A Critical Study on the Impact of the Kalinga-Sri Lanka Relationship

A Critical Study on the Impact of the Kalinga-Sri Lanka Relationship

Dr. R. K. M. Trileeshiya Indrani¹, Dr. M. A. Prasad Kumara²

¹Senior Lecturer, Department of History and Archeology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.

²Senior Lecturer, Department of Humanities, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000616

Received: 16 August 2025; Accepted: 23 August 2025; Published: 24 September 2025

ABSTRACT

This research critically examines the contemporary relevance of the diplomatic relations established between the Polonnaruwa Kingdom and Kalinga. The research question focuses on understanding the impact of Kalinga-Sri Lanka relations on the stability of the Sri Lankan state. The study aims to identify the political, socio-economic, and cultural dimensions of these relations and analyze their short-term and long-term effects on state stability. The research follows a qualitative methodology, utilizing literature, archaeological sources, and historical records. The data collected was analyzed using comparative and thematic analysis methods to derive conclusions. A notable feature of the diplomatic relations of the Polonnaruwa Kingdom was that Sri Lankan rulers strategically selected countries with which to maintain stable relations, ensuring long-term political and economic benefits. Kalinga was one such significant region. A key objective was to establish alliances with regional powers opposing the Chola Empire, thereby countering Chola influence. One prominent aspect of King Maha Vijayabahu I’s foreign policy was the perception of the Chola Empire as a perpetual adversary. Moving beyond the traditional consanguineous marriage system, he married Kalinga’s Tilokasundari to strengthen regional power dynamics. This marital alliance played a role in sustaining Kalinga-Sri Lanka relations. For instance, his daughters, Subhadra and Sumitra, were married to his successors, Uparaja Veerabahu and Adipada Jayabahu, ensuring continuity in diplomatic ties. Additionally, high-ranking positions were sometimes granted to relatives of Kalinga queens to reinforce these bonds. According to the Mahavamsa, princes such as Madhukarna, Bhimaraja, and Balatkāra, who were relatives of Queen Tilokasundari, were provided salaries and stationed in Sri Lanka. Trade relations with Kalinga may have also been a primary objective of these ties. King Nissankamalla further strengthened diplomatic and friendly relations with Kalinga. Ultimately, King Vijayabahu I’s special focus on Kalinga, in comparison to other Bengal relations, can be attributed to the region’s access to the major trade hub of the Bengal Bay and the need to establish a regional alliance against Chola dominance.

Keywords: Kalinga, Marriage, Relationship, Trade, Stability, Sustainable

INTRODUCTION

This research critically examines the contemporary relevance of the diplomatic relations established between the Polonnaruwa Kingdom and Kalinga. The research question focuses on understanding the impact of Kalinga-Sri Lanka relations on the stability of the Sri Lankan state. The study aims to identify the political, socio-economic, and cultural dimensions of these relations and analyze their short-term and long-term effects on state stability. The research follows a qualitative methodology, utilizing literature, archaeological sources, and historical records. The data collected was analyzed using comparative and thematic analysis methods to derive conclusions. A notable feature of the diplomatic relations of the Polonnaruwa Kingdom was that Sri Lankan rulers strategically selected countries with which to maintain stable relations, ensuring long-term political and economic benefits. Kalinga was one such significant region. A key objective was to establish alliances with regional powers opposing the Chola Empire, thereby countering Chola influence. One prominent aspect of King Maha Vijayabahu I’s foreign policy was the perception of the Chola Empire as a perpetual adversary. Moving beyond the traditional consanguineous marriage system, he married Kalinga’s Tilokasundari to strengthen regional power dynamics. This marital alliance played a role in sustaining Kalinga-Sri Lanka relations. For instance, his daughters, Subhadra and Sumitra, were married to his successors, Uparaja Veerabahu and Adipada Jayabahu, ensuring continuity in diplomatic ties. Additionally, high-ranking positions were sometimes granted to relatives of Kalinga queens to reinforce these bonds. According to the Mahavamsa, princes such as Madhukarna, Bhimaraja, and Balatkāra, who were relatives of Queen Tilokasundari, were provided salaries and stationed in Sri Lanka. Trade relations with Kalinga may have also been a primary objective of these ties. King Nissankamalla further strengthened diplomatic and friendly relations with Kalinga. Ultimately, King Vijayabahu I’s special focus on Kalinga, in comparison to other foreign relations, can be attributed to the region’s access to the major trade hub of the Bengal Bay and the need to establish a regional alliance against Chola dominance.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research method adopted here is the qualitative research method. The research methodology here was to analyze the data obtained from the literary and archaeological sources and other historical records under the comparative and thematic analysis method and draw conclusions. Primary literary sources and secondary literary sources, as well as archaeological sources including epigraphs, were consulted for data collection. In analyzing the data thus obtained, conclusions were reached using the historical comparative method, thematic analysis method, and case study method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

“There is no island on earth that has caught the attention of various travelers in long-distance voyages like Ceylon. Not even Great Britain can compare to that past Ceylon,” said the English historian Emerson Tennant (Ponnamperuma 1869.10). Therefore, various types of relations with other states have been maintained with Sri Lanka in the past. Due to being able to maintain close relations with geographically distant states, efforts have been constantly made to break away from isolation and establish relations with any state. For the stability of the state, as stated above, maintaining foreign relations by the rulers of this country will help the success of the state administration. A state is an area of ​​land where people are settled and governed by a ruler. It is described in Kautilya’s Arthasastra as follows.

Historical facts that Sri Lanka has maintained relations with trans-sea states since prehistoric times can be identified from legends, foreign literary sources as well as archaeological evidence. But these relations were transformed into strategic diplomatic relations in AD. B.C. From the 03rd century. Mahinda journey and Duminda journey became the decisive factor in Lanka-India diplomatic relations and Buddhism became the central force that stabilizes those diplomatic relations. The main feature of the diplomatic relations established with India, especially during the Anuradhapura kingdom period, was the exchange of cultural inspirations, exchange of political assistance, and the creation of a strong foundation for commercial activities through those relations. Especially B.C. From the third century to the thirteenth century, developed in the central and northern parts of Sri Lanka, the diplomatic relations followed by the royals of the Rajarata civilization were the background to create stability in all the political, economic, religious, and military affairs of the country. Past Sri Lankan diplomatic relations can be identified as religious, cultural, economic, and political relations developed in a number of fields. The rulers of the Maurya, Lambakarna, and Manavamma dynasties, who held power during the Anuradhapura period, tried to achieve their goals by maintaining various forms of diplomatic relations. History of Indo-Ceylon diplomatic relations B.C. The information can be revealed by the literary source that has been seen since the 6th century. Also, by studying the archaeological source, it is possible to confirm the information about the diplomatic relations that existed since the third century BC. Special mention should be made of the Ramayana. According to Indian sources such as the Mahabharata, the history of Indo-Lankan diplomatic relations goes back to the 6^th century AD.

King Vijayabahu I’s Kalinga relations and state stability in this country

It seems that the first King Vijayabahu, who freed the island from the Chola influence during the Polonnaru period, constantly tried to build an anti-Chola diplomatic policy due to the suspicion that the Cholas would oppose the country again, and because of the stability the Cholas had achieved in the Eastern commercial competition. The Panakaduwa copper sannasa, belonging to the period of King Vijayabahu I can identify the stability of his kingdom.

‘Mulu Dambadivhi An keth Kula Pamili Kala Okawas Raja Parapuren But…. Sirisangabo Wijayabahu Rajapa Wahanse…’

who was from the lineage of the Okavas kings, who conquered other castes in the whole of Dambadiv… Worked to build a friendly network with regional countries that were in rivalry with the empire.

In the marriage policy adopted by King Vijayabahu, it appears that strategic efforts have been made to strengthen regional friendship beyond local traditional customs. To build a regional power structure beyond the local tradition of the same-sex marriage system that has been operating in this country so far, inter-caste marriage relationships have been established in several foreign countries. King Vijayabahu’s concubine Lilavatiya was a daughter of Jagatipala of Ayodhya (Mahavansaya 1996: Ch. 59, stanza 24), Jagatipala is believed to have been from Virasalam in the Chola inscriptions and to have come from Kanoja. As such, it is possible that he was concerned with establishing a North Indian origin as well. Later, he established a friendship with the country by bringing a princess named Tiloka Sundari from Kalinga, an important commercial area facing the Bay of Bengal (Mahavansaya 1996, Ch. 59, stanzas 25-31). One of the salient features of the king’s foreign policy was the perception of the Chola kingdom as an eternal enemy. This is an example of the Chola king taking steps to intensify the long-standing Pandya-Ceylon friendship by marrying off the King Lak’s sister, Princess Mittha, who had rejected it by marrying her off to a Pandyan prince (Maha Vansaya 1996: Ch. 59, stanzas 41). This clearly shows that the incumbent rulers went beyond personal matters in parallel with the regional commercial political structure.

The marriage policy of King Vijayabahu I became a major factor in stabilizing the Kalinga-Ceylon-Pandya relations in the long run. For example, the daughters Subhadra and Sumitra, born of Queen Kalinga, gave shelter to their late Viceroy Weerabahu and Duke Jayabahu, respectively, which shows that King Vijayabahu was engaged in a strategic practice to stabilize these ties even after him. Also, her daughters Ratnavali and Loka Natha gave refuge to the princes Manabharana and Kith Sirimegha, who were born to a Pandya prince. After the death of Rupavathiya, Sugalavan, who was born from the womb of his late queen, betrayed him to Sirivallabha. It also laid a solid foundation for North Indian relations. On Ethics in Public Administration

Kautilya, who does not pay much attention, thinks that the sole aim of a king should be the development of his kingdom and the welfare of his countrymen. In focusing on the Avaha-marriage policy of King Vijayabahu, he too achieved his goals by greatly fragmenting the traditional local kinship relationship. He has married his daughters to his brothers (Daughter-Bappa) despite the previous custom and has given three more daughters to his nephews. Sugala-Sirivallabha’s marriage is a marriage between granddaughter and son-in-law. Therefore, it should be noted that this is a unique situation compared to the Anuradhapura period. Accordingly, it can be recognized that King Vijayabahu’s marriage policy had a direct impact on the stability of Kalinga-Sri Lankan relations and the political stability of the country.

Also, King Vijayabahu’s entire foreign policy, including Kalinga relations, incorporated the regional commercial pattern. King Vijayabahu, during the Polonnaru kingdom period, realized the practical necessity of building such an inter-relation for the first time so that no enemy state was created in the region except for the Cholas, and the reasons for the isolation of the Chola power. It shows the tactfulness of the rulers of this country in their diplomatic relations. Through this, it could be identified that the states facing the Bay of Bengal, such as Kalinga, Lanka-Pandya, were connected and functioned as a kinship family as well as a regional commercial partnership or organization.

These matrimonial relationships also seem to have developed into a kinship of foreign queens. In the stable maintenance of Indo-Sri Lankan diplomatic relations, the relatives of foreign queens have also been given important positions in Sri Lanka to strengthen friendship ties. For example, it is clear from the mention in the Mahavamsa that royal princes named Madhukarnava, Heema Raja, and Balathkara, who were relatives of Princess Tilokasundari who came from Sinhapura, stayed in this country. Sometimes, promoting commercial transactions with Kalinga has become the main purpose of their visit. In the logically constructed line-up, it appears that King Vijayabahu’s clear desire to give more interest to Kalinga than other diplomatic relations was to promote commercial transactions with the land of Kalinga, facing the great market place of the Bay of Bengal.

In this way, the local rulers who gained independence by acting against the Chola hegemony, centered on Polonnaruwa, and worked with cooperation based on previous examples in implementing the theory of state governance, but they also took care to implement an aggressive foreign policy towards every state that was a challenge to their state’s stability. Missions or embassies have played a significant role in aggressive foreign policy. For example, Vijayabahu Pandya I pursued a friendly foreign policy with states like Karnataka, Kalinga, Kanaujya, and Burma, but aggressive action was taken towards the Chola states. Among the foreign ambassadors who came to him after his accession, the Chalukya envoys were the first to be received, and the envoys from the Chola do not seem to have been given priority. Tutu Paduru first sent the Sri Lankan envoys along with the Karnataka envoys, and their harassment in the Chola land angered King Vijayabahu. Even now, the Dravidian envoys who had come to meet him sent their strong displeasure by wearing women’s ornaments and were invited to a war as per the Chola king’s wish. Now, the Tamil forces working in this country behaved violently against it, looted Polonnaruwa, burned the royal palaces, and arrested the members of the royal family. Thus, it appears that through various strategies, King Vijaya Bahu I worked for the stability of the state by building strong diplomatic relations and maintaining them for a long time.

Kalinga Relations and State Stability of Maha Parakramabahu and King Nishshankamalla

In discussing the Kalinga foreign relations and state stability of King Maha Parakramabahu, the chronicles do not reveal that the king won countries through the marriage policy, but his queens Rupavathiya, Chandravathi were said to be of Kshatriya lineage, but it is not clear which country’s princesses they were. But his late queen Leelavathiya, was a princess of Pandyan lineage. It is clear from the Polonnaru inscription that Vijayabahu II, who was the son of one of his sisters who lived in Kalinga at that time, was named as his successor. He also gave shelter to one of his sisters to a Kalinga prince. Therefore, it is confirmed that both Vijayabahu I and Parakramabahu I have maintained their diplomatic relations with Kalinga continuously.

King Nisshankamalla established the next very important strategic diplomatic relations in the Polonnaru kingdom in the investigation of foreign relations and state stability with Kalinga during the Polonnaru kingdom period. A member of the Kalinga clan, he adopted a campaign of using inscriptions to win the challenge of his clan. Nisshankamalla in his inscriptions claims that he, being a Kalinga clan, inherited the throne from Vijaya, and that non-Buddhists such as Cholas, Pandyas, and peasants did not inherit the kingdom. He tried to further the foreign policy of King Parakramabahu and made friendly relations with nations like Karnataka, Telugu, Kalinga, Pandya, and Bengal. Efforts have also been made to stabilize his foreign policy by conducting diplomatic relations. King Vijaya Singhu is shown to have invaded the Pandya and Chola lands by the forces led by Senevi Navurunvan, and an inscription of the Chola Emperor Kulottunga III mentions that he invaded the Rameswaram area and defeated and routed the Sinhalese army.

Also, King Nishankamalla has used the marriage policy for his diplomatic relations. His inscriptions prove that he had matrimonial relations with the kingdoms of Kalinga, Wangi, Karnataka, Nellore, and Gujarat. His second queen, Kalyanavathiya, was a Kalinga relation belonging to the Ganga clan. Hence, it seems that most of the Polonnaru rulers made Kalinga their closest diplomat. Also, it is clear from the facts mentioned in the inscription in Ruwanweli Sa Malu that he lived in friendship with Cambodia. According to the facts, a group of Cambodian bird catchers was requested to leave the sinful profession.

It is said that they were given a desired object, such as gold, Ruan, and cloth, to make them happy. Also, the fact that one of Polonnaruwa’s city gates in the twelfth century was known as Cambodian Vasala is evidence that there were Cambodian settlements in that area of ​​the city. Therefore, it is clear that these inhabitants received direct government support and attention during the Tata period. Accordingly, in investigating the facts about the state of Nishankamalla, it appears that the implementation of the foreign policy is important. Although the information about him in the chronicles is very limited, his inscriptional source sheds some light on the study of the foreign policy of the period. Several inscriptions reveal that his friendly foreign relations were predicated and he engaged in an aggressive foreign policy. Accordingly, some inscriptions state that the Cholas invaded the Pandya kingdoms and took tribute from them, and the Galmatian Lake inscription states that ‘Pandu Vijaya Kulam built the lake to commemorate the Pandyan invasion. One may think that these are exaggerated facts to show his greatness, but they cannot be ruled out as ahistorical because an inscription of his has been found at Rameswaram in South India. Considering this evidence, it is clear that King Nishanka Malla had some ownership over the island in Rameswaram. It is a confirmation of any victory achieved by King Nisshankamalla in Pandya land. For example, Sahassamalla, which was brought by Mallikarjuna from Kalinga, stayed at the Chola Mandal’s Kodapattana naval port until the end of the Dowry War in Sri Lanka. This is mentioned in three South Indian letters are considered to be the historical commercial city of Chola land called “Gangai Kondapatana*. Comparing Nishankamalla’s letters with these, it can be inferred that he had some influence on South India.

The maintenance of foreign relations by the rulers of the Polonnaru period was more intense than the foreign policy followed by the rulers of the Anuradhapura kingdom. It can be recognized from his epigraphs that King Nisshankamalla pursued a foreign policy with India on different policy lines. Nisshanka Dana Vinoda Mandapa epigraph shows that because he strengthened his foreign policy through friendly relations and often Indians from different parts of India came to visit this country, pavilions were created to entertain them (Epigraphia Zelanica Voll. II 1928: 124). Thus, it can be recognized that the king intervened and provided feasts and sacrifices to the foreigners who came from India. Many epigraphs of King Nisshankamalla are about this friendly concept (Epigraphia Zelanica Voll. II 1928: 126).

In this epigraph, it can be recognized that foreigners were treated to Mahadan. From the above two epigraphs, a way of offering sacrifices to foreigners can be identified, and the manner in which those offerings were made can be identified with detailed evidence from the Epigraphia Zelanica Voll.II 1928:171) of King Nisshanka Malla’s Prithi Danaka Mandapa Epigraphia. There, the people of the Nisshankamalla and Kalinga clans were treated.

Thus, almshouses with all the facilities in Sri Lanka have been created to hold banquets for people from Kalingaya Rameswaram, etc. in India. It is also possible to recognize a way in which the food is made suitable for eating, and the food belonging to the customs and traditions of foreigners is given here for food. It is also possible to recognize a way in which foreigners coming here were facilitated to stop. It also mentions how necessary facilities are provided for entertainment, such as singing and dancing. It can be assumed that this Kalinga group may be a group of people who came to visit, a group of people who came for trade, a group of relatives of the queens of King Nisshankamalla or relatives of the king. According to these factors, it can be recognized that this policy is an important juncture in the foreign policy of King Nishankamalla.

CONCLUSION

Based on the above facts, it can be pointed out that even though the rulers of the Polonnaru kingdom period made their governance theory by the Anuradhapura kingdom period, they did not stick to the same tradition but changed to suit the contemporary regional and world political and economic pattern, and they prepared the governance principle so that foreign trade could be done efficiently and safely and it was well suited for the development of the country. King Vijayabahu I, the first local ruler of Polonnaruwa, had Sirisangabo as his title as well as Chakravarti. After this, the first kings, Parakramabahu and Nisshankamalla, also continued to bear this name. Thus, it is confirmed that they used their political power with a concept beyond the national level. Sometimes, the empires like Raja Raja, Rajendra Chola, were powerful rulers of the Indian Ocean.

This term may have been used to signify that they were also the emperors of Asia at this time, meaning “the king of kings”. The rulers of Polonnaruwa used foreign policy to stabilize and maintain their political power, while also carrying out an aggressive foreign policy to suit the occasion. Therefore, it can be pointed out that the foreign policy of the Polonnaruwa rulers was logical and based on a theoretical basis. In this way, the underlying purpose of the foreign policy of the Polonnaruwa rulers must have been to maintain the political stability of the country. It is a clear fact that the economic development that resulted from this has affected the success and stability of the country’s political affairs.

Although inter-state relations during the Anuradhapura period were significant in both political and cultural aspects. It was not a process aimed directly at foreign trade. When the Polonnaruwa period came, the rulers of Polonnaruwa carefully selected strategically important countries and implemented their diplomatic relations and policies with a wide understanding. King Vijayabahu I can be introduced as a very important ruler who used foreign policies very successfully to maintain stability based on the Polonnaruwa Kingdom. In particular, he took steps to build an anti-Chola diplomatic policy because of the suspicion that there would be another Chola opposition after freeing the island from Chola domination, and because of the dominance the Cholas had gained in the Eastern commercial competition. For this purpose, the king has created a friendly network with the regional countries that were in front of the Chola Empire by acting with critical intelligence on the political conditions and commercial affairs of foreign countries. In order to maintain the stability of the state, the king has tried to maintain diplomatic relations with foreign countries by maintaining diplomatic relations such as marital relations, friendly relations, trade relations, religious relations, etc. so that every field of the country is revealed. For that, the king has used various strategic tactics, and King Vijayabahu was keen to build strong diplomatic relations and maintain them for a long time, because the king knew very well that it would build the stability of the state.

During the period after King Vijayabahu and before Parakramabahu became king, the political stability of Polonnaruwa was collapsing to some extent, but the unstable politics were rebuilt by a great king, Maha Parakramabahu. The reason for the weakening of state power at that time was the presence of internal political power struggles. So foreign diplomacy.

It was not even a chance to maintain strong relationships. But with the visionary actions of King Parakramabahu, the shattered state stability and foreign relations got a new lease of life. In the relations of diplomatic strategy followed by the king, friendly relations were strategically used, and they often transformed into political relations that went beyond the cultural framework. King Parakramabahu can be pointed out as an important ruler who worked to build the stability of the state by establishing marriage relations and religious relations in a very strong way. When we examine the foreign policies followed by King Parakramabahu I, it appears that the king led a confederal rule through strict measures domestically and adopted an aggressive policy against any trans-sea state that rose against political or economic power. It should be mentioned that he has used those factors to build the stability of the state.

King Nishankamalla is important as a king who established more important diplomatic relations based on the Polonnaru Kingdom. King Nisshankamalla, a Kalinga clan, won many kingdoms through friendly relations. That is, friendly relations were maintained with nations like Karnataka, Telugu, Kalinga, Pandya, and Bengal. It must have been thought that the state of Ceylon would be challenged by these states. The king may have been tempted to develop friendly relations with the subjugated states, thinking that if such challenges are faced, there will be breakdowns in the stability of the state in this country. Also, King Nisshankamalla has pledged to build state stability by having marriage relations with foreigners, holding Panapati relations, and holding religious relations. Being a Kalinga clan, the king has faced the local challenges very successfully and created very important diplomatic relations abroad. He often focused on the stability of the state. Accordingly, it should be noted that in addition to the foreign relations mentioned above, the form of foreign trade relations also directly affected the creation of state stability during the Polonnaru period.

Although inter-state relations during the Anuradhapura kingdom period were fueled by political and cultural aspects, it does not seem to have been implemented as a diplomatic strategy directly aimed at foreign trade. But when examining the diplomatic relations of the country during the Polonnaruwa period, it is clear that the rulers of the country carefully selected strategically important countries with a broad understanding of the world trade network and maintained their diplomatic relations and policies. The rulers of Polonnaru have tried whenever possible to maintain these close diplomatic relations with the South Indian royal families who were active mediators in the Indian Ocean trade, South East Asian countries, Arab empire-based Muslims as well as China, which was the main commercial supplier of the East.

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