Effects of the Anglophone crisis on CDC (Cameroon Development Corporation) Workers in Tiko-Cameroon from 2014-2023

Effects of the Anglophone crisis on CDC (Cameroon Development Corporation) Workers in Tiko-Cameroon from 2014-2023

Ete Effillo Pascaline^*1 and Balgah Sounders Nguh²

^1,2Department of Geography, Faculty of Social and Management Science, University of Buea, P.O Box 63, 00237, Buea, Cameroon

^*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010057

Received: 19 October 2024; Accepted: 30 October 2024; Published: 31 January 2025

ABSTRACT

Inter group conflict has remained a serious setbacks to socio-economic developments in Sub- Saharan Africa. Intergroup conflict characterised by forced displacements, particularly impact economic activities like agriculture given the unsafe nature of the fields and consequent rural depopulation. This is evident with the Anglophone Crisis in Cameroon where workers within the agricultural plantation of the Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC) are significantly affected. This article examines the effects of the Anglophone Crisis on CDC plantation workers in Tiko. The study uses a mixed research approach to collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data. Primary data on the effects of the crisis were obtained through field surveys involving field interviews, questionnaires and field observations. Secondary data were obtained from the CDC head office at Botaland, Limbe. The effects of the Anglophone crisis on CDC plantation workers were established using descriptive and inferential statistical analysis of Pearson Product Moment Correlation. Results reveal that the Anglophone crisis has significant adverse effects on the livelihoods of CDC workers. The crisis has led to a drastic reduction in the level of productivity of the workers and consequently low yields. This has been attributed to factors such as regular ghost towns, frequent lockdowns and threats on workers, all being consequences of the crisis. Workers of the corporation suffered gross rights violations such as murders, amputations, and abductions for ransom. The non-payment of their salaries attributed to the decline in productivity and income of the corporation. As recommendations, stakeholders should ensure workers’ diversification of livelihood opportunities, the provision of more lands by CDC to workers for food crop production, the improvement of the social security situation through the resolution of the conflict and the resilience of CDC workers in Tiko.

Keywords: Anglophone crisis, CDC, Effects, Livelihood, Plantation workers, Tiko.

INTRODUCTION

Intergroup conflict is a pervasive and persistent feature of human societies, occurring in various forms and context around the world (Cohen, 2015). Countless drivers often contribute to this growing phenomenon as propounded by many theories. The most prominent among these theories is the social identify theory which emphasises on competition for scarce resources (Sherif, 1966) and cultural and historical factors such as colonialism and social inequality (Said, 1978), each having profound implication in terms of violence displacement and human right abuse on the local communities (Collier, 2007). Stakeholders across the world are calling for immediate actions towards addressing intergroup conflict. However, this will require a numbered of understanding of the complex historical, cultural and social factors, that drive these conflicts (Ledgrach, 1997). This is because, failure to address the negative implication of intergroup conflict in the society can undermine social cohesion, increase the intensity of economic lost and political stability within the affected regions, communities or countries (Collier, 2007).

Intergroup conflict due to diverse interests over scarce resources including power, wealth, social identification, prestige, and threats to status varies across different context. For instance, Tajfel and Turner (1997) noted that the Ukraine and Russia crisis among the military coup which  resulted to a rising tension within the region and an unresolved problem of the insurgence within Russia’s expansionist ambitions throughout the previous decade has affected the population and neighbors (Wilson, 2014).  Conversely in Sudan and the Congo in Africa, these conflicts are caused by either the struggle for socio-economic and political power, religious intolerance, ethnicity, secession, terrorism and the struggle over scarce natural resources such as the resulting to deaths and unrivaled additional human suffering from the use of rape as a war weapon, the recruitment of child soldiers, mass displacement and chronic poverty (Micheal & John, 2012).  Where ever there is intergroup conflict, the nature and manner to which they spread and appear have resulted to the extensive loss of human lives, destruction of properties, and damages to infrastructural development in as the case in South Sudan, Gaza, Syria and Central African Republic (CAR) (Nyadera, 2018; Kacowic, 1997). In most cases, these different groups have differing opinions and hence do not understand each other (John, 1976; 2005).

During the mid-1980s, evidence shows that many countries in West and Central Africa were under the weight of prolonged and scourging economic crisis, given that these countries depended mostly on the exportation of agricultural products which suffered instability and fluctuation in world market prices. This caused crisis in many plantations which significantly affected the livelihoods of the workers (Damian, 2002). This is because agro-industrial companies found it difficult to survive as some were forced to reduce their labour force or embrace privatization. Intergroup crisis and threat of violence may affect agricultural decisions for plantations in a variety of ways in these countries. For instance, (agricultural) assets that support peacetime livelihoods may become liabilities for intergroup conflicts (Lautze & Raven-Roberts, 2007).  Statistics revealed that agriculture (including allied activities) accounts for only 18 % of GDP in 2007-08 (Economic Survey, 2008-09), but it is a source of income and employment for more than 2/3 of the nation’s population (Christopher, 2009). It is a fact that the relative contribution of agriculture to the livelihood of plantation workers has been declining over time as a result of inter-group conflict affecting the plantation industries (Christopher, 2009).

For instance, countries like, Nigeria, Congo, Rwanda, Syria and part of Kenya have had instances of underdevelopment precipitated by intergroup conflicts particularly in agriculture and related activities resulting to loss of lives and destruction of properties. Similarly, intergroup crisis in Cameroon has led to the destruction of a lot of what was developed as from 2014 during the time of stability in CDC Tiko Plantations. It breaks infrastructure such as farms/packing houses and of plantations such as the Mondoni and Esuka farm houses, created for economic development. In addition, businesses are also brought down, infrastructure are destroyed such as burning of farm houses, cars, houses of workers, schools and the lives of people who drive development activities are lost. This in turn has caused the workers to be able to build up resilience strategies such as skill acquisition, farming, bike riding and menial jobs so as to sustain their livelihood, shattered by the crisis (Nangwiri, 2022).

In Cameroon, socio-political violence due to disagreement between the government and the separatists’ group in the North and South West Regions has been widespread since 2016, as armed separatists seek independence for the country’s minority Anglophones (International Organisation for Migration, (IOM, 2022). The Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC) remains an agro-industrial complex that employs and provide livelihood to many Cameroonians (Muleng, 2021). However, the outbreak of the Anglophone crisis in 2016 has significant impact on the performance of the CDC specifically in the Rubber, Palm and Banana plantation sectors. The crisis has affected the CDC plantations through the loss of lives of some of its workers, destruction of properties, harassment of the workers, kidnappings and demand for ransom. These manifestations of the crisis have affected the agro-based company to a level where it is barely operational (Muleng, 2021).

The socio-political crisis which evolved from a strike action by teachers and lawyer in 2016, has resulted to an armed conflict between secessionists (also known as the Ambazonian militant groups) and the Cameroonian government forces in the NW/SW Regions of Cameroon. Confrontations between the national army and separatist fighters within and around the Tiko plantation communities have paralyzed activities of the CDC considered as the biggest employer after the state. Consequently, the livelihood of the plantation workers has dropped drastically with workers being unable to provide three square meals for their families a day while most of their children have dropped out of school because of no salaries. The plantation has significantly witnessed a progressive drop in its production capacity because the workers are exposed and threatened by the separatist fighters. The production of rubber (40.3%), banana (30%) and palm oil (21.14%) products have since 2017 been dropping as the years go by, thus affecting the corporation and the livelihood of its workers as well as the socio-economic and political functioning of the South West Region in particular and the country as a whole (Muleng, 2021).

The socio-political crisis has greatly affected the CDC plantations (Rubber, Banana and Palm) in Tiko as the corporation has witnessed severe damages and destruction of the plantation properties with direct consequences on the livelihood situation of the plantation workers. In 2019, only 7 out of 29 CDC production sites were fully operational in Tiko. Twelve had been shut down while 10 were partially functioning. This had an adverse impact on the production capacity and the workers in the plantations (Muleng, 2021). For rubber, annual production dropped from about 16,894 tons in 2017 to 2,884 tons in 2019, palm oil production dropped from 125,370 tons in 2017 to 72,435 tons in 2020 while banana production dropped from 113,858 to 6,178 tons over the same period with a variation in the % of crops achieved at the end of the year (CDC Groups office, 2023).The drop in productivity was because workers were forced to stop work as a result of the Anglophone crisis.

Moreso, the CDC processing plants in Tiko and its workers suffered from the negative effect of the crisis as some separatists fighters established their operation camps at the CDC plantations, forcing workers to abandon the farms and flee for safety. The disruption in activities saw CDC’s revenue plummet, and the company has since continued to default in the payment of workers’ wages especially the rubber and palm workers in Tiko thus, the socio-political crisis has negatively affected the CDC plantations and the livelihood of the workers most especially in Tiko. Nonetheless, the corporation been steadfast in spite of the challenges faced. Thus, this study seeks to investigate the nature and effects of the Anglophone Crisis on the livelihood of CDC Plantation workers in Tiko Sub-Division of the South West Region of Cameroon.

STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Study Area

Tiko is located along the coast line of Fako Division in the South-West Region of Cameroon. It is located approximately between Latitude 4007’86.10S and Latitudes 4004’30.00 N and Longitude 9.36806 East and Longitudes 9021’36.00 of the Greenwich Meridian. Tiko Sub-Division covers a surface area of approximately 484km2. It is bounded on the West and South by Biafra, in the East by Wouri and Mungo Divisions of the Littoral Region and on the North by Meme and Ndian Divisions (Map 1). The population of Tiko is estimated to be more than 2,106 inhabitants spread over a surface area of 484km2 (Tiko Council, 2022).

The CDC is an Industrial complex that grows processes and markets tropical exports crops (banana, rubber and palm oil). It operates in Cameroon in the Central African sub-region created in 1947 and managed by the Cameroon government and in 2009; the Banana Expansion Project (BEP) was created. The two projects were merged in 2013, and the CDC now has one certification for both projects. It is a parastatal company with current share capital of 35,718,806,000fcfa, and its operations are coordinated by the General Manager and governed by a Board of Directors presided by a chairman. Currently, its plantations cover a total of approximately 42,000Ht of land, 38,000 Hectares are of the production stage. The corporation constitutes a workforce of over 22,036 employees, including temporary workers, making it the second highest employer after the state of Cameroon. Its major products include banana, semi-finished rubber, palm oil and palm kernel oil (CDC Head Office, 2022). Tiko experiences a tropical climate with two seasons: the rainy and dry seasons. This climate type is hot and humid throughout with two distinct seasons: a 4-month dry season from November to mid-March and an 8-month rainy season that runs from mid-March to November with a mean annual rainfall of about 3,100 mm (2000mm-4000mm) with an average daily temperature of 28◦C (Che et al., 2012, Philemon, 2022). It has a mean temperature of 26oC which is basic temperature required for the growth of oil palm, rubber, banana and large-scale agriculture (Melle et al., 2019). Climate has thus affected these products directly or indirectly through increasing trends of temperature, rainfall, extreme weather events and the impacts of pests and diseases which intend to reduce the growth and eventually a decline in revenue.

Map 1 is a presentation of the study area (CDC Plantations). The map comprises of the various CDC Plantations sites and the selected Camps within the study area including Mondoni Banana, Koke, Mondoni Palm, Bwinga, Miselele, Sonne, Water Tank, Esuka, Benoe and Moquo which are facing accurate challenges due to socio-political crisis.

Map 1: Study Sites in Tiko Sub Division of Fako Division, South West Region of Cameroon

Source: Adapted from the Administrative Unit Map of Cameroon, 2016

Data Collection Procedure and Analyses

The study used a mixed research design intended to acquire qualitative and quantitative data relating to the effects of the Anglophone Crisis on CDC Plantation Workers in Tiko. This research entails a large population of the plantation workers from every group which cannot be studied completely. As such, 10 camps were selected from the three crop groups which are Rubber, Banana and Palm plantation consisting of a population size of 21,250 plantation workers. The formula to determine the sample size for the study was achieved from the procedure developed by Krejcie and Morgan, (1970). This is expressed as follows:

𝑠 = 𝑋2(1 − 𝑃) (𝑑2(𝑁 − 1) + 𝑋2𝑃(1 − 𝑃)

Where: s = required sample size.

X2= the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level (3.841).

N = the population size.

P = the population proportion (assumed to be .50 since this would provide the maximum sample size).

d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05).

Based on the above and with a population of 21,250 plantation workers, the sample size adopted for this study is seen on table 1.

Table 1: Number of questionnaires distributed to the different selected camps

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

From table 1, it is important to note that 255 questionnaires were distributed with 30 in Koke, 40 in Mondoni Palm, 25 in Bwinga, 30 in Miselele, 20 in Sonne, 25 in Mondoni Banana, 19 in water Tank, 21 in Esuka, 22 in Benoe and 23 in Moquo camps. These were calculated in relation to the total population within each camp. This explains the variation in the sample population selected within each of the 10 camps as shown on Table 1. Within the camps indicated, 02 key informants were selected within each for the interview. This consisted of a total of 08 interviews for this study. The study made use of different study interviews to achieve the study objectives. Semi-structured questions were asked by the researcher to Managers and field supervisors and some workers found in the study area during the time of the study. It further provided an opportunity to identify possible challenges that workers encountered in coping with and adapting to effects of the Anglophone Crisis. The method provided an opportunity to capture information which would be difficult to observe or obtain through the use of other techniques such as a questionnaire survey and field observation.

Furthermore, questionnaires were administered to 255 respondents (sample population). The respondents were randomly selected and information gotten from them was based on their living and working conditions in the plantations. These questionnaires were distributed to the respondents and about a week given so that they could be properly filled while some filled on the spot. Questionnaires designed were semi-structured involving a combination of open-ended and close-ended questions. These questions were aimed at acquiring both descriptive and inferential data to meet up the objectives of the study which was to investigate the nature and effects of the Anglophone Crisis on the livelihood of the CDC plantation workers in Tiko Sub- Division. A variety of vital data were consulted from various secondary sources. Vital information such as the numbers of workers employed over the years, the productivity rates and the casualties of workers were obtained from the Head Office and the various intergroup Offices. These sources were used to collect and analyse the literature on intergroup conflicts and the livelihood implications of workers in other parts of the work. They also helped to review adaptation mechanisms used by conflict-affected areas in the CDC plantations. Data was also collected from various literature sources, including books, journals, articles and reports. The collected data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Inferential statistics were used to illustrate the relationship between nature and its effects on the workers’ livelihoods and the productivity of the plantation. Descriptive analysis was used to compute the effects of the Anglophone crisis on livelihood of the CDC workers. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software Version 23 and Microsoft Excel 2010 were used to code and analyse the worker’s responses from the questionnaires. Presentation of the analysed descriptive data was in the form of tables and figures.

Before the study was conducted, written consent was obtained from the Divisional Officer (SDO) of Fako and other related Divisional delegations of decentralization and rural development, agriculture, the General Manager of CDC and the Mayor of Tiko and approval was obtained from these authorities. The participants were informed about the purpose of this study, that the information obtained in the study would not be used outside the study and that the confidentiality of their personal information would be protected.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section explore the manifestations of the crisis in CDC plantations include; abduction /casualties of workers, lockdowns, assault on workers, reduction in productivity and increased unemployment and the effects of the crisis on productivity.

Manifestations and Evidences of crisis in CDC Plantations

The Anglophone Crisis had varied dimensions on which it affected the CDC plantations and its workers. Figure 1 presents the findings on how the Anglophone crisis affected CDC plantations and its workers.

Figure 1: Various Manifestations of the Anglophone Crisis in the Study Area Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Figure 1 presents the different ways in which the Anglophone crisis manifested which include; ghost towns (21.10%), gunshots (8.70%), burning of property (6.40%), threats to the workers (4.90%), killing of workers (10.60%) and harassment (1.50%). Majority (46.80%) of the workers indicated that they suffered the various manifestations of the Anglophone crisis which affected the activities of the plantations and the livelihood of the workers. To further support this result, an interview with one of the managers noted that; ‘The working conditions became difficult most especially for those living in the Sonne camp, Water Trank camp and Koke camp which resulted to displacement and insecurity of the plantation workers, forcing many to flee from their homes and seek refuge in communities outside the plantations.’’ (Interview from the Rubber Estate Manager, 2023).

Trends of CDC Workers Casualties from the Crisis between 2018 – 2023

Based on the trends of casualties from the crisis, results from the study revealed that, the crisis left an undeletable memory on the minds of the three plantation groups that is Rubber, Banana and Palm plantation workers, from the amputation of worker’s limbs, fingers to death and trauma as seen on Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2, shows casualties of the rubber plantation as a result of the Anglophone crisis. The Anglophone crisis intensified in 2019 and the rubber plantation was hard hit with several attacks from the armed group which led to the cutting of legs (3), fingers (2), hands (2) and death (1) of the plantation workers. Since then, there have been sporadic attacks which many at times left a handful of workers wounded and some end up dying of trauma and amputations. Looking at the rate of death, from 2018 to 2023, as reported by palm insurance personnel; there has been a continuous series of deaths recorded amongst the CDC rubber workers, mostly those leaving in camp Sone (Rubber worker, 2023).

Figure 2: Proportions of CDC Rubber plantation workers Casualties from 2016-2023

Source:  Health Insurance personnel Group Rubber Office, 2023

The year 2018 and 2022 recorded the highest number of deaths (6) as compared to 2023 and 2020 with 4 deaths, while in 2019 and 2021 only 1 death was recorded due to the fact that many workers had stopped going to the field. In 2021, the rate of injuries (46) were very high as compared to 2022 (5) leaving the workers crippled and handicap. In an interview with the Project Manager of Mondoni banana farm; ‘’The Banana Plantation was not spared from the attacks of the separatist fighters. Some workers were often attacked while on their way to work in the plantations’; (Interview with the PMM, 2023). This severely affected productivity as there were many workers were casualties. Workers in the banana and rubber plantations experienced more casualties with 43 injured and 6 workers been killed than those of palm plantations who experienced 4 death throughout the crisis period as seen in Figure 3

Figure 3: Proportions of CDC Banana Plantation workers Casualties from 2016-2023

Source:  Health Insurance personnel Group Banana Office, 2023

Figure 3, shows casualties in the banana plantation. Unlike those of palm plantation, they have been the most severely affected production unit of the CDC plantation. The number of casualties started to rise in 2018 with injuries (43) of workers, the cutting of workers legs (4), fingers (3) and hands (1) and in 2020 (2 hands) and 2022 (5 injuries). 2023 was the peak year during which the plantation was severely affected leaving a dozen workers killed (6), with more than 26 workers having their legs cut off, 5 hands chopped off, 47 injuries and 26 other casualties such as heads, ribs, chest and knees. The plantation tractors were set ablaze by non-state armed men fighting to separate the English-speaking part of the country. Apart from the deaths of these plantation workers, the management also said that some workers had injuries on their heads, ribs, chest and knees which rendered them less active for the time being as indicated by Banana Human Resource Officer; ‘’The separatists’ attacks on banana plantation workers in 2018 were mostly in the Mafanja Banana Estate (in August 2018), while the attacks in 2023 were on the workers of Mondoni Banana Project which culminated in the demise of 6 workers. Also the result of ghost towns, gunshots, burning of CDC properties, threat on workers and killing of workers among which gunshots were the most disturbing as many recount that in any situation of gunshots there was likely to be loss of lives. 46 workers have been gun downed by the armed group as a result of the crisis in the plantation’’ (Interview from the HOR, 2023).

From the data collected, it was revealed that the palm plantation did not experience heavy casualties like the Banana and Rubber plantations whose workers recorded from high casualties as a result of the crisis. It was only in 2020 that the palm plantation lost 4 of its workers due to the crisis. But the workers have experienced other effects of the Anglophone crisis such as gunshots, harassment and payment of ransom for abductions.

Measuring the Proportion of Assault on CDC Workers during the Crisis

The Anglophone Crisis has brought untold assaults and threats to hundreds of CDC plantation workers. This scared many who abandoned their jobs for safety and those who left have faced severe consequences as seen on figure 4.

Figure 4: Assault and threat to CDC workers during the Crisis

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Figure 4 indicate that, 41.5% of the respondents received harassments from non-state armed men, while 9.4% of respondents indicated that the threats they received were payment of ransom which affected them negatively and some are still in shock. The payment of ransom has crumbled the finances and petty businesses such as sales of fuels, sales of cars parts and food stuffs of some workers who have been victims of the armed men. Kidnapping, vandalism and killing were also among the many threats received by the workers which has affected them psychologically and physically, this makes it difficult for some of the workers to recover from these experiences. The rate at which CDC workers were vandalised (30.6%) and kidnapped (18.5%) was a call for concern because both male and female CDC workers including their children were victims however, the women and children were more exposed and vulnerable to the crisis effects. The crisis also led to the destruction of roads and communication networks within the different camps.

Effects of the crisis on Productivity in CDC

Effects of the Crisis on Productivity in CDC

Since the start of the crisis in which year, crop productions in the different plantations that is rubber, banana and palm have greatly been affected. There is a great variation of crop productions within the three plantations.  As for the palm production as indicated on figure 5, there is a significant variation on production due to the crisis.

Figure 5: Production of Palm plantation from 2016-2023

Source: Group Palm Office, 2023

Figure 5 shows the productivity of palm plantation from 2016 to 2023 result indicates the estimated crop to be produced and the percentages of crops finally produced. In 2018, the plantation experienced the highest rate of production (132,984 million tons), but from 2019-2020 which was the peak of the crisis the plantation suffered a severe drop in production (72435 mt). The plantation started recovering from 2021-2023 with an increased in production (87630 mt). Additionally, during this period the production of the banana plantation was also analysed with a great variation in productivity from that of the palm plantation due to the manifestation and effects of the crisis which greatly affected the plantation. During the data collection, it was revealed by the HRO for banana plantation that; ‘’The banana plantations have been severely affected in their crop productions and as a result, two of the banana estates were shot down that is; Mafanji I and II and Moko which affected productivity’’ (Interview from the HRO, 2023).Figure 6 shows the trend of production for banana plantations from 2016-2023 and the variation in production which has significantly dropped as a result of the crisis.

Figure 6: Production of Banana plantation from 2016-2023

Source: Banana Group Office, 2023

As seen on Figure 6, on production of bananas from 2016 to 2023, there has been a sharp variation in its production. Banana production has been one of CDC’s crops which have been hard hit within the Anglophone crisis by the separatist in their economic sabotage activity which has led to a decrease in crop production. It was in 2019 (0 crop produced) that the group felt the greatest impact of the Socio-political crisis as the plantation was temporally shutdown they started attacking the plantations from March 2018, where it led to effective stop of production in July 2018 as the banana plantation workers were being targeted and many of them fled for their life’s abandoning the farms. As of 2020 (6,178 mt), CDC started to open new farms as the plantation workers had developed resilience on the crisis and it has seen its production stepped up in 2022 (21,122 mt). It was stated by the Group Manager that; ‘’There are projections from the management that if the trends of production remains the same by 2025, they will meet their target of productivity’’ (Interview from the Group Manager, 2023).

Moreso, the rubber plantations have been affected by the crisis and this can be justified by the sluggish respond in its production and the living conditions of the workers. Figure 7, shows the tonnage of crop produced at the end of the year from 2016-2023.

Figure 7: Production of Rubber plantations from 2016-2023

Source: Group Rubber Office, 2023

Figure 7, contains the tonnage of rubber production since the start of the crisis, their productivity has largely been below the target level (18,500) estimated to be produced at the end of each year. 2018 saw the highest achieved tonnage productivity (71,407) with a percentage of 40.3% since the beginning of the crisis. 2019 was the year crop productivity dropped (2,884) to bare minimum with the plantation achieving only 21.2% of the projected production for the year.

Effects of Irregularities of Salary on CDC Workers

Despite the Anglophone crisis, Tiko CDC plantation workers still carried out field activities. Therefore, the researchers sought to know if the workers despite the crisis have been receiving their salaries regularly or how irregular have, they been without salaries (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Irregularity of Salaries

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

In figure 8, the salaries of CDC plantation workers have been irregular even before the onset of Anglophone crisis as 28% of workers had been for 4 to 6 months without their monthly payments. 25% of workers have not been receiving salaries for 7 to 10 months, while 24% stayed for more than a year without salaries, 14% had been for a period of 11 to 12 months without salaries and 9% of the workers had not received salaries for less than 3 months. This has severely affected workers living conditions and standard of living. Consequently, workers are unable to send their children to school provide essential home needs and have a proper meal. As stated by one field manager of rubber plantation: ‘’Workers who have stayed for long without salaries are mostly the rubber and palm workers and has led to the reduction of the numbers of workers within the plantations’’ (Interview with Field manager, 2023). The banana workers as per respondents have been receiving a regular salary but the palm and rubber workers have been within the period of 3 months without salaries.

Effects of Crisis on Workers Employment Rates

The three plantations have had different numbers of workers employed from 2016 to 2023 and can be presented as: rubber 47,584, banana 19,752 and palm 28,722. These figures have continually fallen short of CDC targeted employee rates. This constant drop results from the effects of the crisis on the plantation workers who choose their lives over assault and threats. The depth at which unemployment is setting among CDC workers is presented on figure 9.

Figure 9: Trends of CDC plantation workers employed from 2016 to 2023

Source: CDC groups Office

Figure 9, shows the trend of the three Plantations on the number of workers being employed from 2016 to 2023. In 2019, the banana plantation had the greatest drop in the number of workers employed with 503 active and 5,587 on technical leave, because of repeated attacks especially in the Mondoni banana plantation shot down in 2018 (Interview, 2023)

Moreover, the Packing House of Mafanja Banana estate was burned due to the crisis and even closed down in 2019 in order to recover from the crisis in 2020 a nursey farm for banana was open at the Mondoni banana farm. The number of banana workers in 2022, has increased (2,332) as the Plantations opened up new Farm Houses and banana nursey projects. In 2016, the palm plantation had many workers (4,678) despite the crisis but got affected in 2022 resulting to the drop of workers employed (2,393). The Rubber Plantation has had the highest number of workers employed throughout the years. In 2016, the number of workers employed was (7,710) while banana had the least number of workers reason being that, most of their workers were placed on technical leave because of the short down in operation and the lock down of its two estates.

DISCUSSIONS

The results from this study reveals that the nature and effects of the Anglophone crisis on CDC plantation workers paralysed so many businesses such as sales of fuels, sales of cars parts and food stuffs and the educational sectors of the CDC plantations which caused children not go attend schools. This sabotaged the economic activities of the plantations like the production output and the sales to the market, resulting to a progressive and significant drop in its production capacity as workers were exposed to threats from the separatist fighters, which resulted to abuses such as; killing of plantation workers especially the Mondoni plantation workers, destruction of properties, harassment of workers, kidnapping and payment of ransom.

However, the manifestations of the Anglophone crisis ranged from gunshots, ghost towns, harassment, kidnapping for ransom and due to the insecurity of the workers and the plantations. Many workers fled their homes and sought refuge in safer areas such as in Tiko town and other places out of Tiko. This resulted to injuries, loss of lives, burning of properties, threats to workers and a constant state of fear and insecurity among the workers. In addition, the conflict has led to the destruction of infrastructure, including roads, and communication networks, making it difficult for the CDC workers to access basic services such as healthcare, education, and transportation. These findings are consistent with that of Muleng (2021) who in assessing the resilience and livelihood strategies of the plantation workers in the face of the Anglophone crisis argued that, the Anglophone crisis in Cameroon has led to the disruption, of the normal structures of the plantations and has forced workers to flee from the plantations.

The confrontations between the national army and separatist fighters in and around the plantations have paralyzed activities within the CDC plantations, which agrees with the findings of Nangwiri (2010) who observed that the Anglophone crisis has created new vulnerabilities for the plantation workers, including a lack of educational and economic opportunities which has led to the feeling of anger, disillusionment and frustration of the plantation workers. This was in line with Conroy and Chambers (2021) who observed that the plantation workers of CDC have been particularly affected by the crisis in several ways such as the loss of livelihood, as many workers have been laid off or have their salaries/wages cut, decline in living standards as the cost of living increased while wages have decreased and the loss of social benefits and services such as healthcare and education.

Another revelation is that from the perception of workers that were sampled on the field, the crisis has shown its dark side because of security lapses portrayed by the CDC plantations and the state security. The result revealed that the level of security in the plantations do not keep the workers safe from the separatist fighters and the security level is low and its confirmed with the works of Muleng (2021) and that of Nangwiri, (2022), that the level of security provided to plantation workers are not well strategist to protect the workers from harm or attacks from armed groups because some family and friends have been kidnapped or harassed before the security personnel arrived who are stationed to protect them.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Anglophone crisis since 2016 have had far reaching manifestation, effects on the CDC plantations worker and their productivity. The effects of the crisis included frequent gunshots, lockdowns, killing of workers, torture, and harassment made productivity and the living conditions of workers unbearable. These traumatic experiences, irregular salaries, poor conditions of houses, poor health, and the working conditions and other have brought untold suffering to plantation workers. The ramification of the crisis also brought unbearable hardship to families as they were unable to feed well, living in constant fear and insecurity

Given the socio-economic effects of the Anglophone Crisis on CDC plantations and its workers in Tiko, stakeholders need to work towards finding a peaceful resolution to the crisis, to mitigate its impact on the wellbeing and the livelihoods of the plantation workers. Specifically the government should ensure the security of the plantations and its workers implement and enhance physical, psychological, and social protection programs specifically targeted towards plantation workers. The local authorities of CDC should improve the socio-economic conditions of the workers such as education, health, housing and ensure that arrears of workers are paid and the salaries augmented. The plantation workers should take maximum precautions and remain collaborative with the authorities to ensure their welfare and security.

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