To Romer, ideas are more important than natural resources citing an example of Japan which has very few natural resources but it was open to new western ideas and technology. According to Romer, creation of new knowledge, which he considered as the ultimate determinant of long-run growth is as a result of spillovers from research efforts by firms.

Empirical Review

Wirajing and Nchofoung (2023) examined the impact of human capital on economic growth in 48 African countries using the GMM technique from 2000 to 2019. The study found that economic growth in Africa is positively related to human capital development and that human capital development of both the male and female genders would significantly influence economic growth in African countries. The study further concluded that internet penetration and foreign direct investment interact with human capital to produce positive net effects on economic growth. The study recommended that policymakers should commit more resources to the education and health sector to enhance human capital development as a prerequisite to ensure a stable economic growth.

Zhu (2023) investigated the impact of human capital and environmental protection on the Sustainable Development Goal of China. The study used secondary data sources on the variables of the model from 1986 to 2019, sourced from the world development indicators (WDI). The study also used the augmented dickey-fuller test (ADF) to check for the stationarity of the variables for the study and the autoregressive distributed lag model (ARDL) to test the nexus among variables. The results indicated that all the predictors such as human capital index (human capital), renewable energy consumption and renewable energy production (environmental protection) have a negative relationship with carbon emission and a positive relationship with SDG. The study suggested that the outcomes of the study will provide guidelines to the regulators in developing policies related to the attainment of the sustainable development goals.

Anabaraonye, Okon, Adeniyi, Ewa, Nwagbo, and Emmanuel (2022) explored the vital elements needed to maximize the human capital potentials in Africa which includes team work, talents, training, trustworthy mentors and timely climate change education. The study confirmed Human capital as one of the vital forces needed to achieve sustainable development and sustainable economic growth in Africa. The study recommended that institutions should be built and positioned to help discover their talents, gain proper awareness and unleash the power of human capital in maximizing the green entrepreneurial opportunities in climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Euphemia, (2022) examined human capital development and economic growth in Nigeria, using time series data sourced from Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin and World bank data base from 1981 – 2020.  Using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) framework; the bounds testing analysis the study found that a positive and insignificant long-run relationship exists between total government expenditure on education and GDP while the relationship between total government expenditure on health and GDP was positive but insignificant in the long-run. Equally, life expectancy and GDP was found to have a negative and insignificant long-run relation. The study recommended that budgetary allocation to the education and health sector should be improved by both the federal and state governments while also suggesting that Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) should be adopted to fast-track development in the education and health sectors of the economy.

Madugba, Oparah and Onuoha (2022) examined the effect of human capital investments on economic growth in Nigeria using data extracted from CBN statistical bulletin and analysed using and descriptive statistics, cointegration analysis as well as the Ordinary Least Square (OLS). The result revealed that only capital expenditure on education had a positive and significant association with RGDP. Capital expenditure on health and universal education has a positive but insignificant association with RGDP, recurrent expenditure on education and health had a negative and insignificant association with RGDP. The study further recommended that Government and policymakers should commit to building and developing human capacity through adequate educational funding across all levels.

Olowookere, Olanipekun, Sokunbi & Aderemi, (2022) investigated the impact of human capital development on the sustainable development goal one (1) – poverty reduction. The study utilizes Fully Modified Least Squares to establish with data collected between 1981 and 2019. From the findings of this study, both government expenditure on health and capital formation Granger caused poverty reduction in Nigeria, indicating that human capital development is an important condition for the achievement of the sustainable development goal one (1) – poverty eradication in Nigeria. Similarly, all the selected components of human capital development have positive contributions to poverty reduction in Nigeria. Therefore, this study recommended that the Nigerian budgetary allocations to education and health sectors should be in tandem with the global benchmark; to ensure the availability of material and human resources necessary to drive the country towards the sustainable development.

METHODOLOGY

The model for this study reveals the effect of human capital investment on sustainable development in West Africa. The study was structured around the approach in Olowookere, et al, (2022) who empirically investigated the relationship between human capital development and the sustainable development goal – poverty reduction using Granger causality test and  Fully  Modified  Least  Squares between 1981 and 2019 and hinged his study on the endogenous growth theory propounded by Romer in 1986 which argued that human capital constitutes a strategic input in the production function while assuming increasing returns to scale occasioned by positive externalities. The research adopted the model:

PRD = F (EDE, HEE, GCF, INFL)

Whose log linear form is

log𝑃𝑅𝐷 = 𝛽₀ + 𝛽₁𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐸𝐷𝐸 + 𝛽₂𝐿𝑜𝑔𝐻𝐸𝐸 + 𝛽₃Log𝐺𝐶𝐹 + μt

PRD is used to denote poverty reduction, and is measured by GDP per capita.  EDE is used to proxy real government expenditure on educational sector. HEE is used to capture real government expenditure on health sector.  GCF is the real gross fixed capital formation, and u is error term.

This study adapted the above model given in functional form as:

SD = F(GHE, GEE, LR)                                                                    (3.1)

The operational model of this study, emanating from the functional equation is thus:

SD_it = b₀ + b₁GHE_it + b₂GEE_it + b₃EDI_it + U_t                        (3.2)

b₁> 0,  b₂> 0, b₃> 0, b₄> 0,

Where:

SD       =          Sustainable development in West Africa proxied by the sustainable development index SDI.

GHE    =          Government Health Expenditure in West Africa proxied by the Government Total Expenditure on Health as a percentage of GDP.

GEE    =          Government Education Expenditure in West Africa proxied by Government Total Expenditure on Education as a percentage of GDP.

EDI     =          Literacy rate in West Africa proxied by Education index

U_t        =          Error term

The model does not contain the log form as presented by Olowookere, et al, (2022) because the data for this study are in rates and percentages. A logarithmic transformation is applied majorly to reduce large data values to manageable form for data analysis.

RESULT

Data analysis

Descriptive Statistics of the variables used in the Analysis

The table below contains the summary of statistical analysis of the data for the variables used indicating the number of observations, mean and standard deviation of the overall data.

Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics

Source: Extracted from the regression result generated using Stata 15

The descriptive statistics provide insights into the distribution and variability of key economic indicators related to sustainable development, health, education, life expectancy, and overall development across the dataset, aiding in policy analysis, resource allocation, and international comparison.Top of Form

Sustainable Development Index (SDI) has an overall Mean of 54.87594. This indicates the average level of sustainable development across the 32 observations. The Standard Deviation (Std Dev) is 6.260181 showing the variability around the mean SDI score. The range of SDI scores observed in the dataset is Min: 36.1 and Max: 65.37

Government Health Expenditure (GHE) has overall Mean: 5.3775 showing the average government spending on health across the observations. The Standard Deviation (Std Dev) is 3.929733 showing the variability around the mean SDI score. Higher variability indicates differences in health spending priorities or effectiveness. The range of GHE scores observed in the dataset is Min: 2.99 and Max: 19.6.

Government Expenditure on Education (GEE) has overall Mean: of 4.835313 showing the average government spending on education across the observations. The Standard Deviation (Std Dev) is 2.169663 showing the variability around the mean GEE score. Higher variability indicates differences in education spending priorities or effectiveness. The range of GEE scores observed in the dataset is Min: 2, Max: 9.4

Education Index (EDI) has overall Mean: of 0.46125 showing the average EDI across the observations. The Standard Deviation (Std Dev) is 0.769059 showing the variability around the mean EDI score. Higher variability might indicate differences in educational systems or socio-economic factors affecting education. The range of EDI scores observed in the dataset is Min: 0.37, Max: 0.61.

Table 4.2: Panel Unit Root Test Result using IM Persaran-Shin (IPS)

Source: Extract from computer on regression of data using Stata version 15

The decision rule using Im Persaran-Shin (IPS) is that when the t-statistics is greater than the critical value at 5% significance level and the probability value (P-Value) is less than 0.05, it shows that the variable is stationary at level otherwise the difference is taken until it becomes stationary.

The results show that SDI, GHE and GEE were stationary at first difference while EDI was stationary at level. Their t-statistic values are all greater than the critical values at the standard 5% significant level. Also, the P-values were less than 0.05 at their various levels of stationarity. Since the variables were not all stationary at same order of integration this suggests the possibility of co-integration of the variables in the model. It also indicated the use of panel ARDL in the analysis. Therefore, in order to avoid the misinterpretation bias that comes with analyzing co-integrated variables, the study tested for cointegration using Westerlund’s Cointegration test.

Table 4.3: Cointegration Test Result using Westerlund’s Test.

The study used the Westerlund’s test for cointegration which is a more robust test as it allows for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity considering short-term dynamics and long-run cointegration relationships. This test provides four distinct test statistics, two based on the panel as a whole (within-dimension) and two based on individual group members (between-dimension). The null hypothesis is that there is no cointegration while the alternative is the cointegration exists.

If any of the four statistics (Gt, Ga, Pt, Pa) are significant, this suggests that at least some cross-sectional units (or the entire panel) are cointegrated.

The result in table 3 shows that two out of the four statistics are significant at five (5) percent indicating the existence of cointegration among the variables of the model.

Table 4.4: Results of Hausman test of PMG and MG of the Model

Chi2(3) = 0.00

Prob>chi2 = 1.0000

Source: Author’s Computation using Stata version 15

The study employed the Hausman specification test to determine whether to use the pooled mean group model or the mean group model.

It is a test of hypothesis of the coefficients whether they are systematic or otherwise. If the probability chi-squares of the model is less than 0.05 that is at 5% significance level the null hypothesis is rejected suggesting the use of mean group (MG) model or otherwise the pooled mean group (PMG) model is adopted.

The results of the Hausman specification test in table 4.4 above shows that the probability chi square is 1.0000 hence significant and so we accept the null hypothesis of ‘difference in coefficients not systematic’ and conclude to use the PMG model for analysis of this study.

Table 4.5: Results of Pooled Mean Group (PMG) model Analysis of SDI Model

Source: Author’s Computation using Stata 15 Version Prob>F = 0.0000

The F- probability of F value of 0.000 suggests that the model is significant at 5% significance level. The long run results from the PMG model in table 4.5 shows that GHE, and EDI have positive but insignificant relationship with SDI while GEE has a negative and significant relationship with SDI in the period of study.

In the short run of the model in table 4.5 shows that GHE and GEE, are positively related to SDI while EDI is negatively related to SDI in the period under study, the result however, indicated that only EDI was found to be a significant determinant of SDI. The error term ECT is correctly signed and significant at 5%. The long run disequilibrium is corrected into short run equilibrium at a speed of 51.2%

Post Estimation Diagnostic Tests

Test for Cross Sectional Dependence/Contemporaneous Correlation

The test for cross sectional dependence or contemporaneous correlation is more of an issue in macro panels with long time series over 20-30 years. However, the test was carried out using the Pesaran Test and the Pesaran’s test of cross-sectional independence is 1.072 with Pr of 0.2838. The Average absolute value of the off-diagonal elements is 0.275. These results indicated the independence of the countries in terms of data behavior.

Test for Autocorrelation

The Wooldridge test for autocorrelation was carried out and the result indicated the existence of no first order serial correlation with the prob>F of 0.0038.

Test Heteroscedasticity

The Breusch and Pagan Lagrangian multiplier test for Heteroscedasticity was carried out and the result show that the prob>chibar2 of 0.1058 less than 5% significant value and chibar² value of 13.18 indicate absence of Heteroscedasticity.

Variance Inflation Factor

The Variance Inflation Factor a test for multicollinearity among the variables used for the study was carried out and the results is presented below;

Table 6: Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)

Source: Extract from computer on regression of data using Stata version 15.

The Variance Inflation Factor of the variables is less than 10 with a mean of 1.19 an indication of no multicollinearity.

The study found that Government expenditure on education in West Africa has a powerful effect on the Sustainable Development Index (SDI), particularly by addressing critical Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that contribute to economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability. Investment in education helps to build a skilled and knowledgeable workforce, which increases productivity, economic growth, while reducing poverty in West Africa, where economic opportunities are often limited. Furthermore, educated individuals are more likely to gain employment in diverse sectors, moving beyond subsistence activities to formal employment. This transition generates income, improves living standards, and reduces poverty. This goes to contribute to the attainment of Poverty Reduction and Economic Growth (SDG 1 and SDG 8).

Education expenditure is also instrumental to an increase in the number of educated individuals who are generally more informed about health practices, nutrition, sanitation, and disease prevention. This contributes directly to better health outcomes and sustainable population growth thereby improving employment opportunities, leading to enhanced health outcomes (SDG 3).

Government spending on education also creates equal access opportunities for girls, promoting gender equality. This generally propels the attainment of Improved Gender Equality (SDG 5). Education expenditure will also propel innovation and sustainable infrastructure (SDG 9) since education promotes critical thinking and technical skills, which are essential for fostering local innovation, technological development, and modernizing agriculture, industry, and services.

Another goal that government expenditure on education will improve is environmental sustainability (SDG 13) since education can instill awareness of climate change and environmental sustainability from a young age. Schools can teach sustainable practices that shape generations prepared to address environmental challenges, particularly in agriculture, resource management, and conservation.

The findings of the study also indicated that government health expenditure has a significant and positive impact on the Sustainable Development Index (SDI) in West Africa, particularly because increased investment in health services supports multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) directly related to well-being, economic growth, and social equity.

Specifically, increased health spending allows for improved healthcare infrastructure, access to medicines, vaccinations, and trained health professionals, reducing maternal, neonatal, and child mortality rates. This directly advances SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being), improving health indicators across the SDI. Similarly, allocating resources for combating communicable diseases (such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis) helps to lower the burden of these diseases, improving quality of life and increasing life expectancy.

A healthier workforce is a more productive workforce. Health expenditure improves physical and mental health, reduces absenteeism, and enables individuals to contribute more effectively to the economy. Healthcare costs constitute a significant source of poverty. When governments subsidize or provide free healthcare, it reduces financial strain on individuals and families, preventing the downward economic spiral that often accompanies serious illness, especially in low-income communities. This will eventually contribute to the attainment of economic growth and reduced poverty (SDG 1 and SDG 8).

Investment in health also leads to healthier children, which results in better educational outcomes. Healthier children are more likely to attend school regularly, concentrate, and perform well, which ultimately raises education levels and supports long-term sustainable development thereby leading to Educational Attainment (SDG 4).

Targeted health expenditure can ensure marginalized communities gain better access to healthcare, reducing inequalities in health outcomes and supporting a more inclusive development path. This directly advances Social Equity and Inclusion (SDG 10)

An improvement in the education index positively impacts the Sustainable Development Index (SDI) in West Africa by addressing several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and promoting long-term social, economic, and environmental sustainability. A higher education index means a better-educated workforce with the skills needed for diverse industries. This fosters economic growth, enhances productivity, and enables the region to move beyond dependence on subsistence activities, which reduces poverty and creates better-paying jobs, thereby contributing to the attainment of sustainable development, specifically by achieving Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction (SDG 1 and SDG 8)

Furthermore, educated individuals tend to make healthier lifestyle choices and are more aware of preventive health practices. This leads to lower rates of communicable diseases, better maternal and child health, and reduced healthcare costs, contributing to overall well-being and longer life expectancy. This will contribute to the attainment of the specific goal of improving Health and Well-Being (SDG 3).

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings of the study, the following suggestions are recommended the governments and members of the private sector in the West African countries must as a matter of priority continue to increase their education expenditure in providing the needed resources and remuneration for this sector to improve literacy rate across the region and improve sustainable development.

Government spending and private sector investment in the health sector in West African countries should be increased to improve health outcomes and increase the chances of achieving the sustainable development goals.

A deliberate policy to pursue mass literacy, improve enrolment and completion of studies at various levels and a reduction in out of school children must be formulated and implemented to further improve literacy rate and human development thereby contributing to the attainment of sustainable development in West African.

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