Bangladesh-Myanmar Relations: Problems and Prospects

Bangladesh-Myanmar Relations: Problems and Prospects

Sumon Das

Gopalganj Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000598

Received: 06 September 2025; Accepted: 12 September 2025; Published: 23 September 2025

ABSTRACT

The research work seeks to explore the significance and dynamics of bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar. Bangladesh and Myanmar are two geographically adjacent third world developing countries in South and Southeast Asia. As the two states are neighboring countries, sharing land and sea borders, the scene of walking together is seen. Being neighbors of Bangladesh and Myanmar, there is a need for strong bilateral relations between the two states from the perspective of geo-strategic, economic and national security. But since Myanmar’s political system, political ideology and political culture are different, both states have failed to establish meaningful relations due to lack of political will, mutual trust and mutual trust. The research work is therefore a relevant attempt to identify challenges and opportunities in the development and dynamics of Bangladesh-Myanmar relations. The research work is based on secondary sources of qualitative nature which follows descriptive and interpretive method. The research work showed that the Rohingya refugee crisis, maritime boundary disputes, border tensions, illegal immigration and trade, drug and arms smuggling, China and India’s energy quest in Myanmar have acted as major challenges in the development of bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar. The research work analyzes the challenges as well as identifies some possibilities for the development of bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar such as: cooperation in regional forums, trade and business promotion, maritime trade, investment in Myanmar, cooperation in human resource promotion, etc. The research work also provides recommendations for increasing the dynamics of bilateral relations between the two states.

Key words: Economic Cooperation, Regional Integration, Trade, Security, Communication

INTRODUCTION

Myanmar is a Southeast Asian country that gained independence from the British on 4 January 1948. Myanmar is not only a neighbor of Bangladesh, but also a big rival in terms of business and trade. Both Bangladesh and Myanmar share a common border of about 271 km. Bangladesh-Myanmar formal relations began on 13 January 1972 after the recognition of Myanmar, which became the 7th country to recognize Bangladesh (Hossain, 2014). After the independence of Bangladesh many high-profile visits have been exchanged between the countries to improve bilateral relations. Since 1970, every head of government or government of Bangladesh has visited Myanmar except the caretaker government. In 2011, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina visited Myanmar which prioritized building strong ties with Myanmar. Despite such high exchange of visits, relations are not moving smoothly due to lack of mutual trust and confidence between the countries over the political will of the Myanmar government, the Rohingya refugee issue, border tensions and international crimes. Moreover, Myanmar’s current political and economic reforms such as inclusive economic policy, economic upgrading and submission to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) have added new.

1 The author is a post graduate student at the Department of Political Science, Gopalganj Science and Technology University, Gopalganj, Bangladesh and an Independent Researcher.

Looking forward to the development of relations between the countries. But the large influx of Rohingya refugees following a military operation in Myanmar over an attack on a border post on 25 August 2017 has strained the countries’ bilateral relations. The Rohingya refugee crisis has emerged as a security threat to Bangladesh. Which is thoroughly reviewed in the paper Bangladesh and Myanmar have signed agreements with Myanmar and UNHCR for the repatriation of Rohingyas but the repatriation has not yet started due to the negligence of the Myanmar government. In context, the paper attempts to address the challenges of Bangladesh-Myanmar relations. Along with the challenges, the paper also tries to highlight the areas of potential for the development of bilateral relations between the countries.

Research Objectives:

The main objectives of the research are as follows:

1. a) To find out and solve the challenges in Bangladesh-Myanmar relations.
2. b) To identify the potential that exists in the development of Bangladesh-Myanmar relations.

Method and Analytical Framework of the Study

Data collection method is an important issue in social research. Data is collected in two ways to conduct the research work. Namely: Primary Sources and Secondary Sources. The study is based on secondary source data of qualitative nature which follows descriptive and explanatory method. The research work has been well done with information from various publications, books, essays, research papers, reports of various theorists on Bangladesh-Myanmar relations and publications of public and private institutions on the existing relations, problems and prospects between different states. Below is the content of the main review of the research work titled “Bangladesh-Myanmar Relations: Problems and Prospects” through theoretical framework:

Analytical framework

Source: Made by author

Bangladesh and Myanmar Relations: Historical Background

Bangladesh and Myanmar are two small countries in Southeast Asia. Both countries have a long history of sharing political, cultural and economic interests before their emergence as modern nation states. They also have a common legacy of the British colonial experience. Since 1970, all governments of Bangladesh except the caretaker government have visited Myanmar. Bangladesh-Myanmar formal relations began on January 13, 1972 after the recognition of Bangladesh by Myanmar. Bangladesh Embassy was established in Yangon in April 1972(Hossain, 2014). On August 3, 1973, Bangladesh and Myanmar signed several trade agreements aimed at developing economic relations between the countries. Besides, three important agreements were signed between the two countries from 1972-85 namely: General Trade Agreement, Refugee Repatriation Agreement and Land Boundary Agreement(Alam, 2017). In 1978, during the rule of Myanmar’s military ruler Nay Win, Bangladesh experienced its first refugee crisis, which saw around 200,000 Rohingya enter Bangladesh(Hossain, 2014). In addition to making the Rohingyas stateless in the name of the Citizenship Act in 1982, Burma created a three-tiered citizenship identity and created extreme discrimination among the citizens(N. Islam, 2018). Three MoUs were signed in June 1989 to initiate border trade and economic cooperation. Even if the problem is resolved diplomatically; 2,50,877 refugees from Rakhine state crossed over to Bangladesh in 1991. Bangladesh succeeded in repatriating most of the refugees until mid-1996(Rahman, 2024). In December 1991, Tatmadaw soldiers of Myanmar’s armed forces crossed the border and accidentally opened fire on a Bangladeshi military outpost. The conflict ended in a Burmese strategic failure. On 28 April 1992, UNHCR negotiated with the governments of the two countries and signed a memorandum of understanding for a peaceful settlement of the Rohingya crisis(Habib, 2021). By December 1999, about 200,000 Rohingya had been returned to their homeland. Again in 1992 ESCAP’s Transport and Tourism Department took the initiative to launch the project. Among them, 18 countries including India, Myanmar and China signed the Trans Asian Railway Network Agreement. On May 18, 1994, a border trade agreement was signed with the aim of strengthening economic relations and expanding trade between the two countries. As a result, the traders of both countries get the opportunity to purchase goods worth 5 thousand dollars each. Several important cultural groups have been exchanged between the two countries in the past. A 23-member cultural group visited Myanmar in 1995 to promote cultural ties, improve mutual understanding and knowledge among the people and sign a cultural pact. In 2003, a 116-member Bangladeshi cultural troupe performed their cultural program at the Myanmar trade fair, helping to maintain cultural heritage between the two countries. In August 1997, a military delegation of the Bangladesh Army visited Myanmar, and Myanmar Army officers were undergoing training in the Bangladesh Armed Forces. However, although the picture of military relations between the two countries can be seen, the picture of Myanmar on the border is different. Previously there were five Myanmar infantry battalions on the border, and now thirty-four infantry battalions are known. A total of six Bangladeshi fishermen were killed by the Burmese Navy on October 7, 1998 and September 8, 1999 off the coast of St. Martin Island. In 2000, the two countries had a brief war in which more than 600 people lost their lives. On 19 May 2003, during Begum Khaleda Zia’s visit, three agreements were settled namely Coastal Shipping, Trade Account System and Joint Business Council. During the visit of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina on 5-7 December 2011, Myanmar agreed to increase cooperation in trade, defense, investment, energy, agriculture and border surveillance. Bangladesh-Myanmar Joint Trade Commission was established in 2003. Takes initiative to solve any problems that exist. Bangladesh signed the Trans Asian Railway Network Agreement on 10 December 2007 and as part of it signed the agreement for a 130 km railway from Dohazari in Bangladesh via Ramu in Cox’s Bazar to Gundum in Arakan State, Myanmar. The Trans-Asian Railway and the East-West Economic Corridor will help advance Bangladesh’s economic interests towards ASEAN. Investors have been underwhelmed since Myanmar introduced democratic reforms in 2010. Bangladesh seems to be following India’s look-good policy to increase trade. In 2012, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea awarded the disputed area to Bangladesh, resulting in both a strategic and tactical victory for Bangladesh. From 1962 to 2021, there were occasional glimpses of democracy in Myanmar, but it was a shadow democracy cloaked in military power (Parnini et al., 2013). On August 25, 2017, about 1 million Rohingya people of Myanmar took refuge in the Rohingya camp on the border of Cox’s Bazar(Parnini et al., 2013). As a result, drug trafficking, smuggling, extortion, kidnapping, etc. become a cause of concern in Bangladesh. In 2022, Myanmar’s ambassador to Bangladesh, Aung Kiang Mo, was summoned four times by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bangladesh due to the violation of Bangladesh’s airspace by the Myanmar army in the Naikhongchari border area. In early February 2024, more than 300 Myanmar Border Guard policemen illegally crossed the Bangladesh-Myanmar border, leading to a tense situation where they were disarmed and internalized by the BGB.

Aspects of Bangladesh and Myanmar Relations:

Bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar are deeply rooted in geographical proximity and shared history, spanning over many centuries and commonalities in our cultures and values. Both the neighbours have a long history of political, cultural and economic engagement predating their emergence as modern nation states. Historical linkage and similarities in developmental aspirations require both the neighbous to cooperate for mutual benefit. The aspects of Bangladesh and Myanmar relations are given below:

(i) Trade Relations

Despite being close neighbors, trade relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar have yet to reach the expected level. Huge potential for robust bilateral trade remains to be materialized. However, volume of trade between the two countries is showing gradual upward trend(Banomyong & Fernandez, 2021). Major Bangladesh export items to Myanmar are Pharmaceutical products, Chemicals, Iron and Steel article, Machinery, Electric and Electronic items, PVC items, Jute manufactures, Cement, Garments, Textile fabrics, Snacks and other consumables. Pharmaceutical products constitute bulk of Bangladesh export to Myanmar. Bangladesh mainly imports agricultural produce like Rice, Beans, Pulses, Garlic, Ginger, Onion, Maize and Betel nuts, Sweet water Fish, Livestock, prepared Foodstuffs, Tobacco, raw Hides and Skin, Leather, Wood and articles of woods, Bamboo, Footwear, Textiles and artificial human hair from Myanmar(M. M. Islam et al., 2022). In 2018-2019 a fiscal year : Bangladesh export to Myanmar: US$32 Bangladesh import from Myanmar: US$146 2019-2020: US$30 and US$181 2020-2021: US$31 and US$119 Around 40% cent of exports from Myanmar to Bangladesh and around 29% of import of Myanmar from Bangladesh take place through Border trade. Lack of Road connectivity, Air connectivity and Coastal Shipping arrangement remain obstacle to boost bilateral Trade volume. Both the countries need to focus on cost- effective mode of transport connectivity and infrastructures related to trade such as ports, jetties, customs station etc. Issues like high tariff and non-tariff barriers need to be addressed.

(ii) Political Relations

Political relations are important for understanding and advancing the bilateral relations of both countries. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the diplomatic relation was established. Bangladesh embassy was set up in Yangon in April 1972. In the long time, many exchanges of visits at high and top levels have taken place between the two countries to promote relationship through mutual confidence and understanding. It resulted in signing altogether ten agreements on different issues of common interests including repatriation agreement, boundary agreement, general trade agreement, air transport agreement, border trade agreement and agreement on prevention of trafficking of narcotics etceteras. Both the sides expressed and assured the existence and strengthen further the relations between the countries. Despite having a cordial political relation, serious friction developed in 1978 following the dispute relating the forced exodus of approximately 200,000 Myanmar Arakanese Muslims into Bangladesh”. Though the problem was resolved diplomatically; 2,50,877 refugees from Rakhine state crossed over and took shelter again in Bangladesh in 1991 (Ibrahim,2014). Bangladesh succeeded in repatriating the bulk of the refugees unto mid-1996. Approximately 500,000 Rohingyas are living in Bangladesh in under a report in 2014 made by Ahmad Ibrahim. On August 25, 2017, about 1 million Rohingya people fled to Bangladesh and took refuge in Rohingya camps on the border of Cox’s Bazar after being subjected to brutal genocide by the Myanmar army and their allies. Various crimes organized by Rohingyas, such as drug trafficking, smuggling, extortion, kidnapping, murder, which are constantly published in various media, have become a cause of concern for Bangladesh. Besides, using illegal ID cards, their cheap labor is secretly threatening the employment of Bangladeshis in the labor market of Bangladesh. Although a 19-point agreement was signed with Bangladesh on November 23, 2017, not a single Rohingya from Bangladesh has been repatriated to Myanmar in the past four years. The change in policy as a result of the military rule on 01 February has now become a reason to think again about the ‘return of the Rohingya’. Recent political pot changes in India like Bangladesh have been a cause of concern for regional security (Ibrahim,2014). According to a report of the international news agency Reuters on June 10, 2021, thousands of people from Myanmar are fleeing and taking refuge in Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland in India. It is known that various terrorist groups have existed in this region since before. All these terrorist groups can use refugees to carry out various activities. If India is not able to deal properly with all these refugee crises in the near future, the border security may take a new twist in the activities of extremism and diplomatic relations between India and Myanmar. Therefore, this Rohingya refugee issue is a core problem between the mutual relations. Another disconcerting issue is that the demand of yearly toll from the bordering villagers by the Arakan Army. The Myanmar insurgents are reported to be one of the sources of small arms proliferation in the region (IDSA, 2015). They are also engaged in poppy cultivation in the region. Other issues of contentions are: Concentration of forces and frequent border violations; Alleged assistance by Bangladesh to Myanmar insurgents (Ibrahim,2014).

(iii) Military and Diplomatic Relations

Military diplomacy in the twenty-first century goes beyond traditional notions of war and peace.To protect mutual bilateral interests, Myanmar’s military (Tatmadaw) should develop ties with Bangladesh’s military. The military cooperation between Myanmar and Bangladesh has a lot of promise. There are several areas where the two countries may engage and work together. The two sides talked about promoting regional security and stability as well as the prompt repatriation of the Rohingyas. The Myanmar Army was reminded by the Bangladesh Army to exercise caution when undertaking any operations in the border regions (Mazumder, 2022). The Rakhine region of Myanmar, which borders Bangladesh, has seen a number of airspace violations over the past few months, as border guards there have fought domestic militants. Bangladesh strongly protested the violation of airspace and the landing of shells inside Bangladeshi territory. Border soldiers from Bangladesh and Myanmar’s junta promised to mend bilateral ties. The commander of the Bangladesh Army, SM Shafiuddin, urged the Myanmar delegation to cooperate for regional security and discussed ways to strengthen ties between the two militaries, as well as collaborative discussions, training exchanges, coordinated disaster management, and information sharing (Mazumder, 2022). The Myanmar delegation provided information about the situation in Myanmar and stated that they are working to keep order and peace in their nation at the meeting between the two forces. The united efforts of the two states may pave the way for closer connections between the two neighbours. Improved military ties between Bangladesh and Myanmar can aid in the smoothing of ties and the resolution of long-standing issues such as the Rohingya crisis, maritime disputes, and border-related trans- border crimes (Mazumder, 2022). Both forces from Myanmar and Bangladesh should exchange visits, training, and joint exercises on a regular basis. These will aid in the reduction of mistrust and the promotion of trust and understanding. On the environmental front, the Tatmadaw and Bangladesh military may collaborate to lessen the risk of regional environmental degradation through coordinated disaster management systems, operations, and projects. Both Myanmar and Bangladesh have several opportunities to work in order to lessen the risk of environmental degradation and loss (Mazumder, 2022).

(iv) Security Relations

There are arrangements for Border Guards of Bangladesh and Myanmar to meet each other on a regular basis at different levels to address various border related issues. Regular consultations are being held between Heads of two Border Guard Forces. To enhance understanding and cooperation and infuse greater trust between the two Border Guard forces, a Memorandum of Understandings (MOU) on establishing Border Liaison Offices (BLO)” was concluded. Armed Forces of Bangladesh and Myanmar have a longstanding tradition of contact, consultation and cooperation. Existing cooperation between the two Armed Forces include exchange of visits of senior officials, goodwill visits of navy ships, exchange of training and disaster relief operation. Since 2011, 03 (three) Chiefs of Army Staff of Bangladesh visited Myanmar. Chief of Naval Staff and Chief of Air Staff of Bangladesh also visited Myanmar. Former Principal Staff Officer (PSO), Armed Forces Division (AFD) also visited Myanmar. Successive Chiefs (Director General) of Border Guard Bangladesh (BGB) visited Myanmar. From Myanmar side, Lt Gen Soe Win, Commander in Chief (Army), Admiral Thura Thet Swe, reciprocated the goodwill by visiting Bangladesh. Myanmar Commander in Chief (Air) General Khin Aung Myint, visited Bangladesh in November 2016. Since 2017, Bangladesh Army and Myanmar Army have been maintaining consultations through another mechanism: Army to Army Staff Talk. So far two rounds of Army to Army Staff Talk took place in 2017 and 2019. Naval Forces of both the countries have been holding Navy to Navy Staff Talk. So far 04 (four) rounds of talks have taken place. Bangladesh and Myanmar concluded a MoU on “Security Dialogue and Cooperation”. This mechanism stipulates structured dialogue among all entities working in the security domain, particularly among all Defence forces and security agencies of the two countries. Bangladesh Armed Forces offer number of training courses to Myanmar Defence Services. The courses include training in the Military Academy (BMA), Defence Services Command and Staff College (DSCSC), National Defence Course (NDC) and various other Training Institutions. These courses are offered to enhance relationship between Bangladesh Defence Forces and Myanmar Defence Forces (MOFA, 2022).

(v) Cultural Relations

Despite the absence of a cultural agreement, cultural relations with Bangladesh-Myanmar have been developing considerably. Several important cultural groups have been exchanged between the two countries in the past. A cultural group of 23 members visited Myanmar in June 1995. However, motivated by a common desire to further strengthen close cultural ties and promote mutual understanding and knowledge among their peoples, both countries agreed to sign a cultural agreement. In 2003, a Bangladeshi cultural troupe of 116 members performed their cultural program at a trade fair in Myanmar. We hope that the processes of cultural exchange between Bangladesh and Myanmar will increase for their greater interest and relations. Exchange of cultural heritage is a sign of friendly relations. It is good news for both countries that they have started exchanging cultural heritage. The Embassy of Bangladesh organized the first ever Bangladesh Food Festival on 15-19 May 2015 to introduce the culinary traditions of Bangladesh as part of its initiative to connect the people of Myanmar through cultural diplomacy. Bangladesh-Myanmar’s long historical relations provide ample prospects for the development of cultural cooperation. In the past, such a relationship existed which has now declined. Exchange of music, drama and art should not only know each other but also promote mutual understanding to famous people so that I can remove mutual mistakes as well as mistrust. Some are found bringing valuables in Rangoon’s name and for loved ones. This cultural cooperation can only strengthen us. On the other hand, between Muslims and Buddhists, harmony and mutual respect can be organized between Muslims and Buddhists. This could help reduce tensions in Rakhine State. So far, the Bangladesh government has been keen to organize such dialogues. Therefore, the positive response of Myanmar will be great (Uddin, 2014).

(vi) Communication Relations

Regional connectivity with manufacturing infrastructure and various ongoing affairs of the manufacturing region is considered beneficial to the public. But Myanmar has no road or railway connection with Bangladesh. Although communication is always considered an important dimension for bilateral cooperation. There is no room for doubt on this question. Desired mobility in industry, commerce, education and culture cannot be achieved without sustainable communication infrastructure (Ahmed, 2013). In this case, international communication network is needed as well as internal communication. Communication has become more important and overlooked in this era of globalization. Bangladesh has no air or sea connectivity with Myanmar, but its connectivity is essential to improve trade. Myanmar has air connectivity with India. Thailand and Singapore have air connections with Bangladesh Flights from Bangladesh to Thailand may stop en route to Myanmar at least twice a week for half an hour. At the request of the Bangladesh-Myanmar government, 25 small non-conventional vessels were allowed to ply between Teknaf and Sittwe. Besides, Bangladesh also proposed to establish two sea port connections between Chittagong and Sitway. Bangladesh also plans to build a deep-sea port at Sonadia, which is of great importance to Myanmar and other Asian nations as a regional hub. As a result, both countries will benefit economically as well as strategically. As a result, a decision was taken regarding the development of infrastructure along with the transportation and import-export by sea, road and air between the two countries. Based on these decisions, it was decided to start the air service between Chittagong and Sitway and increase the ship and other navigation facilities between Sitway-Mongdu-Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong (Uddin, 2014). It was decided to build a bridge over the Naf river as a joint initiative of the two countries. So that road travel and goods transportation from Gundum in Bangladesh to Tambru in Myanmar is easily possible (Ahmed, 2013). It is relevant to recall that in 1959, it was decided to build the Asian Highway with the consent of the member and associate countries of the United Nations Asian Pacific Economic and Social Commission (ESCAP). Two years later in 1961, the Escape Trans Asian Railway plan was adopted. Both plans were aimed at economic development by facilitating easy communication between Asian landlocked countries. Again in 1992, ESCAP’s Transport and Tourism Department took the initiative to launch the project and pushed for its implementation. Among them, 18 countries including India, Myanmar and China signed the Trans Asian Railway Network Agreement. In Bangladesh, the process of work in this regard has also started, which is undoubtedly a matter of hope (Ahmed, 2013).

Also on 10 November 2007, Bangladesh signed an agreement for a 130 km railway from Dohazari in Bangladesh via Ramu in Cox’s Bazar to Gundum in Arakan State, Myanmar as part of the proposed Trans Asian Railway Agreement. Trans Asian Railway and East-West Economic Corridor (EWEC East-West Economic Corridor) will help Bangladesh’s economic interests to move towards ASEAN. In fact, a direct road transport link between these two countries will not only facilitate bilateral trade but also act as a gateway for Bangladesh to China and ASEAN, as well as SAARC for Myanmar Bangladesh will expand its road connectivity with the entire Southeast Asia. It will also ease the way to increase regional cooperation and achieve socio-economic prosperity of the people of the region. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the transactions with the eastern countries following the eastward policy of the Bangladesh government (Uddin, 2014). In this regard, Bangladesh-Myanmar friendship mad will play an important role. If this road is opened, the pressure on Chittagong Port will also be reduced. It should be kept in mind that after the completion of the Maitri Road, it is expected that road connectivity will be established towards Malaysia and Thailand. Development of communication system is the first condition for bringing dynamism in economic activities and creating activity. The Alliance Road initiative will help bring about a radical change in the economic landscape of the wider Asia-Pacific region. In view of the future world system, not only Myanmar, but also Bangladesh needs to register a new vision towards the countries of East and South Asia by crossing the Bay of Benga (Ahmed, 2013)l. The Asia Pacific region is becoming increasingly important in the global economy. About one third of the world’s human race lives in these regions. Their collective production is about a quarter of the world’s total production (Uddin, 2014). According to experts, by 2040, these regions will develop at least 5 distinct economic zones centered on China; All three of which will be equivalent to Europe. Therefore, Bangladesh’s eastward diplomacy needs to be strengthened. That is, Myanmar, China, Laos, Thailand, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc., should develop maximum good relations. It is observed that the economic progress of the eastern countries especially the communication between the countries of East and Southeast Asia is the key to their success.

Challenges of Bangladesh and Myanmar Relations

 Rohingya Crisis

In World War II The position of the Rohingyas was on the side of the Allies. Japan Myanmar in January 1942 attack About then 50 thousand Rohingya fled to save their lives Entered Chittagong.1948 On January 4, Myanmar belonged to the British Gained independence from In 1962 Myanmar military junta seizes power. General Nay Win of Myanmar in 1978 Repression of Muslim armed Rohingya in Rakhine state Conducts ‘Operation King Dragon’. According to the Citizenship Act of 1982, they are not considered citizens of Myanmar. But after independence in 1948, the Burmese government rejected the Rohingya’s historic claim (Sultana, 2019). The Rohingya fled to Bangladesh from Myanmar after the Myanmar Army’s ‘Nagamin’ (Dragon King) campaign in 1978 after the independence of Bangladesh. . About 200,000 Rohingya were pushed into Bangladesh during the 1970 Naga-Min operation. Later in 1991-1992, about 250,000 Rohingyas entered Bangladesh to escape persecution. Despite its own socio-economic problems, the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) stands by them with the help of the United Nations. Again, another Rohingya exodus occurred in June 2012 which displaced around 100,000 Rohingya following ethnic violence against Muslims in Rakhine state.This led to a large influx of Rohingyas into Bangladesh. Around 700,000 Rohingya are estimated to have fled to Bangladesh after Myanmar’s brutal military campaign since 25 August 2017, and around 1 million Rohingya currently live in Bangladesh, including 300,000 others who entered Bangladesh in previous years. The Rohingya issue does not seem to be resolved anytime soon. It has become quite a challenge now. Rohingyas are affected by AIDS (Sultana, 2019). They are deforesting, destroying mountains. There are long-term economic risks with it. Moreover, socio-economic problems may also be evident. Security risks may also increase. Although an urgent solution to this problem is necessary, there is no way forward. Analysts said that the government should make a long-term plan for the Rohingyas and turn them into public resources. Although the world leadership is in favor of Bangladesh, Russia, India and China have not effectively come forward to solve this crisis. As a result, a permanent solution to the Rohingya crisis has fallen into disrepute. Since Bangladesh is the most affected by this problem, it should continue its diplomatic efforts. So that Myanmar responds to the Annan Commission’s recommendations, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina’s 5-point proposal and the call of the Security Council to end the ongoing impasse. Otherwise Bangladesh and Myanmar will face a bigger crisis in the near future (Sultana, 2019).

Maritime Disputes

Along with the geo-centric development of the present world, the development of sea-based economic activities has opened the door to immense possibilities for the coastal countries. Bangladesh is no exception. The waters of the Bay of Bengal and its subsoil can play a pivotal role in the economic development of Bangladesh. According to the Law on the Limits of the Sea (UNCLOS-III), a country has rights over all kinds of animal and non-animal resources in the territorial sea up to 12 nautical miles and the exclusive economic zone up to 200 nautical miles. Claiming to be their own (Watson2015). The Government of Bangladesh filed two cases in the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) on 08 October 2009 after several attempts with India and Myanmar to resolve the maritime boundary dispute did not receive the expected response. Both cases were settled by international tribunals in 2012 and 2014, opening up huge opportunities for Bangladesh in the maritime domain. On March 14, 2012, ITLS gave its verdict demarcating the border between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal. In this, Bangladesh gained rights over 70 thousand square kilometers out of 80 thousand square kilometers in the Bay of Bengal. In the verdict, Bangladesh gained full jurisdiction over the island of St. Martin. Moreover, Bangladesh gained authority over 12 of the 20 claimed blocks of deep and shallow seas. The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) allows Bangladesh to explore a large part of the Bay of Bengal for oil/gas in a 685 km exclusive zone in the Bay of Bengal and beyond in Mohisopan. This economic model ‘blue economy’ or ‘blue ocean economy’, which is complementary around the sea, can bring huge potential for Bangladesh. The sea is an integral part of Bangladesh and can play a huge role in poverty alleviation and long-term economic emancipation (Watson2015).

Tensions in Border Area

 Tensions of border area is another important challenge of building cooperative relations with Myanmar. There are accusations of Bangladesh that Buddhist Rakhine State is smuggling drugs across the border into Bangladesh. The Bangladesh government’s Department of Narcotics Control has reported a surgeon yaba seizure in recent years-from approximately 4,000 tablets in 2009 to more than 150,000 in 2013 and the 2014 Global Synthetic Drugs Assessment by the UN office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports that the yaba seized in Bangladesh originates in Myanmar”(Sultana, 2019). In May 2014, Myanmar fired at the Bangladesh border and killed a BGB member, and in response, Bangladesh lodged a protest with Myanmar for provocation. In 2015, four farmers were killed in southwest China when one or more bombs were dropped from a Myanmar warplane. Myanmar helicopters flew over Bangladeshi airspace at least three times in August 2017 as millions of Rohingya fled to Bangladesh to escape the Myanmar army’s ethnic cleansing campaign. The latest incident is the result of Myanmar’s junta’s domestic counter-insurgency operations that extend beyond its borders. Bangladesh is also following the ‘not to be trapped’ policy at the instigation of Myanmar and is monitoring all incidents only along the Bangladesh-Myanmar border. Overthrew the government on February 1, 2021. As a democratic country, Bangladesh faces a dilemma in dealing with Myanmar’s junta. The recent August 28 mortar shell landing at Naikhongchari in Bandarban near the Bangladesh-Myanmar border has created a diplomatic and security dilemma for Bangladesh. Border Guard Bangladesh and Rohingya leaders living in Bangladesh reported that from August 31 to September 9, 2021, the Myanmar Army continued its attacks, patrols and surveillance along the Bangladesh-Myanmar border. Bangladesh condemned Myanmar as a democratic and peaceful country and called the Myanmar ambassador for internal instability. All in all, it shows that Myanmar is a threat to regional stability and security and likely has profound implications for the Indo-Pacific region (Sultana, 2019) .

Illegal Immigration, Illegal Trade, Drug and Arms Smuggling

Despite Bangladesh’s efficient border forces, illegal trade, human trafficking, drugs and weapons, the people of the coastal areas are largely poor and willing to migrate to Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore or Malaysia very cheaply, and the route is Water-based waterways. It is very risky and thus every year a large number of ignorant and poor people in Bangladesh and Myanmar are victims of human trafficking, besides many Rohingya refugees are involved in illegal trade, drug and arms smuggling. On 16 February 2018, in a ministerial meeting between the home ministers of Bangladesh and Myanmar, Bangladesh handed over a list of 49 Yaba factories to Myanmar and requested Myanmar to close the factories. Smuggling networks are active in Maungdu and Sitwe in Arakan State and Taknaf, Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong in Bangladesh where smugglers face little resistance to smuggling arms and drugs. Almost every day Bangladeshi authorities – BGB, police and other concerned authorities are seizing large quantities of Yaha (Sultana, 2019).

China and India’s Energy Quest in Myanmar

Both China and India have great interest in Myanmar’s natural resources such as oil and natural gas. In January 2005, the energy ministers of the three countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for the construction of a 950 km long trilateral gas pipeline. But implementation of the proposed gas pipeline has been complicated by Bangladesh’s demand for custom-free transit to Nepal and Bhutan, greater transit facilities and a reduction in the trade imbalance between Bangladesh and India, which was not acceptable to India. The break-up allowed Myanmar to sign a deal to sell 5.5 trillion cubic feet (tef) from the Rakhine coast to China via an overland pipeline for 30 years. Myanmar’s preference for China has since led to a series of agreements to build oil pipelines, natural gas pipelines and crude oil pipelines in 2008 and 2009 respectively. On the other hand, India is interested in importing gas from Myanmar to India through a direct pipeline. In this regard, the Government of India has held discussions with Myanmar to facilitate the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project which will connect India’s northeastern states with Myanmar’s seaports. In this situation, it will be a challenge for Bangladesh to secure energy from Myanmar amid the increasing energy competition between India and China in Myanmar (Sultana, 2019).

Prospects of Bangladesh and Myanmar Relations

There are many possibilities for the development of Bangladesh-Myanmar relations as follows:

(i) Cooperation in Regional Forums

 There is huge scope for deepening the economic relationship between Bangladesh and Myanmar through the regional forum – Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Forum (BCIM), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). On some strategic issues, these regional and sub-regional forums can play an important role in developing bilateral relations. For example BIMSTEC brings together the countries of South and Southeast Asia and it creates a platform for intra-regional cooperation between SAARC and ASEAN, in March 2014, during the Third Summit of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation. Operation (BIMSTEC), both countries have emphasized on the Bangladesh-Myanmar-Kunming Road Link Project which connects Mandalay, Dhaka and Bangladesh’s Chittagong to boost bilateral trade (Sultana, 2019). Also, Bangladesh is a bridge between SAARC and ASEAN and Myanmar is located between East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Hence, both countries can benefit from each other by expanding the market in this region. Bangladesh is interested in implementing the Trans-Asian Railway (TAR) project proposed by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). If it becomes visible, it will connect Bangladesh with six East Asian countries – Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Laos, Cambodia and European countries – through Turkey. It is also noteworthy that Bangladesh signed the TAR Agreement on 10 November 2007 which came into effect in June 2009 and as part of that 130 km railway is proposed to be laid from Dohazari in Bangladesh to Gundum in Arakan State, Myanmar. Via Ramu of Cox’s Bazar. TAR and the East-West Economic Passage (EWEC) are expected to stimulate the economic welfare of Bangladesh in ASEAN and elsewhere. Finally, relations between countries can be developed through regional forums based on proper discussion, compromise and sense of brotherhood and neighborliness (Sultana, 2019).

(ii) Trade and Business Growth

On 5-7 December 2011, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina’s official visit to Myanmar ushered in a new era in bilateral relations. The visit comes at a time when Myanmar’s government is transitioning to democracy. The Prime Minister met the President of Myanmar on 6 December 2011 and both leaders agreed to enhance cooperation in trade, defence, investment, energy, agriculture and border surveillance (Foreign Office Briefing Road, 2011). Both countries signed an agreement to form a joint commission at the level of foreign ministers and a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to establish a joint business council between the Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FBCCI) and the Union of Myanmar Chambers of Commerce and Unions. Industries (UMFCCI). The trade deficit between Bangladesh and Myanmar is expected to decrease through the opening of Letter of Credit (LC) and direct banking channels with Bangladesh and Myanmar (Sultana, 2019).

(iii) Maritime Trade

In 2012, the peaceful settlement of the Bangladesh-Myanmar maritime dispute opened a great opportunity for the development of bilateral relations. The tribunal awarded 1,11,631 square kilometers of sea area to Bangladesh and 1,71,832, square kilometers to Myanmar, the line drawn by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) on waters 12 nautical miles from St. Martins Island, including 200 nautical miles (370 Kms). has allocated the territorial sea. Exclusive Economic Zone and continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles of Bangladesh. It is a victory for both Bangladesh and Myanmar that opens up opportunities for both countries to explore the Gulf of Beng. This arrangement expands the scope of joint naval exchanges in the Bay of Bengal, a maritime link (Sultana, 2019) .

(iv) Investment in Myanmar

Myanmar is rich in natural resources and has recently adopted a liberal policy for leasing land for agro-based industries. Therefore Bangladesh can encourage investment through public or private investment in many areas like agro-technology and forestry industry, information technology education and infrastructure, hotel industry and tourism, contract farming and marine fishing and human resource development. But Bangladesh government should provide bank loans for easy investment. In this case, two areas of joint investment are hanging. Bangladesh can share land, expertise and supply natural gas to Myanmar if investors join. Communication is a powerful tool of diplomacy that can shape public opinion to build stronger relationships, trust and understanding between countries. Better communication with the public can break existing mistrust and contribute to bilateral relations; It needs to be enhanced through a mix of new processes, resources and sustainable spirit to strengthen bilateral relations (Sultana, 2019).

(v) Cooperation in Human Resource Development

Bangladesh is capable of supporting Myanmar’s human resource development. Bangladesh can help Myanmar in microfinance, education and women empowerment as the country boasts of having two globally renowned microfinance institutions like Grameen Bank and BRAC. BRAC has already started small-scale operations in Myanmar. It can play an important role in human resource development in remote or backward areas like Myanmar’s Rakhine State. A developed Rakhine state will contribute to peace in neighboring areas. Vocational training could be another area, where they can help Myanmar (Shamsuddin, 2019).

Findings:

The first hypothesis of the study was to explore the problems and solutions of Bangladesh-Myanmar relations. The research shows that Myanmar’s military junta government has repeatedly committed the most heinous acts of killing, burning houses, rape, physical and mental torture etc. on the Muslims of Rakhine state. As a result they have taken refuge in Bangladesh. The sheltering of these Rohingya refugees has affected the social, political, economic and cultural spheres of Bangladesh. These issues have been highlighted in the research. Besides, many people lost their lives due to the border tension between the two countries. Recently, Myanmar has been patrolling its border and airspace which has become a concern for Bangladesh. Which is clearly revealed in the research. Also many disputes and problems have arisen over maritime boundaries. Due to the world’s big powers and international organizations, both the states have won and lost in the maritime domain. Even the solutions to the existing challenges between the two countries have been shown. The second hypothesis of the research was to identify the possibilities of development of relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar. Research has shown this hypothesis to be largely true. The study shows that Bangladesh and Myanmar have developed relations as neighboring countries since independence. The bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the past were tense. However, both the states used to import and export various goods to meet their needs, as a result of which a relationship developed especially in the commercial field. However, this relationship is up to down (Up to Down). Rohingya crisis, border tension, maritime issues etc are behind the deterioration of relations between them. Recently, the ongoing relationship between the two countries has not been going well due to the Rohingya crisis and border tensions. Although both states, big powers, international organizations, non-state actors, etc. tried to solve this problem, they could not ensure a complete solution, especially in dealing with the Rohingya refugee crisis. Despite the many problems between Bangladesh and Myanmar, there are also many possibilities which, if realized, will benefit both countries economically. Besides, the commercial relations between the two countries will be strengthened, the communication system will be developed with both the states, they will be able to play a helpful role in increasing the human resources, they will be able to protect the national interests by establishing military diplomatic relations, political relations, etc. Therefore, in order to deal with the existing crisis and take advantage of this possibility, both the states have to discuss and take action, recommendations have been highlighted in the study.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Relations between Bangladesh and Myanmar have soured due to the ongoing Rohingya crisis. This has affected the ongoing business between the two countries. Bangladesh should take a strong diplomatic stand with the help of China, India and the international community to speedily implement the repatriation agreement including the Kofi Annan Commission’s report and reach a reasonable solution to the Rohingya issue.
2. Efforts should be made to improve communication with China and ASEAN countries through Myanmar. To implement this, Bangladesh should take initiatives and strong diplomatic efforts to utilize existing forums like BCIM, BRI and BIMSTEC to pursue this issue with the support of China and other ASEAN countries.
3. Myanmar is rich in raw materials and reserves of oil and gas. Bangladesh can jointly develop an export-oriented manufacturing hub with Myanmar with its trained manpower. Bangladesh should take appropriate steps to get power and energy from Myanmar.
4. Myanmar has welcomed foreign investment and is reforming its policies. Appropriate incentives should be given to interested investors from Bangladesh and encouraged to invest in Myanmar. It will pave the way for development of bilateral relations and people-to-people contacts.
5. Duration of “Border Pass” may be modified to facilitate border trade. Bangladesh may also initiate a proposal to ease Myanmar’s visa policy for Bangladesh so that the business community can benefit from it.

CONCLUSION:

Although Myanmar and Bangladesh share history and ancient trade relations, recent bilateral relations between the two countries have not been good. This is mainly because Myanmar was isolated internationally due to its military regime, but a maritime dispute and the longstanding unresolved Rohingya problem have placed more burdens on the two countries’ relationship. Despite this situation, there are some potential opportunities to rebuild solid bilateral relations between Myanmar and Bangladesh. Like India, Bangladesh can look east by enhancing trade with Southeast Asian countries through Myanmar, which is a member of ASEAN and borders economic giant China. Myanmar plays a pivotal role for Bangladesh, not only in entering the ASEAN market, which is the fastest growing economic zone after the European Union (EU), but also in extending connectivity with a bridge to China. Therefore, if Bangladesh’s prime strategic objective is to form a link with these countries through Myanmar, it is necessary for Bangladesh to establish solid bilateral relations with Myanmar. For Myanmar, although the country has a promising future, the long-lasting and protracted Rohingya issue remains challenging for the government. Moreover, the Rohingya problem is one of the significant factors that can trigger religious and community violence at any time, which may lead to instability. Therefore, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi has established an advisory commission in Rakhine State led by Kofi Annan to seek solutions for the Rohingya problem. The commission is expected to come up with feasible solutions for this issue. Nevertheless, it is clear that workable solutions to the Rohingya problem cannot be found without collaboration between the two countries. Against this backdrop, it can be seen that both Myanmar and Bangladesh each have their own interests. It is the right time for the two countries to enhance engagement to improve bilateral relations and resolve some important issues such as promoting bilateral trade and regional connectivity. Starting to find possible solutions together would presumably entail building trust between the two countries. Although there seems to be some potential for strengthening bilateral relations between the two countries, the status quo is likely to remain unless the Rohingya issue is resolved within a reasonable period of time.

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