Family Environment and Inconsistent Parenting Styles on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem among Model School Students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria

Family Environment and Inconsistent Parenting Styles on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem among Model School Students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria

Ofodile, Modesta Chinyere¹, Akintayo, Samson Olukunle², Akinyele, Osemeiasoh Anthonia³, Ojo, Anita Omotola⁴

²Department of Counselling and Human Development Studies University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

¹³⁴Department of Home Science and Management, (Colfhec), Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000049

Received: 17 July 2025; Accepted: 25 July 2025; Published: 27 August 2025

ABSTRACT

Adolescence is a critical period in human development, marked by identity formation, emotional sensitivity and heightened self-awareness. During this phase, parenting styles and the family environment play pivotal roles in shaping adolescents’ self-esteem, a key psychological construct that influences their academic, social and emotional well-being. This study investigates the effects of family environment and inconsistent parenting styles on adolescents’ self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria. A descriptive survey research design of correlational type was adopted, and with a multistage sampling technique, data was collected from 137 senior school students from the model schools of Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Federal College of Education, Osiele and Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro using structured questionnaires. The instruments utilized including the Perceived Parenting Style Scale, the Brief Family Relationship Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.

Findings revealed that the perception of respondents toward parenting styles adopted by their parents is predominantly authoritative, they experience a cohesive and communicative family environment with the maintenance of high levels of self-esteem, with relatively infrequent negative self-perceptions. A significant relationship was found between self-esteem and parenting style; r(135)= 0.54, p < .05 as well as family environment; r(135) = .598, p < .05. Lastly, parenting style and family environment are potent predictors of adolescents’ self-esteem and increases it by 43% and 27.2% respectively.

Among others, this study recommended counselling services should be integrated into communities to support families experiencing conflict or instability and that Schools should implement programs that promote students’ self-esteem, including mentorship initiatives, peer support groups, and access to professional counsellors.

Keywords: Inconsistent parenting styles, family environment, adolescence, adolescents’self-esteem.

Word: 260 words

INTRODUCTION

A critical component of an individual’s psychological well-being, overall evaluation or appraisal of their worth or value is known as self-esteem. It encompasses self-respect, self-acceptance, and the degree to which individuals feel confident and capable. In adolescence, a developmental phase marked by rapid physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes, self-esteem becomes especially salient. During this period, adolescents begin to form a clearer sense of identity, autonomy, and personal value, which profoundly impacts their mental health, academic achievement, peer relationships, and ability to cope with stress. A key indicator of well-being and resilience is particularly vulnerable to external influences such as parenting behaviours and family dynamics (Mastorciet al., 2024).

Globally, studies suggest that a significant proportion of adolescents struggle with low self-esteem. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2022), mental health issues among adolescents—including low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression—account for 16% of the global burden of disease in people aged 10–19 years. A study by Magro et al. (2019) indicated that self-esteem tends to decline during early adolescence and gradually improves in later adolescence and adulthood, but variations exist across cultural contexts. In high-income countries like the United States and Germany, up to 20–30% of adolescents’ report moderate to low self-esteem levels (Meixner et al., 2020).

In Africa, the issue of adolescent self-esteem is increasingly being recognized, particularly in relation to poverty, family instability, and sociocultural pressures. A study in South Africa by Pillay et al., (2023) revealed that nearly 40% of adolescents demonstrated low self-esteem, especially among those from low-income or single-parent households. Similarly, Ofodile (2005) emphasized that African adolescents often experience identity crises, low self-confidence, and poor self-image due to restrictive social norms and limited emotional support within families. In Nigeria, a growing body of empirical evidence has highlighted concerns over adolescent self-esteem. Ojo (2020) found that a substantial proportion of secondary school students across urban and semi-urban regions reported moderate to low self-esteem levels, with notable links to parenting styles, socio-economic status, and peer influence. Furthermore, factors such as excessive academic pressure, corporal punishment, and poor parent-child communication contribute to deteriorating self-worth among Nigerian youths (Asiedu, 2024).

In the Southwest region of Nigeria, comprising states like Lagos, Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Ekiti, adolescent self-esteem challenges have been documented in both urban and rural communities. A study by Aremu et al., (2018) in Ibadan, found that over 35% of adolescents exhibited low self-esteem, which was significantly influenced by parental neglect, harsh discipline, and poor family cohesion. Similarly, in Lagos State, Owadara (2025) reported that parenting style had a significant impact on adolescents’ emotional adjustment and self-esteem, with authoritarian and uninvolved parenting correlating with poorer self-perception.

The resultant effects of family environment and inconsistent parenting styles on adolescents’ self-esteem is a critical area of study within developmental psychology, given the pivotal role that parenting plays in shaping adolescent mental health and identity formation. The family, as the first socializing agent, plays a pivotal role in shaping adolescents’ self-esteem. The quality of family environment, parenting style, communication patterns, emotional support, and discipline methods can either bolster or diminish an adolescent’s sense of self-worth.

Family environment is widely regarded as one of the most influential determinants of an adolescent’s psychological development, particularly their self-esteem. A family is expected to be a place of love, refuge, affection and trust, this could only happen when every member of the family is bonded together (Adeyemi, Odedokun and Akanni, 2024). It encompasses the emotional climate of the home, the quality of parent-child relationships, communication patterns, availability of support, conflict resolution approaches, and the degree of cohesion or adaptability within the family unit (Roman et al., 2025). These dimensions collectively create a psychosocial framework in which adolescents form beliefs about themselves, others, and the world.

During adolescence, a stage characterized by identity exploration and emotional sensitivity, the family serves as the primary reference point for feedback, validation, and emotional grounding. A nurturing and supportive family environment provides adolescents with the emotional security and encouragement necessary for the development of positive self-perceptions. Conversely, a dysfunctional family—characterized by neglect, hostility, over-control, or lack of emotional expression—may lead to feelings of worthlessness, inferiority, or insecurity in adolescents (Resch & Parzer, 2021). Research has consistently demonstrated that families that express warmth, affection, and empathy tend to raise adolescents with higher self-esteem. Akintayo (2025) opined that people with greater self-esteem preferred to validate themselves through their relationships. Emotional availability from parents reinforces the adolescent’s sense of belonging, security, and worth (Gaur & Gupta, 2024). When parents are emotionally responsive and sensitive to the child’s needs, adolescents internalize the belief that they are valuable and worthy of love and attention.

Open and respectful communication within the family has a positive influence on adolescents’ self-esteem. When adolescents feel heard and understood, they are more likely to develop confidence in their ideas and self-expression. In contrast, families that rely on criticism, authoritarian control, or silence can stifle emotional development and lead to diminished self-worth. Conflict, though inevitable, when resolved constructively, can strengthen family bonds and promote resilience and self-efficacy in adolescents (Mwangi, 2024).

Family cohesion—defined as the emotional bonding among family members—has been identified as a critical factor in shaping adolescents’ self-image (Ramos Salazar et al., 2023). Cohesive families where members support one another and function as a unit tend to foster a positive self-concept in children. On the other hand, fragmented families where there is emotional detachment or frequent disruption (e.g., divorce, prolonged absence of a parent, or domestic violence) can severely impact self-esteem levels (Presence, 2024).

Socioeconomic status (SES) also plays a role in defining the family environment. Low-income families may experience stressors such as financial instability, overcrowded housing, or limited access to mental health services, all of which can compromise parental functioning and negatively influence adolescent self-esteem (Walker et al., 2024). However, strong family cohesion and adaptive coping strategies can serve as buffers, even in low-resource settings. In cultural contexts like Nigeria and other parts of Africa, communal living, extended family systems, and social expectations may also shape how adolescents perceive themselves in relation to their family and society (Alabi & Olonade, 2022).

Empirical studies support the critical role of the family environment in adolescent self-esteem. For instance, Edet et al., (2023) found that adolescents from supportive family backgrounds in South-eastern Nigeria reported significantly higher self-esteem levels than their counterparts from unsupportive homes. In Southwest Nigeria, Aremu et al. (2018) demonstrated that factors such as parental monitoring, family cohesion, and emotional expressiveness predicted adolescents’ self-esteem levels in public secondary schools. Similarly, Dunmade (2022) concluded that family type (e.g., intact vs. broken homes) had a significant influence on self-esteem, with adolescents from intact homes reporting more positive self-evaluations.

Adolescents experiencing negative family environments often show lower self-esteem, which manifests in behaviours such as social withdrawal, self-blame, and a persistent need for external validation (Adebanjo, 2024). Conversely, positive family environments that emphasize emotional warmth, acceptance, and supportive behavioural control foster higher self-esteem and better mental health outcomes. Positive parenting acts as a buffer against mental health problems by enhancing adolescents’ self-determination and resilience (Tunca, 2024). Studies also highlight that parental involvement and consistent nurturing practices are crucial for adolescents navigating the challenges of puberty and the quest for autonomy (Aremu et al., 2018; Haftlangi, 2025).

The family environment, encompassing broader relational dynamics and socio-demographic factors, plays a significant role in adolescent self-esteem development. For instance, single-parent households and parental age have been shown to influence parenting practices and, consequently, adolescent self-esteem (Aremu et al., 2018). The complex interplay between parenting styles and family environment suggests that inconsistent or negative parenting can lead to lower self-esteem, which in turn mediates the risk of adolescent depression and other mental health issues (Dong et al., 2022; Kou, 2022).

Parenting styles, broadly categorized into authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, have been extensively studied for their impact on adolescent outcomes. Parenting style inconsistency, whereby multiple styles of parenting, such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful styles, are used inconsistently and unpredictably, have the potential to significantly impact adolescents’ self-esteem. Parents’ style of upbringing could have lasting effect on young adults (Adeyemi, 2020). Inconsistency in parenting behaviour and lack of predictability have the potential to create uncertainty, fear, and low self-esteem and lead to maladaptive regulation of emotions and control of behaviour (Hua et al., 2022). Besides, family environment, determined by factors such as parental relationship, socioeconomic status, and cultural background, could also influence the self-esteem of adolescents. Inconsistent parenting such as oscillating between strictness and leniency, between parent conflict or a general absence of emotional availability have been shown to have a detrimental effect on adolescents’ self-esteem. Mwangi (2024) elaborated that in multicultural diverse Nigerian households, inconsistent parenting behaviours tend to confuse and make adolescents emotionally insecure, which hinders the establishment of a strong self-concept. In line with this, Obimakinde, Omigbodun, Adejumo, and Adedokun (2020) inferred that adolescents exposed to neglectful or authoritarian parenting were at risk of having emotional problems and low self-esteem since they were not warm and the caregivers’ behaviour was unpredictable.

Authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, behavioural control, and autonomy granting, is consistently associated with positive self-esteem development and lower levels of internalizing problems such as anxiety and depression (Tehrani et al., 2025). Authoritative parenting has also been consistently linked to high levels of self-esteem in children, whereas authoritarian or neglectful styles tend to correlate with low self-esteem (Bibi et al., 2024). Likewise, the studies of Peng et al., (2021) and Wang (2023) opined that authoritarian and neglectful parenting styles, which involve harsh control, psychological control, and lack of responsiveness, tend to increase internalizing symptoms and negatively affect adolescents’ self-esteem. For example, authoritarian parenting combined with parental physical abuse has a particularly detrimental effect on self-esteem, leading to increased emotional distress (Asiedu, 2024). Inconsistent parenting styles, where parents alternate unpredictably between different approaches or fail to provide a stable emotional environment can exacerbate these negative effects. Such inconsistency may confuse adolescents, undermining their sense of security and self-worth. Research indicates that negative parenting behaviours, including psychological control and parental rejection, damage self-esteem and contribute to psychological problems like depression and anxiety (Peng et al, 2021; Zhao, Zhao & Zhou, 2023).

In summary, this underscores that inconsistent parenting styles and adverse family environments have a profound and often detrimental impact on adolescents’ self-esteem. Positive, consistent, and warm parenting practices are essential for fostering healthy self-esteem and psychological well-being during adolescence, while negative or inconsistent parenting increases vulnerability to internalizing problems and low self-worth. This body of research highlights the need for targeted interventions aimed at promoting positive parenting and stable family environments to support adolescent development and mental health.

Theoretical models are used to provide further insight into these findings. Attachment theory, according to Bowlby (1979) originally, states that teens who develop secure attachment with their parents or caregivers will have better self-esteem because they will feel loved and cared for. Dong (2024) validated this argument in the sense that secure parental attachment foretells greater self-worth and enhanced emotional adjustment in adolescents. On the other hand, insecure attachment styles are typically linked to self-doubt and vulnerability to psychological distress.

Social learning theory, as propounded by Bandura (2015), also provides relevant insights on how parenting shapes adolescents’ self-esteem. The theory posits that children and youths acquire behaviour, including self-judgment, by observing and copying parental behaviour. Climent-Galarza et al., (2022) also added that if parents demonstrate self-respect, emotional stability, and confidence, teenagers will be more likely to adopt these traits and develop personal worth. However, when parents are inconsistent or provide negative interpersonal behaviours such as conflict or neglect, teenagers tend to emulate these patterns and therefore have lower self-esteem. Sanchez (2024) confirmed that authoritarian and permissive parenting styles strongly predicted low levels of self-esteem and achievement motivation in adolescents and amplified the influences of poor parental modelling.

Finally, empirical research and theoretical frameworks verify that negative family environments and inconsistent parenting styles greatly influence the self-esteem of adolescents. Secure attachment relationships and Authoritative parenting characterized by warmth, responsiveness, and consistent expectations are key to developing healthy self-esteem. Conversely, experiences of conflict, neglect, or inconsistent parenting disempower adolescents and increase their vulnerability to mental disorder. The evidence supports the need for context-led interventions in Nigeria to promote positive parenting and improved family support systems to ensure the psychological well-being of adolescents.

The consequential impacts of family environment and inconsistent parenting styles on adolescents’ self-esteem is a complex and diverse issue that has been studied in various contexts. Several studies confirm that the type of family environment as well as the parenting styles embraced are of immense importance in shaping the self-esteem of adolescents. For instance, Aremu et al., (2019) determined that teenagers who resided in a warm and nurturing home environment had much higher self-esteem compared to adolescents who were subjected to hostile or neglectful homes. Their finding emphasizes emotional closeness, parent involvement, and consistent control of behaviour as critical factors in fostering positive self-conception among teens.

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study is to investigate family environment and parenting styles on Adolescents’ self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the perception of model school students of federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria regarding the parenting styles adopted by their parents
2. examine the family relationship and environment of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria
3. examine the level of self-esteem of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria
4. examine the relationship between parenting style, family environment and self-esteem of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria
5. examine the relative contribution of parenting style and family environment to the prediction of self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria

Research Questions

1. What is the perception of model school students of federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria regarding the parenting styles adopted by their parents?
2. What is the perception of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria concerning their family relationship and environment?
3. What is the level of self-esteem of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria?
4. What is the significant relationship between parenting style, family environment and self-esteem of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria?
5. What is the relative contribution of parenting style and family environment to the prediction of self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria?

METHODOLOGY

This research utilized a descriptive survey research design in investigating the influence of family environment and inconsistent parenting styles on the self-esteem of students in Ogun State by observing and collecting data on the study variables knowing fully-well that the researchers does not have direct over the variables of the study. Inferences about relations among variables are made without direct interaction with independent variables and dependent variable (Akintayo & Osundiran, 2024). This study focuses on secondary school students of the model schools of all federal government owned Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria and the schools are; FUNAAB International School (FUNIS) in Alabata Area, Ogun State, Federal College of Education Model School, Osiele, Abeokuta and Federal Polytecnic Staff School, Ilaro, Ogun State.

A purposive sampling was first used to select senior secondary school students due to their maturity and awareness of the situation around them and the expected opportunity to respond to the items of the questionnaire appropriately. Then, a simple random sampling was used to select one department each from classes one to three i.e one classroom each from SSS1 to SSS3 and lastly simple random sampling was used to select 16 respondents from each classroom to make a total of 48 respondents per school and a total of 144 respondents from the 3 model schools. Though, there were 7 attritions due to uncompleted surveys which reduced the number to 137 completed responses.

A well-structured questionnaire adapted from similar studies was used in collecting data for the study after they have been proven to be psychometrically sound from a pilot study of 20 respondents of similar qualities in Ibadan, Oyo State and the result are α = .80, .87 and .84 for sections B, C and D below respectively. The standardized instrument is designed in four sections:

Section A: consists of socio-demographic characteristics such as age, gender, class level, ethnic group, home setting, number of siblings, and birth order.

Section B: The Perceived Parenting Style Scale which measures how adolescents perceive their parent’s engagement in different parenting styles including (authoritarian, authoritative and permissive). It was measured using a 16-item question and responses was assessed using the Likert rating scale: N=Never, R=Rarely, O=Often, A=Always on a 45-point rating scale.

Section C: The Brief Family Relationship Scale is a tool used to understand how families interact with each other. It looked at three main things: how close and supportive family members are, how often they argue, and how openly they share their thoughts and feelings. The scale was adapted from the Family Environment Scale (FES) which was developed by Moos & Moos (2013).

Section D: Adolescent self-esteem will be assessed using a 10-item questionnaire based on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). This scale evaluates feelings of self-worth, with responses measured on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. The total score ranges from 0-30 points, with items 2,5,6,8 and 9 scored in reverse.

The structured questionnaire was administered to the target population of the Senior Secondary School students (SS1-SS3) at the selected schools by the researchers. The questionnaires were distributed to the respondents for administration and were retrieved upon completion. This study’s data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27, combining descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean, percentage, and standard deviation to summarize and present collected data, and inferential statistics, specifically Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), T-test for independent samples and Multiple regression analysis to answer the research questions.

RESULTS

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (N=137)

Source: Field survey, 2025

A total of 137 adolescents successfully completed the survey. Gender distribution was nearly balanced, with females representing 50.4% and males 49.6% though without intention. The age of the respondents ranged from 10 to 18 years, the majority of respondents were 13 and 15 years representing 81.7%. Regarding educational level, respondents were drawn from senior classes, with SS1, 2 and 3 having 32.1%, 33.6% and 34.3% respectively. The ethnic composition was predominantly Yoruba (76.6%), followed by Igbo (14.6%), other ethnic groups making up 7.3% and Hausa (1.5%). This distribution reflects the local demographic context of the study population.

Most respondents (73%) reported living in households with both parents, while single-parent households headed by mothers and fathers accounted for 13.9% and 8.0%, respectively. A smaller proportion (5.1%) lived with guardians, highlighting the variety of home settings represented. The number of siblings ranged from none to eight, most respondents (57.7%) had 0 – 2 siblings, followed by 3 – 5 siblings (40.9%). Lastly on the birth order of the respondents, the largest group of identified themselves as middle children (35%), followed by last-born (32.8%), first-born (24.8%) and only children (7.3%).

Research Question 1: What is the perception of model school students of federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria regarding the parenting styles adopted by their parents?

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for the Perceptions of Students on Parenting Style

Source: Field survey, 2025

Participants’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting styles were assessed using 16 statements rated on a 5-point Likert scale: Never (N), Rarely (R), Sometimes (S), Often (O), and Always (A). The results indicate a varied but generally supportive and authoritative parenting approach. The highest-rated item was “My parents value my achievements” ( x̄=4.16), followed by My parents treat me with warmth and affection (x̄ =4.09), suggesting emotional support and affection were prevalent in many households. Conversely, the statement “My parents express disappointment frequently” had a lower score (x̄ =3.22), and “My parents give me freedom with responsibility” was also relatively low with (x̄ =3.32), indicating fewer adolescents perceived their parents as promoting autonomous decision-making.

Interestingly, items reflecting authoritarian tendencies such as “My parents punish me harshly” (x̄ =4.01) and “My parents ignore my behaviour” (x̄ =3.87) also received high mean ratings, suggesting a complex blend of nurturing and strict parenting behaviours. Overall, the weighted mean of 3.68 indicates that parenting styles as reported by respondents showcases a predominance of authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, rule-setting, and communication, albeit with occasional authoritarian and permissive traits.

Research Question 2: What is the perception of model school students of federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria concerning their family relationship and environment?

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for the Perceptions of Students on Family Relationship

Source: Field survey, 2025

Table 3 presents descriptive statistics on participants’ perceptions of their family relationship and environment. Overall, the responses reflect a moderately positive family environment, with high levels of perceived support, open communication, and emotional closeness. The item “My family enjoys spending time together” had the highest mean score (x̄ = 4.16), indicating strong agreement among participants that their families value shared time. Similarly, “I feel safe and valued at home” and “My family encourages my goals and dreams” both recorded x̄ =4.16 and x̄ =4.14 respectively, suggesting a secure and aspirational family atmosphere. Conversely, negatively framed items such as “My family often argues and fights” and “There is tension among my family members” had lower mean scores ( x̄=3.51 and x̄=3.50), respectively, reflecting moderate agreement with the presence of conflict within some family units.

Items reflecting mutual support and problem-solving, such as “My family members support one another” ( x̄=3.94), “We solve problems together in my family” (x̄ =3.80), and “My family listens when I have a problem” (x̄ =3.89), suggest that most respondents feel heard and supported.

Overall, the weighted mean score of 3.86 indicates that the data illustrate a generally cohesive and communicative family environment, with minor variations in perceived familial tension and conflict.

Research Question 3: What is the level of self-esteem of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria?

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for the Respondents’ level of Self-esteem

Source: Field study, 2025

Table 4 displays descriptive statistics for participants’ self-esteem levels as measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results suggest that the majority of respondents have a generally positive self-concept and maintain a healthy sense of self-worth. The item “I feel that I am a person of worth” received the highest mean score (x̄ =4.18), with over half of participants (53.3%) strongly agreeing, indicating a strong sense of self-value. Similarly, high mean scores were observed for items such as “I am able to do things as well as most people” (x̄ =4.09), “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself” ( x̄ =4.08), “I feel that I have a number of good qualities” (x̄ =4.04), and “I take a positive attitude toward myself” (x̄ =4.04), further reinforcing a positive self-assessment across participants.

On the other hand, negatively worded items received lower mean scores, as expected. For example, “I wish I could have more respect for myself” recorded the lowest mean ( x̄ =2.35), indicating general disagreement with feelings of low self-respect. Additionally, items like “I sometimes think I am no good at all” ( x̄ =3.47), “I feel useless at times” (x̄ =3.66), and “I feel I do not have much to be proud of” (x̄ =3.31) had moderately lower mean scores, suggesting that while some participants experience occasional negative thoughts, they are not predominant.

With the weighted mean of 3.73, the findings from the scale demonstrate that respondents maintain generally high levels of self-esteem, with relatively infrequent negative self-perceptions.

Research Question 4: What is the significant relationship between parenting style, family environment and self-esteem of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria?

Table 6 showing the Relationship Between Parenting Style and Self-Esteem

Source: Field survey, 2025

The analysis revealed a statistically significant positive correlation between adolescents’ self-esteem and parenting style; r(135) = 0.54, p < .05. and family environment; r(135) = .598, p < .05. Thus, it indicates that there is a significant relationship among adolescents’ self-esteem, inconsistent parenting styles and family environment of model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria and it suggests that as parenting style and family environment improves, adolescents’ self-esteem also tends to increase.

Research Questions 5: What is the relative contribution of parenting style and family environment to the prediction of self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria?

Table 8: Multiple Regression Analysis Showing the relative contribution of Parenting Style and Family Environment on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem.

Source: Field survey, 2025

Table 8 shows that the two (parenting style and family environment) factors are potent predictors of adolescents’ self-esteem. The most potent factor was family environment (β = .430, t = 5.22, P<0.05) and followed by parenting style (β = .272, t = 3.47, P<0.05). This implies that family environment and parenting style increases adolescents’ self-esteem by 43% and 27.2% respectively.

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The present study examined the influence of parenting styles and family environment on adolescents’ self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria. The findings from the socio-demographic data revealed a balanced gender representation and a majority Yoruba ethnicity, reflecting the demographic landscape of the region. The age distribution, with a mean of 14.57 years, placed the participants in early to mid-adolescence, an important period for identity development and self-concept formation (Steinberg, 2017). This stage is known for heightened sensitivity to parental influence and peer interactions, which validates the study’s focus on family dynamics.

Parenting style perceptions among respondents revealed a predominance of authoritative characteristics. Statements such as “My parents value my achievements” and “My parents treat me with warmth and affection” received the highest ratings, suggesting emotional responsiveness and supportive parenting. This aligns with the well-established theory by Baumrind (2013) and reinforced by Pinquart (2017), who emphasized that authoritative parenting correlates positively with adolescent psychological adjustment and academic achievement.

However, the data also highlighted a blend of authoritarian traits. Statements like “My parents punish me harshly” and “My parents ignore my behaviour” also received high mean scores. This hybrid model reflects the cultural context where traditional norms may emphasize respect and discipline, even within otherwise nurturing homes (Makamanzi, 2025). Such dual parenting characteristics have been documented in African family settings, where parental warmth often coexists with firm behavioural expectations (Ulferts, 2020).

The balanced gender distribution enabled an unbiased exploration of adolescent perceptions across sexes. Research by Povedano-Diaz et al., (2020) stresses the importance of gender balance in adolescent psychosocial studies, as both boys and girls experience self-esteem development differently but are equally influenced by familial dynamics. Thus, this balanced sample enhances the generalizability of the findings.

The Pearson correlation between parenting style and adolescent self-esteem (r = .540, p < .05) was both moderate and significant, affirming that parenting behaviours directly influence how adolescents perceive their worth. This mirrors findings by Ma, Ma & Lan (2020), who demonstrated that adolescents raised in supportive environments reported higher self-esteem and life satisfaction than those in neglectful or authoritarian households.

High self-esteem scores corresponded with perceptions of parental support, especially on items such as “I feel that I am a person of worth” and “I take a positive attitude toward myself.” Marauleng (2025) noted that parental affirmation plays a crucial role in helping adolescents maintain a consistent sense of self-worth, especially during transitional periods like adolescence.

The family environment emerged as an even stronger predictor of self-esteem, with a correlation coefficient of r = .598 (p < .001). This emphasizes the broader influence of the home setting beyond parenting alone. The environment’s emotional quality including safety, shared time, and open communication was found to be fundamental. This confirms the assertion by Twum-Antwi et al., (2020) that a nurturing home environment reduces stress and improves psychosocial resilience among adolescents.

Participants strongly agreed with statements such as “My family enjoys spending time together” and “I feel safe and valued at home,” indicating that many families in the study maintain emotionally secure environments. Yang (2025) stressed that emotional safety is one of the most vital predictors of adolescent self-esteem, particularly in collectivist cultures where familial cohesion is highly valued.

Nonetheless, some adolescents reported the presence of familial tension and conflict. Items such as “There is tension among my family members” received moderate mean scores, suggesting that not all home environments were free from stress. Azaditalab et al., (2025) found that family conflict, especially when unresolved, contributes to emotional insecurity and lower self-worth among youth.

The regression analysis provided deeper insight into the relative impact of parenting and home environment. While both were significant predictors of self-esteem, family environment had a slightly stronger influence (β = .430) than parenting style (β = .292). This finding supports Kolawole (2025), who posited that a holistic family system including siblings, routines, and emotional climate—plays a greater role than individual parenting behaviours in shaping adolescent mental health.

These results reinforce Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (revised by Kaşıkcı & Öğülmüş, 2024), which conceptualizes adolescent development as a product of layered environmental influences, with the family representing the microsystem that most directly affects emotional well-being. Pedersen et al. (2019) further argued that effective intervention should target both parental practices and the broader family environment.

Participants’ perceptions of strategies for promoting self-esteem were generally positive. They identified parental training, extracurricular activities, school counselling, and peer support as effective. The highest-rated strategy was “Talking to trusted adults helps me feel better about myself,” highlighting the importance of supportive adult-child communication. Saltzberg (2024) similarly found that mentorship and adult guidance serve as protective factors for adolescent mental health.

The one-sample t-test result (t = 13.06, p < .001) confirmed that participants significantly endorsed the effectiveness of these strategies. Ebubedike et al., (2024) advocated for school-community-family collaboration in promoting adolescent well-being, especially in resource-constrained settings where access to professional therapy may be limited.

Statements like “Extracurricular activities make adolescents feel capable” and “Family therapy improves communication” were also highly rated. These responses suggest that adolescents recognize the value of a structured yet flexible environment. Daley et al. (2025) recommend integrating such strategies into home science and school-based programs to develop adolescents’ coping skills and self-efficacy.

The findings also emphasize the cultural specificity of family practices. The dominance of Yoruba participants reflected values of communal living and intergenerational support. Gulnora (2024) found that these cultural values, often passed through family routines and religious practices, reinforce adolescents’ sense of belonging and purpose.

Implications of the study are vast for home science educators, policymakers, and family life professionals. The evidence supports the integration of family relationship education into school curricula. UNICEF (2020) emphasizes that life skills and emotional literacy should be embedded in adolescent health and education policies.

Moreover, the findings indicate that family-based strategies should not be generic. Interventions need to be sensitive to household structure (e.g., single-parent, guardian-led homes), birth order, and the consistency of parenting practices.

CONCLUSION

This study provided an in-depth understanding into how parenting styles and the family environment shape adolescents’ self-esteem among model school students of Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria. The findings indicate that adolescents’ perceptions of their parents’ behaviour have a major impact role in how they view themselves. Supportive and emotionally responsive parenting was linked with higher self-esteem, while harsh or inconsistent parenting was associated with lower levels of self-worth.

It was revealed that the atmosphere within the family marked by emotional closeness, shared time, open communication, and mutual support also proved to be a strong influence on adolescent self-esteem. Adolescents who felt safe, valued, and emotionally connected to their families demonstrated a more positive self-concept. These findings underscore the importance of not only individual parenting behaviour but also the broader emotional and relational environment within the home.

Moreover, when parenting style and family environment were considered together, they significantly predicted the self-esteem levels of adolescents. Notably, the family environment emerged as the stronger influence of the two. This highlights the importance of addressing the home as a whole system rather than focusing solely on the behaviour of parents in isolation.

The adolescents surveyed also acknowledged several effective strategies for enhancing self-esteem. These included communication with trusted adults, engagement in extracurricular activities, encouragement from teachers, and the role of family therapy and parental training. The effectiveness of these strategies was supported by statistical analysis, suggesting that both institutional and familial interventions can make a meaningful difference in the emotional development of adolescents.

Overall, the study affirms that healthy self-esteem in adolescents is closely tied to the quality of parenting and the emotional climate at home. Strengthening these areas through intentional family practices, structured support systems, and community-based initiatives can significantly promote positive youth development.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Counselling services should be integrated into communities to support families experiencing conflict or instability as family therapy can enhance communication and emotional bonding, which are crucial for healthy adolescent development.
2. Schools should implement programs that promote students’ self-esteem, including mentorship initiatives, peer support groups, and access to professional counsellors. These interventions should be culturally sensitive and aligned with the needs of students from diverse backgrounds.
3. Life skills and family life education should be incorporated into secondary school curricula to help adolescents understand interpersonal dynamics and develop resilience, self-confidence, and effective communication skills.
4. Religious institutions, NGOs, and youth organizations should collaborate to promote family-oriented activities that reinforce values of unity, respect, and emotional support. Community-based parenting clubs or adolescent forums could serve as supportive environments for both parents and teens.
5. Stakeholders in education and community development should organize regular parenting workshops and training programs which should focus on promoting authoritative parenting practices characterized by warmth, consistency, and open communication.
6. Government agencies responsible for youth development and education should formulate policies that support the creation of adolescent-friendly environments in homes and schools, ensuring access to psychological support services and family strengthening programs.

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