The Legacy of Du Bois and Garveyism: Assessing the Role of Leadership and Ideological Unity in Africa’s Development.

The Legacy of Du Bois and Garveyism: Assessing the Role of Leadership and Ideological Unity in Africa’s Development

Nnamdi C. Nduneseokwu¹, Obiasoanya Kosiso Modest², Wilson Ifemjika Chinedu³ Ezeanata Peter Chukwubueze⁴ Akunna Christian Chimezie⁵

¹College of Historic Cultures & College of Nationalities, Southwest University, China

²Foreign and Applied Linguistics, Southwest University, China

³Faculty of Education, Southwest University, China

⁴College of Historic Cultures & College of Nationalities, Southwest University, China

⁵School of International Business, Tianjin Foreign Studies University, China

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010159

Received: 19 January 2025; Accepted: 23 January 2025; Published: 08 February 2025

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the enduring legacies of W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey, two iconic figures whose ideologies have profoundly influenced leadership and ideological unity in Africa. While Du Bois emphasized intellectual leadership and collective progress through education and advocacy, Garvey championed grassroots mobilization and economic self-reliance. Both men, despite their differences, shared a vision of empowerment and liberation for African peoples. The study examines the significance of their contributions to shaping leadership models and fostering ideological unity within the African context. Through a comparative analysis of their philosophies, this paper delves into how their ideas have shaped Pan-Africanism and continue to resonate in contemporary efforts toward Africa’s development. Key findings reveal that African leadership must embrace moral responsibility, cultural stewardship, and inclusivity to overcome modern challenges. Ideological unity, though complex in a diverse continent, is critical for fostering collaboration and collective progress. The implications of these insights point to practical policy recommendations for African leaders, including investing in education, promoting cultural pride, and empowering grassroots movements for sustainable development. This study underscores the relevance of revisiting Du Bois and Garvey’s legacies to inspire innovative approaches to leadership and unity in Africa, offering a pathway to realizing the continent’s vast potential.

Keywords— Pan-Africanism, Black Nationalism, Ideological Unity, Leadership in Africa, Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. Du Bois, Economic Self-Reliance, Grassroots Mobilization, Cultural Identity, Talented Tenth, Colonial Legacies, Intellectual Activism, African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), Postcolonial Development, African Diaspora

INTRODUCTION

Africa’s journey toward development has always been closely knitted with the ideas and visions of its greatest advocates. Among these, W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey stand out as monumental figures whose legacies continue to influence the discourse on leadership and unity in Africa. Du Bois, with his intellectual rigor, championed Pan-Africanism as a bridge to connect the struggles of Africans and the African diaspora[i] Garvey, a visionary with unyielding determination, called for black pride, economic self-reliance, and global solidarity. Both men had an unwavering and near-obsessive hope for an Africa whose people are neither oppressed nor ignored. A continent far from one unjustly charred by Eurocentric narratives and exploited for the tables of imperialists and their collaborators.[2] Though their strategies and ideologies often diverged, they shared a common aspiration: the upliftment of Africa and its people. Both visionaries held that “The Black skin is not a badge of shame, but rather a glorious symbol of national greatness” [3] and that “…the human soul [Africans] cannot be permanently chained.” [4] Their legacies are not vestiges of the past but serve as an inspiration for contemporary challenges, especially as Africa grapples with leadership crises and ideological disunity. Despite its vast potential, Africa continues to face significant hurdles in achieving sustainable development. Leadership often falls short of addressing critical issues like economic disparity, political instability, and social fragmentation. Furthermore, ideological disunity—fueled by ethnic diversity, colonial legacies, and external influences—has made it challenging for African nations to align toward common goals. [ 5]

These challenges underscore the relevance of revisiting the principles of Du Bois and Garvey. Could their ideas offer insights into resolving Africa’s leadership crises? Can their emphasis on unity and empowerment inspire a roadmap for development? This paper seeks to explore these questions by delving into the enduring legacy of Du Bois and Garveyism. Specifically, it aims to assess how their philosophies align with Africa’s developmental needs and what practical lessons African leaders can extract from their vision. Through this lens, the paper examines the potential of leadership grounded in education, cultural identity, and self-reliance to address Africa’s pressing challenges. The research questions guiding this exploration are: How do Du Bois and Garvey’s ideologies align with Africa’s developmental needs? And What lessons can African leaders derive from their leadership philosophies? The significance of this laying on its ability to bridge historical legacies with contemporary realities. By analyzing the contributions of Du Bois and Garvey, this paper aims to enrich the discourse on African development, offering fresh perspectives on leadership and unity. It is a call to revisit the wisdom of the past to navigate the complexities of the present and chart a more unified and prosperous future for Africa.

CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

When discussing leadership and unity in Africa, it is impossible not to draw inspiration from the groundbreaking ideologies of W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey. Their visions transcend time, offering blueprints for understanding the interplay between leadership and ideological unity in shaping Africa’s future. The proceeding paragraphs unpack the core concepts and theoretical foundations that guide this exploration.

Leadership in the African Context

Leadership in Africa is a tapestry woven from historical, cultural, and socio-political threads. Unlike the Western notion of leadership, often centered on individualism and hierarchy, African leadership emphasizes communal responsibility, inclusivity, and accountability to the collective. As Rupert Lewis argues, leadership in the African context often seeks to address the scars of colonialism and envision a future grounded in self-reliance and dignity.[6] It seeks not just to govern but to uplift communities, reflecting ideals rooted in African traditions of consensus-building and shared progress. W.E.B. Du Bois emphasized the importance of cultivating an intellectual elite, famously referred to as the “Talented Tenth,” who could lead African and African-American communities out of oppression through education and moral fortitude.[7] Du Bois’s “Talented Tenth” concept underscores this, advocating for leadership that emerges from intellectual and moral excellence to guide and empower the masses.[8] Garvey, meanwhile, championed leadership grounded in economic self-reliance and cultural pride, as exemplified in his call for a unified black identity.[9] Marcus Garvey, believed in mass mobilization and grassroots leadership, asserting that every African had the potential to contribute to the upliftment of the race.[10] Together, their perspectives highlight the tension between hierarchical and participatory models of leadership in Africa.

Ideological Unity

Ideological unity represents the harmonization of diverse cultural, political, and social frameworks to achieve collective progress.[11] For Africa, this unity has been both a necessity and a challenge. The continent’s diversity—over 1,500 languages and myriad ethnic groups—has often been a source of fragmentation, exploited by colonial powers to maintain control.[12] Ideological unity refers to the shared principles and beliefs that bind people together, transcending geographical and cultural divides. In Africa, ideological unity is both a goal and a challenge, given the continent’s language, culture, and history diversity. Du Bois championed ideological unity as a cornerstone of Pan-Africanism, advocating for intellectual solidarity among the African diaspora to confront systemic racism and imperialism. [ 13] He envisioned a global African identity that transcended national borders. [14] In other words, Du Bois envisioned a Pan-African world where unity was intellectual and cultural, driven by a shared struggle for equality.[15]

Garvey, on the other hand, emphasized practical unity through economic solidarity, envisioning a global black enterprise uniting Africans and the diaspora.[16] Garvey approached unity as a call for economic and political self-sufficiency, urging Africans and the diaspora to rally under a shared vision of black empowerment and independence.[17] As Kehinde Andrews notes, ideological unity for Garvey was not just an abstract ideal but a pragmatic strategy for reclaiming autonomy and dignity.[18] This unity, they argued, is foundational for self-determination and development.

Pan-Africanism

Pan-Africanism is the movement advocating for the political, economic, and cultural solidarity of African nations and peoples of African descent worldwide. It emerged as a response to the shared experiences of slavery, colonization, and racial discrimination. The movement has been a central thread in African and African-American intellectual history, from the Pan-African Congress led by Du Bois to Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).[19] Du Bois’s Pan-Africanism was deeply intellectual, emphasizing the power of education and historical awareness in forging unity.[20]] Garvey’s Pan-Africanism, often more pragmatic, focused on the immediate need for economic independence and the establishment of a black-led state.[21] Both approaches highlight Pan-Africanism’s dual nature: it is both a visionary ideology and a call to action.

Theoretical Framework

Leadership Theory

Leadership theory provides a lens through which we can analyze how leaders inspire, mobilize, and transform societies. Du Bois’s emphasis on education and intellectual leadership aligns with the transformational leadership model, which prioritizes vision, inspiration, and moral values.[22] Garvey’s charismatic and mobilization-driven approach resonates with charismatic leadership theory, emphasizing the role of personal influence and collective empowerment.[23] Both theories remind us that leadership in Africa must navigate the intersection of inspiration and action, with a focus on empowering the people.

Ideological Unity within the Context of African Regionalism

African regionalism, as embodied by initiatives like the African Union and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), reflects the continent’s ongoing pursuit of ideological unity. Theories of regional integration, such as neofunctionalism, emphasize the role of shared values and goals in fostering cooperation. This framework aligns with Du Bois and Garvey’s visions of unity. Du Bois’s intellectual focus on shared cultural identity provides a foundation for creating unified regional policies, while Garvey’s economic nationalism highlights the potential for economic collaboration to strengthen regional ties.[24]

Historical Context: Du Bois and Garvey in Focus

The early 20th century witnessed the rise of some notable figures in the global African consciousness, chief amongst which were, W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey.[25] Both men championed the upliftment of people of African descent, but their visions and approaches diverged significantly. While Du Bois leaned toward intellectual activism and Pan-African diplomacy, Garvey’s fiery advocacy for black nationalism and self-reliance mobilized the masses. Together, they laid the ideological foundation for movements that continue to inspire African development and unity.

Du Bois’s Contributions: Pan-Africanism and Intellectual Activism

Born William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, on February 23, 1868, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois was a child of a world seemingly at odds with itself.[26] Born free in a predominantly white town, Du Bois experienced a mix of racial privilege and prejudice that sparked an early awareness of the complexities of race.[27] This duality would define his life’s work. A brilliant student, he attended Fisk University, where he first encountered the realities of Southern racism. This only deepened his resolve to fight for racial equality. Du Bois earned a scholarship to Harvard, becoming the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from the institution in 1895.[28] However, his thirst for knowledge did not stop there; he traveled to Berlin to study at the University of Berlin, where he encountered progressive ideas on sociology and human rights that shaped his global perspective.[29]

Du Bois was, above all, a man of ideas and action. His landmark book, The Souls of Black Folk (1903), introduced the world to the concept of “double consciousness”—the internal conflict of being both Black and American in a deeply segregated society.[30] Du Bois argued that education and leadership from the “Talented Tenth”—the most gifted among African Americans—were key to overcoming racial oppression. But he was no mere theorist. As one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909, Du Bois became the editor of its publication, The Crisis, where he used words as weapons against injustice, championing civil rights, anti-lynching laws, and Pan-Africanism.[31]

In later years, his commitment to socialism and Pan-African unity drew criticism, even from former allies. Du Bois believed the liberation of Africa was inseparable from the freedom of African Americans, and he worked tirelessly to unite the African diaspora through Pan-African Congresses. His evolving views eventually alienated him from the U.S. government, and in 1961, at the age of 93, he moved to Ghana at the invitation of Kwame Nkrumah, where he became a Ghanaian citizen. Du Bois passed away on August 27, 1963, just one day before Martin Luther King Jr.’s historic “I Have a Dream” speech—a poetic reminder of his enduring legacy in the fight for justice. W.E.B. Du Bois was, in many ways, the intellectual cornerstone of the Pan-African movement. His commitment to advancing the rights of black people across the globe was rooted in an unwavering belief in the power of knowledge. As Du Bois eloquently argued in The Souls of Black Folk, education and intellectual engagement were the keys to racial equality.[32] In his text, W.E.B. Du Bois critiqued Booker T. Washington’s philosophy, which advocated for Black compromise on civil and political rights in exchange for economic advancement.[33] This approach was initially controversial among Black Americans, who saw it as a surrender of essential freedoms. Nevertheless, Du Bois continued to called for the “Talented Tenth,” a leadership class of educated African Americans who could guide their communities toward social and economic liberation.[34]

Du Bois was also a relentless advocate for Pan-Africanism, which sought to unite Africans and the diaspora in a shared struggle against colonialism and racism. He organized and participated in several Pan-African Congresses, bringing together leaders and activists from across the globe to address the systemic oppression of African people.[35] For Du Bois, Pan-Africanism was not merely a theoretical framework but a call to action, emphasizing collaboration between intellectuals and grassroots leaders. Equally notable was his dedication to preserving African culture and history. Du Bois saw cultural pride as essential to liberation, challenging the narratives of inferiority imposed by colonial powers. In Africa and the Future, he envisioned a continent revitalized by its rich traditions and empowered by its people’s intellect.[36] His work inspired a generation of African leaders, including Kwame Nkrumah, who credited Du Bois with shaping the philosophical backbone of Ghana’s independence.

Garvey’s Contributions: Black Nationalism and Self-Reliance

Born on August 17, 1887, in St. Ann’s Bay, Jamaica, Marcus Mosiah Garvey was a man who dreamed big. From a young age, Garvey witnessed the struggles of Black Jamaicans living under colonial rule, sparking a lifelong passion for uplifting his people.[37] Though he only received a basic education, Garvey’s ambition and intellect propelled him forward.[38] He became a printer’s apprentice and later traveled through Central America, Britain, and the Caribbean, where he observed the exploitation of African descendants under colonial systems.[39] These experiences shaped his fiery resolve to inspire global Black unity and self-reliance.

In 1914, Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica, a movement dedicated to the social, political, and economic empowerment of people of African descent.[40]  By 1916, he had moved to Harlem, where the UNIA grew into a global movement. At its height, the UNIA boasted millions of members and chapters across the world, from the United States to Africa and the Caribbean. Garvey’s message was revolutionary: he advocated for Black pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the establishment of an independent African nation as a homeland for the diaspora. His slogan, “Africa for the Africans, at home and abroad,” became a rallying cry for the oppressed.[41]  One of Garvey’s boldest ventures was the Black Star Line, a shipping company he established to facilitate trade and migration between Africa and the diaspora.[42]

Though plagued by mismanagement and sabotage, the Black Star Line symbolized Garvey’s audacity to dream of African economic power. Yet, his outspokenness and ambition made him a target. In 1923, he was convicted of mail fraud in connection with the Black Star Line and imprisoned.[43] Many believe his prosecution was politically motivated, a tactic to neutralize a rising Black leader. After serving his sentence, he was deported to Jamaica in 1927, where he continued to advocate for his vision, though his influence waned in later years.[44] Garvey’s ideas were not without controversy. He clashed with W.E.B. Du Bois, who criticized him for his separatist stance and perceived authoritarian tendencies. Still, Garvey’s legacy endures as one of the architects of modern Pan-Africanism. He inspired later movements, including the Civil Rights Movement and African liberation struggles. Marcus Garvey died in London on June 10, 1940, but his dream of a united and self-reliant Africa lives on in the hearts of those who continue to fight for justice.[45]

Marcus Garvey approached the struggle for black empowerment with a fiery pragmatism that resonated with the working class. Born in Jamaica, Garvey believed that self-reliance was the cornerstone of liberation. His philosophy of black nationalism emphasized economic independence, political autonomy, and cultural pride.[46] “Africa for the Africans” became his rallying cry, encapsulating his vision of a united, sovereign Africa free from colonial domination. Garvey’s greatest legacy is the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), which he founded in 1914.[47] The UNIA was not just a movement; it was a global phenomenon, boasting millions of members and chapters across the Americas, the Caribbean, and Africa. Through the UNIA, Garvey established businesses like the Black Star Line, a shipping company meant to facilitate trade and repatriation for African descendants.[48] He believed that economic power was inseparable from political and social liberation, and he tirelessly promoted black-owned enterprises as a means to achieve self-sufficiency. Garvey also leveraged powerful symbols and rhetoric to galvanize his followers. His embrace of African cultural heritage and his call for a return to Africa were transformative, inspiring a sense of pride and identity among his supporters. While his initiatives often faced logistical challenges, Garvey’s impact on black consciousness was undeniable, influencing leaders like Malcolm X and the Rastafarian movement.

COMPARISON OF IDEOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES

Du Bois and Garvey shared a common goal of black liberation, yet their paths toward that goal were strikingly different. Du Bois, with his background in academia, prioritized intellectualism and diplomacy. He believed that systemic change required collaboration with sympathetic allies and engagement with international bodies.[49] His Pan-African Congresses were platforms for dialogue, aimed at influencing global politics and creating a unified intellectual framework for African liberation.

Garvey, by contrast, was a man of the masses. His speeches were fiery, his goals tangible, and his message unyielding: black people must rely on themselves and reclaim their destiny.[50] Where Du Bois sought to elevate an intellectual elite, Garvey worked to empower the everyday man and woman. He rejected the idea of integration with white society, advocating instead for a separate and self-reliant black identity.[51] Their disagreements were as public as their missions were urgent. Du Bois criticized Garvey’s separatist ideology, labeling it impractical and at odds with his vision of racial harmony.[52] Garvey, in turn, saw Du Bois as disconnected from the realities of the working-class black experience.[53] Yet, despite their differences, their contributions were complementary. Du Bois’s intellectual framework provided the theoretical underpinnings for Pan-Africanism, while Garvey’s grassroots activism gave the movement its emotional and cultural resonance.

 Leadership and Ideological Unity in Africa’s Development

Africa’s development journey is intricately tied to the quality of its leadership and the degree of unity in ideology and vision. The continent’s challenges of political instability, corruption, and economic inequality persist despite its abundant natural resources and youthful population. The legacies of W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey, with their emphasis on education, solidarity, self-reliance, and empowerment, offer a timeless blueprint for addressing these issues and building a united and prosperous Africa.

Political instability remains one of Africa’s most pressing challenges, manifesting in military coups, contested elections, and fragile state institutions. Between 2010 and 2022, Africa witnessed over 20 successful coups, with nations like Mali, Burkina Faso, and Sudan experiencing repeated disruptions to democratic processes.[54] Such instability often stems from weak governance structures and leaders prioritizing personal or ethnic interests over national unity. Du Bois’s call for leadership rooted in education and intellectual capacity is particularly relevant here. He believed that a well-educated elite could lead with vision and integrity, fostering stability through equitable policies and inclusive governance.[55] Countries like Rwanda, under Paul Kagame, illustrate the potential of leadership that prioritizes education and institutional development, achieving economic growth and relative stability despite its tragic past.[56] However, this remains the exception rather than the norm across the continent.

Corruption siphons off billions of dollars annually from African economies, hindering public service delivery and perpetuating inequality. Transparency International’s 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index ranked 44 out of 54 African countries below the midpoint, signaling a continent-wide governance crisis.[57] Marcus Garvey’s advocacy for black empowerment and economic self-sufficiency offers a powerful antidote to corruption. He envisioned communities mobilizing resources independently, reducing reliance on external aid often tied to corrupt practices.[58] Garvey’s philosophy resonates with movements like Nigeria’s Startups Against Corruption, which leverage technology to increase transparency and accountability in public procurement processes.[59]

Africa is home to both the world’s fastest-growing economies and some of the highest poverty rates. The World Bank estimates that nearly 40% of sub-Saharan Africa’s population lives on less than $1.90 per day, even as the continent produces 20% of the global gold supply and 60% of the world’s cobalt.[60] This stark inequality often results from leadership failures to distribute resources equitably and invest in social infrastructure. Du Bois’s advocacy for racial equality and global African solidarity speaks directly to this issue. He envisioned a connected African diaspora working collectively to address economic disparities through education and industrialization.[61] Similarly, Garvey’s mobilization of mass movements for change emphasizes the power of grassroots activism in demanding economic justice. The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), launched in 2021, aligns with these ideals, aiming to create a unified market to reduce trade barriers and promote economic inclusivity.[62]

Du Bois’s vision of leadership emphasized education as the cornerstone of societal transformation. He argued that intellectual elites should guide nations toward progress, addressing systemic inequalities through informed policies. His emphasis on racial equality extended beyond the African continent, advocating for a global African identity that could counteract the colonial legacy of division and subjugation.[63] This vision finds echoes in contemporary initiatives such as the Mandela Washington Fellowship, which nurtures young African leaders in governance, business, and civic engagement. Participants are equipped with the knowledge and skills to tackle the continent’s challenges, embodying Du Bois’s ideal of educated, capable leaders driving change.

Garvey’s economic philosophy was anchored in self-reliance and black empowerment, urging Africans and the diaspora to build independent economies free from colonial exploitation. His Back to Africa movement, though often misinterpreted, underscored the importance of cultural and economic reclamation.[64] Garvey’s principles are evident in the rise of African entrepreneurship, particularly among young people. For example, Nigeria’s tech ecosystem—valued at $4.6 billion in 2022—is a testament to the power of local innovation in driving economic self-sufficiency.[65] Similarly, the proliferation of farmer cooperatives across East Africa reflects his ideals of community-driven economic empowerment.

In the end, Africa’s leadership challenges cannot be separated from its need for ideological unity. Leaders inspired by Du Bois and Garvey must bridge divisions and galvanize collective action across the continent. While Du Bois provides the intellectual framework for visionary governance, Garvey offers a blueprint for grassroots mobilization and economic independence. Together, their legacies challenge African leaders to prioritize the common good, embrace solidarity, and chart a development path rooted in self-determination and equity.

Leadership and Unity in Africa: An Outlook

The post-independence era in Africa was marked by bold visions of self-determination and unity, driven by leaders who drew inspiration from the ideals of Pan-Africanism. This ideological foundation not only shaped national policies but also encouraged efforts toward regional integration. Here, we explore the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah and Julius Nyerere, followed by an assessment of two key integration efforts: the African Union (AU) and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).

Kwame Nkrumah: Ghana’s Visionary Leader

Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana’s first president, was a towering figure in Pan-Africanism, whose leadership exemplified the movement’s ideals. Nkrumah believed that the liberation of Ghana was only the beginning; true independence could only be realized through a united Africa.[66] His government prioritized policies that aligned with Pan-African goals, including the establishment of the Ghana-Guinea-Mali Union, an early attempt at regional integration.[67]

Under Nkrumah’s leadership, Ghana hosted the All-African Peoples’ Conference in 1958, bringing together leaders from across the continent to discuss strategies for decolonization and unity.[68] His famous declaration, “The independence of Ghana is meaningless unless it is linked with the total liberation of Africa,”[69] underscored his commitment to collective freedom. However, Nkrumah’s ambitious plans for African unity faced resistance from other leaders wary of surrendering national sovereignty, and his tenure ended abruptly with a coup in 1966.[70] Despite this, his legacy remains a touchstone for discussions on African leadership and unity.

Julius Nyerere: The Architect of Ujamaa in Tanzania

Julius Nyerere, Tanzania’s first president, took a unique approach to leadership by fusing Pan-African ideals with a distinct vision for national development known as Ujamaa (familyhood). Nyerere’s belief in self-reliance and equality resonated with the Pan-African ethos of solidarity and shared prosperity.[71] His leadership saw Tanzania become a hub for liberation movements, offering support to groups fighting for independence in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa.[72]

Nyerere also championed unity within Tanzania by promoting Swahili as a national language, a move that helped bridge ethnic divides in a country with over 120 ethnic groups.[73] On a continental scale, Nyerere’s advocacy for regional cooperation was instrumental in the establishment of the East African Community (EAC) and his role in the early workings of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).[74] While his socialist economic policies faced criticism and challenges, his contributions to fostering unity and his unwavering commitment to Pan-Africanism have cemented his place in African history.[75]

The African Union: A Modern Pan-African Institution

The African Union (AU), established in 2001, is a testament to the enduring vision of Pan-Africanism. Replacing the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the AU aimed to go beyond political liberation and focus on economic development, peacekeeping, and fostering integration.[76]

The AU has achieved notable successes in peace and security, deploying missions in conflict zones like Somalia (AMISOM) and Darfur.[77] However, the organization faces significant challenges, including limited funding and the complexity of coordinating 55 member states. Despite these hurdles, initiatives like Agenda 2063, which outlines Africa’s development goals for the next 50 years, reflect the AU’s ambition to advance unity and development.[78]

African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): Economic Unity in Action

Launched in 2019, the AfCFTA is one of Africa’s boldest steps toward economic integration. It aims to create the world’s largest free trade area by connecting 1.3 billion people across 55 countries with a combined GDP of $3.4 trillion.[79]  By reducing trade barriers and promoting intra-African trade, the AfCFTA seeks to transform Africa’s economic landscape, reduce dependency on external markets, and strengthen regional value chains. Data from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) shows that intra-African trade accounted for only 17% of total trade in 2018, compared to 59% in Asia and 68% in Europe.[80] The AfCFTA is expected to boost this figure significantly, with projections suggesting a 52% increase in intra-African trade by 2025 if fully implemented.[81] However, challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, divergent economic policies, and political instability in some member states may hinder its progress.[82]

Challenges to Achieving Ideological Unity in Africa

The dream of ideological unity in Africa—bringing together a continent of over a billion people into a cohesive, shared vision of progress—is as inspiring as it is challenging. Despite the optimism of Pan-African pioneers like W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey, Africa faces enduring obstacles that complicate this vision. Among the most pressing are ethnic and cultural diversity, neocolonial influences, and weak institutions paired with unstable leadership transitions. These challenges not only slow the march toward unity but also reveal the intricate realities of a richly diverse continent.

Ethnic and Cultural Diversity

Africa’s greatest strength—its diversity—can also be its greatest obstacle to ideological unity. With over 3,000 ethnic groups and more than 1,500 languages spoken, the continent is a tapestry of cultures, histories, and traditions.[83] This diversity, while a source of pride, often creates barriers to a shared continental identity. People are naturally loyal to their local communities, ethnic groups, and languages, which sometimes conflicts with the broader ideals of unity. Historical divisions have further deepened these challenges. The artificial borders drawn by colonial powers disregarded ethnic and cultural realities, forcing disparate groups into single nation-states while splitting cohesive ones across multiple countries.[84] For example, the Hausa-Fulani people span Nigeria, Niger, and Ghana, yet they operate within different political and cultural frameworks in each country. Efforts to unify ideologies across such divisions must contend with deeply ingrained identities that do not align with the concept of a singular “African” worldview. Moreover, ethnic rivalries and mistrust, often fueled by competition for political power and resources, exacerbate these divisions. Rwanda’s tragic history of ethnic conflict is a stark reminder of how these tensions can derail even the most well-intentioned unity projects.[85] Bridging these divides requires leadership that can celebrate diversity while promoting a common vision of progress.

Neocolonial Influences

While colonialism officially ended decades ago, its shadow looms large over Africa. Neocolonialism, a term coined by Kwame Nkrumah, describes how former colonial powers and global institutions continue to exert economic, political, and cultural control over African nations.[86] This influence fragments the continent’s ability to pursue a unified ideology by perpetuating dependency and division.

Economic dependency is one of the most visible forms of neocolonialism. Many African countries rely on trade agreements, loans, and aid from former colonial powers, often on terms that undermine their sovereignty.[87] For instance, the imposition of Structural Adjustment Programs by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank in the 1980s forced countries to adopt policies that prioritized debt repayment over local development, eroding trust in collective governance.[88]

Culturally, neocolonialism manifests through the dominance of Western ideals and languages, which sometimes marginalize indigenous African traditions. Educational systems across Africa often emphasize European history and languages over local narratives, creating a disconnect between African leaders and their cultural heritage. This cultural alienation makes it difficult to foster ideological unity based on indigenous values and shared historical experiences.

Weak Institutions and Leadership Transitions

Institutions are the backbone of any effort to unify ideologies, yet in many African nations, they remain fragile or dysfunctional. Post-independence, the failure to establish robust governance structures has left a vacuum where personal rule and patronage networks thrive. Weak institutions are particularly evident in areas like justice, education, and infrastructure, which are essential for promoting a collective vision of progress.[89]

Leadership transitions in Africa also present a significant hurdle. Many countries face prolonged autocratic rule, coups, or contentious elections, which disrupt continuity and erode public trust. For instance, the frequent leadership crises in countries like Sudan and Mali illustrate how unstable transitions can derail long-term development goals.[90] Instead of focusing on ideological unity, nations are often preoccupied with resolving internal political turmoil.

Additionally, leadership in Africa sometimes struggles with prioritizing collective interests over personal or ethnic ones. Corruption and nepotism undermine efforts to promote a shared vision, as resources meant for national development are siphoned off for personal gain. Leaders who embody the ideals of Pan-Africanism, like Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, are unfortunately exceptions rather than the norm.[91]

Despite these obstacles, the dream of ideological unity in Africa is not unattainable. Recognizing and addressing these challenges can pave the way for progress. Ethnic and cultural diversity, while complex, can be transformed into a strength by promoting inclusive governance that values every group’s contribution. Tackling neocolonial influences requires strategic partnerships and investments that prioritize Africa’s autonomy. Strengthening institutions and fostering ethical leadership will be essential for creating stability and trust. Africa’s journey toward ideological unity is a testament to the resilience and vision of its people. By confronting these challenges head-on, the continent can continue to draw inspiration from leaders like Du Bois and Garvey, who believed in Africa’s ability to rise above its divisions and take its rightful place on the global stage.

DU BOIS AND GARVEYISM: TOWARDS A BETTER FUTURE FOR AFRICA’S LEADERSHIP AND UNITY

The legacies of W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey provide rich lessons for navigating Africa’s development challenges and opportunities. Their ideas, though rooted in the struggles of their time, resonate with contemporary needs, offering practical pathways to strengthen ideological education, redefine leadership, and foster regional cooperation.

Strengthening Ideological Education and Historical Awareness

For Du Bois and Garvey, education was not merely about acquiring knowledge but about cultivating a consciousness rooted in identity, history, and purpose. Du Bois passionately advocated for an intellectual awakening among Africans and the diaspora, famously emphasizing the “Talented Tenth” as a vanguard to uplift the broader community.[92] He believed that a deep understanding of African history and culture was essential for breaking free from the psychological chains of colonialism and racism.[93]

Garvey, meanwhile, sought to instill pride and dignity through ideological education. His promotion of black excellence and African identity challenged narratives of inferiority that had been imposed by colonialism.[94] He urged Africans to embrace their heritage and recognize their capacity to chart their destiny. As Adam Ewing notes, Garvey’s ideological movement was as much about reclaiming Africa’s past as it was about building its future.[95]

For Africa’s future, these lessons underscore the need for educational systems that prioritize African history, culture, and philosophical thought. Incorporating these elements into curricula can foster a generation of leaders and citizens who are not only informed but also inspired by the continent’s rich heritage. Furthermore, public campaigns, literature, and arts can play a role in deepening historical awareness across diverse communities.

Promoting Leadership That Transcends Personal and Ethnic Interests

Leadership is a recurring theme in the works of Du Bois and Garvey, both of whom envisioned leaders as selfless visionaries dedicated to the collective good. Du Bois believed in the power of intellectual and moral leadership to address systemic injustices. He envisioned leaders who would rise above personal ambition and act as custodians of justice and equity.[96]

Garvey, in contrast, emphasized the importance of charismatic and action-oriented leadership capable of mobilizing people on a grand scale. His rallying cry, “Africa for the Africans,” was both a political statement and a call to leaders to prioritize the interests of the African people above external influences and internal divisions.[97]

In contemporary Africa, leadership often grapples with the dual challenges of personal ambition and ethnic loyalties. These challenges have stifled unity and progress in many countries. By drawing from Du Bois and Garvey, Africa can cultivate leaders who view their roles as opportunities to serve rather than to amass power or wealth. Initiatives such as leadership academies and mentorship programs can help instill these values, ensuring that future leaders prioritize national and continental interests over narrow allegiances.

Fostering Regional Cooperation and Pan-African Ideals

Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Du Bois and Garvey is their unshakable belief in the power of unity. Du Bois’s Pan-Africanism emphasized intellectual and political solidarity, envisioning a global network of Africans working together to dismantle colonialism and racism.[98] Garvey complemented this vision with practical strategies for economic and cultural empowerment, emphasizing the need for Africans to cooperate across borders to achieve self-reliance.[99]

For Africa today, regional cooperation is more critical than ever. Initiatives such as the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) echo Garvey’s economic vision by promoting intra-African trade and reducing reliance on external markets. Similarly, the African Union (AU) reflects Du Bois’s call for political unity, although it still faces significant hurdles in translating its ideals into action.[100]

To foster genuine regional cooperation, Africa must embrace Pan-Africanism not just as a historical concept but as a living framework. This means building stronger institutions, reducing barriers to movement and trade, and addressing conflicts that undermine unity. Grassroots movements and cultural exchanges can also help bridge divides, promoting a shared sense of identity and purpose among Africa’s diverse populations.

Policy Recommendations for African Leaders

Investment in Education and Cultural Heritage

The lifeblood of Du Bois’s philosophy was education. He saw it as the gateway to empowerment and equality, and this truth resonates today. African leaders should prioritize investment in education systems that not only foster technical skills but also emphasize African history, culture, and intellectual traditions. For instance, integrating the legacies of Pan-African thinkers like Du Bois and Garvey into school curricula can inspire young Africans to take pride in their heritage while equipping them to tackle contemporary challenges.[101] Educational reforms must also address systemic inequalities, ensuring that quality education is accessible to all, especially marginalized communities.

Promotion of Grassroots Movements for Unity and Self-Reliance

Garvey’s genius lay in his ability to mobilize ordinary people around a shared vision of economic self-sufficiency and racial pride. African leaders can draw from this by fostering grassroots initiatives that empower communities to take charge of their development. Programs that support local entrepreneurship, cooperative societies, and community-driven projects can create pathways for sustainable development.[102] Moreover, leaders must cultivate inclusive governance structures that allow diverse voices to contribute to national and regional agendas. Unity must be built from the ground up, and leaders should serve as facilitators rather than gatekeepers of progress.

CONCLUSION

W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey may have had differing approaches to leadership and unity, but their shared commitment to the empowerment of African peoples remains a beacon of inspiration. Our exploration has illuminated three key findings. First, leadership in the African context must transcend mere governance, embracing a deeper sense of moral duty and cultural stewardship. Second, ideological unity, while challenging in Africa’s richly diverse landscape, is indispensable for achieving collective progress. Finally, Pan-Africanism—whether expressed through intellectual diplomacy as championed by Du Bois or grassroots mobilization as led by Garvey—remains a potent force for redefining Africa’s global standing. Du Bois and Garvey envisioned an Africa that is self-reliant, united, and proud—a vision that continues to resonate today. By embracing their insights, African leaders can chart a path toward sustainable development that honors the continent’s rich diversity and deep-rooted resilience. Education, grassroots empowerment, and Pan-African solidarity are not merely ideals; they are imperatives for building an Africa that stands tall in the global arena. As we move forward, let us remember that the power to shape Africa’s destiny lies not just in the hands of its leaders but also in the collective will of its people. These insights remind us that leadership is not simply about holding power but about fostering a shared vision that uplifts communities. Similarly, ideological unity is not the erasure of diversity but the ability to find common ground amidst differences. The legacies of Du Bois and Garvey provide a roadmap for reimagining Africa’s future, rooted in pride, self-reliance, and collaboration.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I acknowledge Chúkwú Ọ̀kìké (God the Creator) for His wisdom and strength throughout the journey of completing this work.

REFERENCES

1. Gooding-Williams, R. (2009). In the shadow of Du Bois: Afromodern political thought in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2. M’Baye, B. (2004). Africa, race, and culture in the narratives of W.E.B. Du Bois. Philosophia Africana, 7(2).
3. Garvey, M. (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey (A. J. Garvey, Ed.). Dover, MA: The Majority Press.
4. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1903). Of the training of Black men. In The souls of Black folk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg.
5. Simeon, K. (2004). Literary movements and Black leadership: The connections between Indigenisme, Pan-Africanism, Garveyism, Harlem Renaissance, and Negritude, in the writings of selected leaders. University of Miami.
6. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-colonial champion. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
7. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1903). The talented tenth. In Washington, B. T. (Ed.), The Negro problem (pp. 31–75). New York: James Pott & Co.
8. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1903). The souls of Black folk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg.
9. Garvey, M. (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey (A. J. Garvey, Ed.). Dover, MA: The Majority Press.
10. Garvey, M. (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey (A. J. Garvey, Ed.). Dover, MA: The Majority Press.
11. Hill, R. A., & Pirio, G. A. (2014). “Africa for the Africans”: The Garvey Movement in South Africa, 1920–1940. In The politics of race, class and nationalism in twentieth-century South Africa (pp. 209–253). Routledge.
12. Hill, R. A., & Pirio, G. A. (2014). “Africa for the Africans”: The Garvey Movement in South Africa, 1920–1940. In The politics of race, class and nationalism in twentieth-century South Africa (pp. 209–253). Routledge.
13. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1923, October). Africa and the future. Crisis Magazine.
14. M’bayo, T. E. (2004). W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Pan‐Africanism in Liberia, 1919–1924. The Historian, 66(1), 19–44.
15. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The talented tenth. In Washington, B. T. (Ed.), The Negro problem (pp. 31–75). New York: James Pott & Co.
16. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-colonial champion. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
17. Garvey, M. (n.d.). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey.
18. Andrews, K. (2017). Beyond Pan-Africanism: Garveyism, Malcolm X, and the end of the colonial nation-state. Third World Quarterly, 38(11), 2501–2516.
19. Hill, R. A., & Garvey, M. (1983). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association papers, Vol. IX: Africa for the Africans, June 1921–December 1922. University of California Press.
20. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1923, October). Africa and the future. Crisis Magazine.
21. Andrews, K. (2017). Beyond Pan-Africanism: Garveyism, Malcolm X, and the end of the colonial nation-state. Third World Quarterly, 38(11), 2501–2516.
22. Gooding-Williams, R. (2009). In the shadow of Du Bois: Afromodern political thought in America. Harvard University Press.
23. Carter, S. (2002). The economic philosophy of Marcus Garvey. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 26(1), 1–6.
24. Kendhammer, B. (2007). Du Bois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
25. Appiah, A. (1985). The uncompleted argument: Du Bois and the illusion of race. Critical Inquiry, 12(1), 21–37.
26. Gooding-Williams, R. (2009). In the shadow of Du Bois: Afromodern political thought in America. Harvard University Press.
27. Williams, R. G. (n.d.). In the shadow of Du Bois: Afromodern political thought in America.
28. Kendhammer, B. (2007). Du Bois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
29. Kendhammer, B. (2007). Du Bois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
30. Watkins, I. (1971). The Du Bois-Garvey controversy.
31. M’bayo, T. E. (2004). W. E. B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Pan‐Africanism in Liberia, 1919–1924. The Historian, 66(1), 19–44.
32. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg.
33. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg.
34. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The talented tenth. In B. T. Washington (Ed.), The Negro problem (pp. 31–75). New York: James Pott & Co.
35. Kendhammer, B. (2007). Du Bois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
36. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1923, October). Africa and the future. Crisis Magazine.
37. Langley, J. A. (1969). Garveyism and African nationalism. Race, 11(2), 157–172.
38. Langley, J. A. (1969). Garveyism and African nationalism. Race, 11(2), 157–172.
39. Ewing, A. (2018). The challenge of Garveyism studies. Modern American History, 1(3), 399–418.
40. Ewing, A. (2018). The challenge of Garveyism studies. Modern American History, 1(3), 399–418.
41. Hill, R. A., & Garvey, M. (1983). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Vol. IX: Africa for the Africans June 1921–December 1922 (Vol. 9). University of California Press.
42. Hill, R. A., & Garvey, M. (1983). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Vol. IX: Africa for the Africans June 1921–December 1922 (Vol. 9). University of California Press.
43. Hill, R. A., & Garvey, M. (1983). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Vol. IX: Africa for the Africans June 1921–December 1922 (Vol. 9). University of California Press.
44. Langley, J. A. (1969). Garveyism and African nationalism. Race, 11(2), 157–172.
45. Martin, T. (1983). Literary Garveyism: Garvey, Black Arts, and the Harlem Renaissance. The Majority Press.
46. Garvey, M. (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey (A. J. Garvey, Ed.). Dover, MA: The Majority Press.
47. Hill, R. A., & Garvey, M. (1983). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Vol. IX: Africa for the Africans June 1921–December 1922 (Vol. 9). University of California Press.
48. Carter, S. (2002). The economic philosophy of Marcus Garvey. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 26(1), 1–6.
49. Dempsey, F. A. (1976). Afro-American perspectives on Africa: The image of Africa among Afro-American leaders, artists, and scholars, 1915–1940. University of Minnesota.
50. Ewing, A. (2018). The challenge of Garveyism studies. Modern American History, 1(3), 399–418.
51. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
52. Watkins, I. (1971). The Du Bois-Garvey controversy.
53. Appiah, A. (1985). The uncompleted argument: Du Bois and the illusion of race. Critical Inquiry, 12(1), 21–37.
54. Transparency International. (2022). Corruption Perceptions Index 2022.
55. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The talented tenth. In B. T. Washington (Ed.), The Negro problem (pp. 31–75). New York: James Pott & Co.
56. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
57. World Bank. (2022). Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report 2022.
58. Garvey, M. (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey (A. J. Garvey, Ed.). Dover, MA: The Majority Press.
59. Andrews, K. (2017). Beyond Pan-Africanism: Garveyism, Malcolm X, and the end of the colonial nation state. Third World Quarterly, 38(11), 2501–2516.
60. African Development Bank. (2022). African Economic Outlook 2022.
61. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1923, October). Africa and the future. Crisis Magazine.
62. African Union. (n.d.). African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement.
63. Kendhammer, B. (2007). DuBois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
64. Ewing, A. (2018). The challenge of Garveyism studies. Modern American History, 1(3), 399–418.
65. Nigerian Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Tech ecosystem growth report 2022.
66. Nkrumah, K. (1963). Africa must unite. London: Panaf Books.
67. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
68. M’Bayo, T. E. (2004). W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Pan-Africanism in Liberia, 1919–1924. The Historian, 66(1), 19–44.
69. Kendhammer, B. (2007). DuBois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
70. Nkrumah, K. (1963). Africa must unite.
71. Nyerere, J. (1973). Freedom and development. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press.
72. M’Baye, B. (2004). Africa, race, and culture in the narratives of W.E.B. Du Bois. Philosophia Africana, 7(2).
73. Langley, J. A. (1969). Garveyism and African nationalism. Race, 11(2), 157–172.
74. Andrews, K. (2017). Beyond Pan-Africanism: Garveyism, Malcolm X and the end of the colonial nation state. Third World Quarterly, 38(11), 2501–2516.
75. Nyerere, J. (1973). Freedom and development.
76. African Union. (n.d.). Agenda 2063 framework document.
77. Chevalier, M. (n.d.). Garvey, Padmore, and Fanon: A critical appraisal of the role Caribbean-born radicals played in the African liberation movement from 1916–1963.
78. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). (n.d.). The AfCFTA impact.
79. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). (n.d.). The AfCFTA impact.
80. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). (n.d.). The AfCFTA impact.
81. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). (n.d.). The AfCFTA impact.
82. African Union. (n.d.). Agenda 2063 framework document.
83. Dempsey, F. A. (1976). Afro-American perspectives on Africa. University of Minnesota.
84. Hill, R. A., & Pirio, G. A. (2014). ‘Africa for the Africans’. In The politics of race, class and nationalism in twentieth century South Africa (pp. 209–253). Routledge.
85. M’Bayo, T. E. (2004). W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Pan-Africanism in Liberia, 1919–1924. The Historian, 66(1), 19–44.
86. Nkrumah, K. (1965). Neo-colonialism, the last stage of imperialism. Thomas Nelson & Sons.
87. Ewing, A. (2018). The challenge of Garveyism studies. Modern American History, 1(3), 399–418.
88. Carter, S. (2002). The economic philosophy of Marcus Garvey. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 26(1), 1–6.
89. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-colonial champion. Africa World Press.
90. Kendhammer, B. (2007). Du Bois the Pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(1), 51–71.
91. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1923, October). Africa and the future. Crisis Magazine.
92. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The talented tenth. In B. T. Washington (Ed.), The negro problem (pp. 31–75). James Pott & Co.
93. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of black folk.C. McClurg.
94. Garvey, M. (Ed.). (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey. The Majority Press.
95. Ewing, A. (2018). The challenge of Garveyism studies. Modern American History, 1(3), 399–418.
96. Hill, R. A., & Garvey, M. (1983). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association papers, Vol. IX: Africa for the Africans, June 1921–December 1922. University of California Press.
97. Andrews, K. (2017). Beyond Pan-Africanism: Garveyism, Malcolm X and the end of the colonial nation-state. Third World Quarterly, 38(11), 2501–2516.
98. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1923, October). Africa and the future. Crisis Magazine.
99. Lewis, R. (1988). Marcus Garvey: Anti-colonial champion. Africa World Press.
100. Dempsey, F. A. (1976). Afro-American perspectives on Africa: The image of Africa among Afro-American leaders, artists, and scholars, 1915–1940. University of Minnesota.
101. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of black folk.C. McClurg.
102. Garvey, M. (Ed.). (1986). The philosophy and opinions of Marcus Garvey. The Majority Press.