A Re-Appraisal of the Impacts of Colonialism on the Traditional Practices of Selected Nigerian People

A Re-Appraisal of the Impacts of Colonialism on the Traditional Practices of Selected Nigerian People

Alexander C. Ugwukah, PhD

History and International Studies, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.915EC0023

Received: 06 March 2025; Accepted: 13 March 2025; Published: 16 April 2025

ABSTRACT

This reappraisal examines the complexities of British colonialism in Nigeria, challenging simplistic narratives of economic and social exploitation of the people and their traditional practices. While acknowledging the devastating consequences of colonial rule, this study highlights the agency and resilience of Nigerian people in navigating the colonial encounter. British colonialism introduced modern infrastructure, education, and healthcare systems, which transformed Nigeria’s socio-economic landscape. However, these developments were often underpinned by coercive policies, cultural imperialism, and economic exploitation. Nigerians responded to colonialism in diverse ways, including resistance, collaboration, and creative adaptation. This reappraisal emphasizes the need to move beyond previous notions of colonizer and colonized, instead recognizing the complex, multifaceted nature of colonialism in Nigeria. By acknowledging both the benefits and drawbacks of colonial rule, the work developed a more nuanced understanding of Nigeria’s colonial past and its ongoing impact on the country’s development trajectory. Ultimately, this study aims to stimulate a more informed and balanced debate about the legacies of British colonialism in Nigeria.

Keywords: Reappraisal, Impacts, Colonialism, Traditional Practices, Nigerian People

INTRODUCTION

In order to give an accurate account of the effects/impacts of colonialism on the traditional practices of selected Nigerian peoples, it is important to define the concept of colonialism which is a celebrated theme in not only Nigerian history but African history as a whole. Colonialism is a system of power and exploitation where one country (the colonizer) establishes control over another or territory (the colony) for economic, political, and cultural gain. Colonialism has been defined as a form of imperialism where a dominant power exercises control over a subordinate territory or people often through military conquest, economic coercion, or cultural imperialism.[1] Frantz Fanon in his definition defined colonialism as “a system of power relations where the colonizer exploits the colonized creating unequal economic, social, and cultural structures”[2]. He argues that colonialism is not just a system of economic exploitation or cultural domination, but a fundamentally violent and oppressive structure that seeks to dehumanize and subjugate the colonized people.

It is important to emphasize that Nigeria is a multicultural country with over 250 ethnic and linguistic groups. These include; Hausa-Fulani (29%) predominantly Muslim found in the North; Yoruba; (21%) of mixed religion, traditional religion worshippers, Christians and about a one-third are Muslims who are predominantly found in the South West; the Igbo (18%) predominantly found in the South East, Ijaw (10%) found in the Niger Delta region, Kanuri (4%) found in the North East, Ibibio (3%) found in the South-South, Edo (2%) found in the South-South, Nupe (2%) found in the North central region and other notable groups as Tiv, Urhobo, Itshekiri, Isoko, Ogoni, Efik, Idoma, Igala and several other equally important groups which time and space may not allow us to focus on in this work.[3] The sheer number and diversity of Nigerian societies force one to attempt some degree of categorization of selected Nigerian people to superimpose a framework for the study. Therefore, the task of this paper shall be to discuss the effects of colonialism on the traditional or precolonial practices of four major ethnic groups which are (i) the Hausa/Fulani (North) the Yoruba (South West), the Igbo (South-East) and the Efiks (South-South) the first three are regarded as the major ethnic groups, while the  Efik, otherwise known as the Calabar people played a significant role as the capital of the protectorate of Nigeria from 1906 to 1914, when Lagos became Nigeria’s capital. Calabar was, however, an important hub for colonial administration and trade in palm oil and slave trade.[4]

It must be asserted that colonialism profoundly impacted the traditional practices of these ethnic groups transforming their cultural, social and economic system in diverse ways which could be categorized into positive and negative consequences upon not just their lives but also on the environments in which they were found. Before British colonial rule, the diverse societies of the Nigerian region had ruled themselves as independent states with large kingdoms such as the Sokoto caliphate, the Oyo Empire, the Benin Kingdom, the Kanem-Bornu Empire, the Igala Kingdom the Hausa city-states and other democratic village republics, especially among the Igbos and other Acephalous Societies. Although colonialism began in Nigeria in 1861 after Lagos became a crown colony, other parts of Nigeria were not brought under colonial rule until about 1900 when the remaining parts had been conquered. The borders of the Modern State of Nigeria were established in 1914 when the British colonial government amalgamated the Northern and Southern protectorates of Nigeria to form a unified colonial state.

As the British forces brought Nigeria under colonial rule in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, they went about adapting local political institutions to meet the needs of the British themselves with the introduction of the indirect rule system by Lord Frederick Lugard, the Governor-General of Nigeria who had initially introduced the system Northern Nigeria. Lugard’s system was based on governing through traditional rulers and institutions rather than directly administering the colonies. In the North, the British government worked through the Emirs and other traditional rulers to govern. It was quite adaptable to the lean resources and workforce of the colonial government at the time. The success in the Northern region therefore encouraged Lugard to extend it to other parts of Nigeria. The system allowed local chiefs and elites to maintain their local authority while submitting themselves to the authority of a central apprentice of the British colonial administration. In the process of its administration, colonialism altered not just the political landscape but also the traditional practices and customs of the people. It also altered some aspects of the economic life of the people. First, it brought together what had previously been hundreds of autonomous independent groups of people under the single administrative umbrella of an amalgamated Nigeria. Second, the process of indirect rule resulted in changes in the powers of traditional political leaders. The British often misunderstood the traditional political institutions when they governed and often had difficulty identifying the legitimate traditional authorities.[5] In addition, the British sometimes extended powers to local rulers that they had never previously held and in all cases they took away the sovereignty that local rulers had enjoyed previously. For instance, if an indirect ruler displeased the British, he would not be the local authority for long regardless of the traditional basis of his authority.

Traditional Religious Practices of the Nigerian peoples were another aspect of their culture that the colonial government considered not to conform with their Christianity and Western culture and ideals. Ritual worship and sacrifices to the traditional gods of Nigerian peoples such as Ogun, Oya, Obatala Kamanu, and Ala, the earth goddess were condemned and later replaced in some cases by Christianity or Islamic practices. However, despite the influence of these religions, some Nigerian peoples continued to engage in their indigenous religious practices. Some continued to resist the colonial intervention in their cultural festival ceremonies such as Egungun, Agemo, and Eyo among the Yorubas, while the Igbos and Efiks retained some cult/rituals and taboos that hitherto seemed contrary to the missionary expectations and values of the colonial government.[6]

Some of the traditional festivals which continued among the ethnic groups include Osun Osogbo, Eyo, among the Yoruba, Ofala among the Igbos, Durbar among the Hausa people and Ekpe among the Efiks and the Igbos. The colonial authorities’ intervention led to further ethnic tensions among the people. For Instance, the bureaucracy and economics of colonial rule dictated that small classes of English-speaking European-educated Nigerians were needed to hold lower-level positions in the government and European business. These European-educated elite enjoyed a higher standard of living than most Nigerians, but they also found that their ability to rise to the level of their capabilities was obstructed by the racist ideology of colonial rule which viewed Nigerians as culturally and intellectually inferior to Europeans. It must be noted also, that it was these elites that began to organize to pressure the colonial governments for a greater representative for Nigerians in their own governance and for an eventual end to colonial rule in Nigeria. Leaders such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo and Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa emerged to lead large-scale nationalist movements, which ultimately became full-fledged parties that negotiated independence from the British government in the years after the Second World War in 1945, ultimately leading to Nigeria’s independence on October 1, 1960. Despite the diverse impact of colonialism, it could be asserted that colonialism brought about positive and negative effects which are highlighted below:

Positive Effects of Colonialism on the Traditional Practices of Selected Nigerian People

One of the most important effects of colonialism upon the traditional practices of the Nigerian people was the introduction of Western-style education formally from primary to secondary and ultimately to the tertiary level which began at the University of Ibadan in 1948. The missionaries led the way for the introduction of Western-style/education through their churches, such as Church Missionary Society (CMS) the Methodist Church, the Anglican Church, and the Catholic Church as well. The Seventh-day Adventist church founders of Babcock University were not left out in the background in this task which prepared Nigerians for an educational revolution that ushered them into the teaching, and medical professions as medical doctors, and nurses also prepared the Health Sector that eventually improved the welfare of the various ethnic groups which hitherto had depended on traditional herbal medicine alone. Although, it cannot be asserted that the traditional medical system was not as effective, however education brought in various Modern techniques and medications which ultimately increased the mortality rate of Nigerians in the years that followed its introduction.

As earlier noted, it must also be asserted that the earliest products of Western education in Nigeria became the first elites as some of them acquired their education in Western European country’s capitals and cities abroad, London, Cambridge, and even in the United States. The exposure that they got from the foreign education equipped them in various professional fields such as politics, engineering, architecture, and medicine as they came back home to fight for the independence of the country. Apart from establishing political parties, they got themselves involved in Nationalist liberation movements and constitutional development which set the way for Nigeria’s independence. Economically, colonialism transformed Nigeria’s economic system from its traditional agrarian food crop orientation to a cash economy which introduced large-scale plantations in Palm oil, cotton, groundnut, cocoa, and coffee production. The 19^th Century witnessed progressive expansion in the economy. In the North, both the Agricultural production and the extractive industries were given a boost. The colonial period witnessed unprecedented growth and expansion in the production of export crops such as cocoa, rubber, palm oil and Kernel, Cotton and groundnuts.[7] All these cash products landed Nigeria into the broader world economic system in international trade with Nigeria’s import and export figures accelerating in the years that marked the early colonial years of the 20^th century. Not only were farmers able to shift their farming practices from the typical food and subsistence farming, but they were also introduced to modern agricultural systems, crops and agricultural practices.[8]

Buttressing the point, a colonial record asserts:

The colonial administration also stimulated agricultural expansion through research and experimentation. The period 1912-1916 witnessed the establishment of the Moor Plantation at Ibadan as an Agricultural Experimentation center. Similar stations were established in 1923 in Zaria, Umuahia, and Benin. In 1925, an Agricultural Research Station was established at Vom near Jos. This was followed by the opening of the School of Agriculture at Ibadan in 1927. In 1934, the Agricultural station and Veterinary School were established in 1923 at Samaru (in Zaria) and Kano respectively. The major functions of these schools and institutions were for the provision of Agricultural research, training of Agricultural personnel and improvement of the Agricultural system and techniques through the dissemination of new ideas and practical experimentation. Grading of products was introduced as farmers strove to produce highly graded cash crops.[9]

To support the economic base of their economies, which, although was highly exploitative, British colonial officers developed Nigeria’s infrastructure in various areas such as communication (telegrams to telephones), post offices, transportation, railways, motor lorries, bicycles and ports development. Railway construction started in 1898 at Lagos and by 1930, the Western line had reached Nguru in Northern Nigeria. The Eastern line started from Port-Harcourt in 1913 reaching Kaura Namoda also in Nigeria in 1929. Roads were constructed to feed facilitate the evacuation of Agricultural produce to Britain. The colonial administration also stimulated agricultural expansion through research and experimentation. This involved the establishment of several institutions.[10] With the railway thread which connected Lagos to the North, East and other parts of the country, commercial centers developed such as Enugu, Ibadan, Port-Harcourt, Umuahia, Jos, Kano Kaduna as rural-urban migration led to the urbanization of virtually the whole country, most of these infrastructures survived the colonial period and remain some of the legacies left by colonialism to Nigeria.[11] The extractive industries were developed by foreign interests. Their investments were in such minerals as tin, gold, diamonds, coal, salt and iron ore. The colonial government monopolized mining of coal at Udi, near Enugu for consumption by the Nigerian Railway and for export to Gold Coast. The Nigerian coal industries began with coal mining in 1909, Tin mining in 1904 in Jos, columbite mining started in 1905, and other solid minerals which developed Nigeria’s workforce. The railway was sustained through the coal mined from Udi, which employed a labour force that agitated for improvements in their wages increase in the 1945 General Strike and the 1949 Miner’s Strike. All this activism eventually gingered the new elites such as Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo and Tafawa Balewa who through their Newspapers were able to develop awareness to support the worker’s human rights demanding wages increase and better working conditions for the Nigerian labour force.[12]

Perhaps, it must be maintained that the colonialists gingered and improved on Nigeria’s internal waterways by expanding the channels of Nigeria’s major and adjoining rivers of Niger, Benue, Cross River, Ogun, Osun, Hadeija, Kaduna and equipped them with drainage systems and steamer engine boats to stimulate internal trade and harvesting of Agricultural products, fishing and transportation of farm products. The colonial government also introduced marketing boards to improve upon the marketing of Agricultural products and introduced New Tropical Agricultural institutions to encourage farmers to understand modern agricultural techniques and systems. Although not much development took place in skills acquisition transfer by the colonialists to the Indigenous Nigerians, however, the colonial government made efforts to get Nigerians prepared for taking over the reins of their country for the period of ninety-nine years of their occupation which started in 1861 and ended in 1960. Despite all the efforts and positive efforts recorded for the colonial masters and administrators among Nigerian ethnic groups, it must be asserted that there were records of activities that left much to be desired of their ‘dual mandate’ which they claimed was meant to benefit both the metropolis and the indigenous populations. These events could be out-rightly classified as having negative effects upon the peoples of Nigeria at this period of its history.  

Negative Effects of Colonialism on the Traditional Practices of Selected Nigerian People

Despite all the achievements that have been recorded as positive gains for the colonial administration of the British, it must be asserted that the colonial administration significantly contributed to incessant conflicts, division and wars among Nigeria’s indigenous populations through the several artificial boundaries which they drew without considering ethnic linguistic or cultural differences dividing groups and creating tension between those involved in the circumstances that abounded. A lot has been said about the indirect rule system, which utilized the divide and rule system to carry out their administrative duties as they lacked enough manpower. British colonial administration exploited existing rivalries and created new tensions fueling competition for resources and power. One of the most negative effects of the colonial administration is the exploitative goal of the British government right from the beginning of their conquest of the subject populations to benefit their home governments.

Given that the industrial revolution which started in Britain in the second half of the 18^th century encouraged mass production, Nigeria remained the major source of raw materials for British industries and by extension also became the market for selling the products manufactured by British industries. One negative impact on the traditional practices of the Nigerian people was the act of colonial commercial monopolism which was especially consolidated during the Second World War and after, with the creation of central buying agencies such as the West African Product Board.[13] In 1946, while the Board offered Nigerian £16:15 (Sixteen Pounds, fifteen shillings) per ton of palm oil, the Board sold the same quantity for £95 (Ninety-five pounds) in Britain through the Ministry of Food. Another clear example of exploitation of Nigerian farmers was the sales of groundnut exports which earned the farmer £15 (fifteen pounds per ton but was sold for £110 (One hundred and ten pounds in Britain. The most critical feature of the colonial economy was the absence of an industrial sector which undermined local industries that existed before colonialism. No doubt, Britain was hostile to industrialization as most industries established were processing industries.

Indeed, the perpetual exploitation of farmers’ products by fixing prices and undervaluing hard work to produce such products led Walter Rodney to write his famous book, “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.”[14] The reflections in this book argued that the present civilization and economic development of Europe were as a result of the high exploitative tendencies of the British amongst their African subjects in the 18^th-20^th century. This exploitation according to Rodney led to inequality, poverty and competition for scarce resources expressed by African populations eventually work. Colonialism also led to the imposition of Western-style administration, disrupting traditional governance structures and creating conflicts that hitherto were not experienced by the traditional societies of Nigeria. Further, through the imposition of the indirect rule system and other colonial apparatus, Britain suppressed Indigenous cultures, languages and traditions, eroding, identity and creating resentment. In their bid to control the political systems of the various groups, the colonial masters created a North-South dichotomy. This factor also led to favoritism and marginalization as they forced certain groups over others, creating perceptions of inequality which later manifested disagreement and disharmony among the traditional systems. An example of the trouble fermented by colonial policies was the 1929 Aba women’s riot.

Apart from expropriating the laws of indigenous peoples, leading to disputes over ownership and resource control, Colonialism expanded the disruption of traditional trade networks, leading to economic instability in some of Nigeria’s ethnic regions. It must be noted that before these events, as early as 1885, a British protectorate of the oil Rivers was declared over the coastal areas of Nigeria. Jaja of Opobo was an obstacle to the realization of British control in the area. In 1886, he organized a boycott of British control and shipped commodities directly to Europe. The British Consult tried to incite the people of the hinterland against Jaja but failed. He therefore framed up charges against him and invited him into his gunboat for a settlement. He was forced into exile in Calabar where he eventually died sixteen years later. The British occupation of Nigeria started in 1851 with the bombardment of Lagos and its annexation in 1861 (1) Thus, Lagos became the first part of Nigeria to be integrated to into the British colony.

The current economic, socio-cultural and political development of the selected four ethnic groups of Nigeria which follows reflects a mixture of traditional practices and Western culture acquired from colonialism.

The Hausa People of Nigeria

Hausa is a term used in relation to both the language spoken and the people who speak it. It is the lingua Franca of the Northern parts of the West African sub-region and Northern Nigeria. Particularly the Berbers of the Sahara initially employed the terms Habe (plural) and kado (Singular) in the Lake Chad area to describe them. Hausaland comprised people who came from different places but who had remained long enough to interact with and inter-marry the Habe. Their offspring imbibed the culture more readily than their forebears did.[15]

There are many legends of the origin of the Hausa people as they traced their roots to the Middle East, Bornu and the West African sub-region. According to popular mythology, Bayadjidda, the ancestor of the Habe in rulers, or (Hausa Kings) was the son of Abdullahi, king of Baghdad. He quarreled with his father and left Baghdad arriving first in Bornu. He left a son there after a treacherous encounter with his father-in-law, the Mai of Bornu. He continued in his journey and arrived in Daura, where he slew a dangerous snake that inhabited a public well, preventing its use, except on Fridays. Bayadjidda then married. The Queen of Daura and their offspring constituted the Hausa known states of today. These seven children regarded as the Hausa Bakwai states were Biram, Daura, Kastina, Zaria, Kano, Rano and Gobir. These according to the legend were regarded as the Hausa pure states, while another seven states regarded as Hausa Banza (impure) include Zamfara, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Yoruba (Ilorin) and Kwara rafa. In the case of the latter, they were not the descendants of Bayadjidda but had come under Hausa or Bornu influence.[16] The term Banza has been keenly contested as inappropriate by contemporary scholars of those states dismissing the term ‘bastard’ otherwise used as impure as not correctly conveying the real circumstances of conquest or association/mergers which may have been brought into the account through migration and intergroup relations.

The structure which developed in the Hausa states was highly bureaucratic essentially hierarchical and patriarchal occupations were determined by birth and women’s status. As a stratified and specialized society, the Hausa settled in large, well-organized communities worked skillfully with iron and capably protected their territories from the Tuaregs and another contemporary group.[17] One such group was the Fulani, an ethnic group that initially had no definite territory as they could be found in almost every country of the Sudan zone extending from Senegal in the West to Upper Nile in the East.[18] With the coming of the Fulani, and the subsequent Islamic Jihad to Hausa land and their emergence as the overlords, the history of Hausa land changed to integrate them to produce what is now called the Hausa Fulani group. It must be noted that the Fulani became the dominant power in Northern Nigeria by unobtrusively infiltrating the Hausa kingdoms for about five hundred years as Islamic intellectuals, traders and nomads. There were two types of Fulani, the town and sedentary Fulanis (who were cow rearers) who still retained their culture and speak Fulfulde. The apogees of the Fulani are just of Hausaland came with the Umthnian Dan Fodio Jihad which was launched in 1804 and by 1807 had instituted a Fulani sultanate over Hausaland. Before the Sokoto Caliphate was set up, the Hausa people had a rich and complex history, with various kingdoms emerging and interacting over time. Some notable Hausa kingdoms include: Kano (founded 999 AD), Katsina (founded 1200s), Zazzau (founded 1200s, now Zaria), Gobir (founded 1700s), and Sokoto (founded 1809).[19] Before British colonization, the Hausa kingdoms were influential in the region, with: Strong trade networks across West Africa, Islamic scholarship and Quranic education, Sophisticated agricultural systems and complex social hierarchies.

Colonialism in Hausaland, Northern Nigeria (1882-1960)

British colonialism in Northern Nigeria and among the Hausa people began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. Britain outlawed slavery in 1807 and pushed for forms of “legitimate commerce” such as palm oil and cotton, and in so doing developed an internal infrastructure to facilitate these markets. By the 1820s, the British had made connections with the Sokoto Caliphate, whose highly structured society, aristocracy, and religion struck colonial administrators as more “civilized” than the war‐torn groups they encountered in the South. With the discovery of quinine in the 1850s, colonial explorers and missionaries who had been unable to enter the southern interior due to the risk of malaria began contacting a wider range of groups; the British then had treaties and trade policies in place throughout the North and the South.

In the 1850s, the British used trade policies to influence African politics, including deposing rulers who stood in the way of the lucrative palm oil trade. In the 1880s, competition with French colonial powers in Africa prompted a policy shift and in 1882 the northern and southern “protectorates” were established. During the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, European leaders determined who had rights to what “spheres of influence.” The two protectorates were joined in 1914 under British governor‐general Frederick Lugard, and the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria was established.[20]

Lugard instituted a policy of indirect rule through native authorities, who collected taxes and performed other local administrative tasks. In the North, Lugard worked through the Fulani ruling classes, who used the British to retain their power and to acquire wealth. Because rulers were no longer accountable to their people, corruption and poverty spread. Many Muslims began to see the Fulani leadership as pawns—a sentiment echoed today by members of Islamist movements towards northern leadership. British favoritism towards Muslims, combined with Hausa‐Fulani advances into the Middle Belt, led to widespread conversion to Islam.

At the same time, a rising African intelligentsia—graduates of Christian missionary schools to challenge British rule in the South. Christianity spread rapidly at the grassroots level from the 1860s onwards, in large part due to the mission education system. Colonial administrators encouraged conversion to Christianity in the South, especially Anglicanism, as part of their mandate to “civilize” Africa. Mission schools became training grounds for the intellectual, commercial, civic, and military elites, who tended to be promoted by the British colonial government and who would be at the forefront of the nationalist movement. However, at the insistence of Hausa‐Fulani leaders in the North, the British barred Christian missionaries from proselytizing there, which meant that Western education was limited to Nigeria’s South. It also resulted in a preponderance of Christians among Nigeria’s nationalists. After WWII the British began to see that colonialism was no longer pragmatic in Nigeria, and responded to the protests from returned ex‐servicemen who had fought alongside the British in the war by instituting a series of changes meant to develop a federal government.

The 1953 census riot in Kano, Nigeria had a significant impact on the country’s economy. The results showed that the Northern region accounted for 55.4% of the population, while the South had 44.6%. This demographic information was crucial for resource allocation and representation in government institutions. The uneven resource allocation and representation have led to persistent structural imbalances and resource allocation for socio-economic development. The work deepened ethnic tensions between the Hausas. The riots led to increased tensions between the Northern and Southern regions exacerbating existing ethnic and regional divisions. This heightened animosity would later contribute to the Nigerian civil war about 5-50 Igbo people were killed and several Igbo property businesses were destroyed or looted.

In 1954, the Lyttleton Constitution cemented a federal system with three self-governing states under weak central control. This included a large northern state and smaller eastern and western states, which reflected the three regional units managed separately and differently by the colonial administration. While they loosely corresponded with major ethnic groups, the borders were not intended to demarcate ethnicity and they arbitrarily cut across ethnic and linguistic communities. As the British never prioritized fostering unity among Nigeria’s disparate peoples, colonialism left Nigeria deeply divided.[21] For Nigerians, access to colonial resources was determined by the relative strength of their identity groups to British power, and this fostered competition. In the South, Nigerians had benefited from missionary education and saw economic growth, urbanization, and the rise of a skilled middle class. Christianity dominated, though there were significant Muslim and indigenous religious communities as well. The larger but more insular North had extensive agricultural production, little access to Western education and rampant poverty. Mutual distrust was pervasive on the eve of independence. Thus, the British colonized Hausa territories, in the late 19th century led to the imposition of European-style administration, the Disruption of traditional trade networks, the Introduction of Western education and Changes in land ownership and taxation.

After Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the Hausa people continued to play significant roles in: Politics: Hausa leaders have held prominent positions in the Nigerian government, and economy: Hausa entrepreneurs dominate trade and commerce in northern Nigeria and Culture: Hausa language, literature, and art continue to thrive. The Hausa people in modern-day Nigeria have continued to play prominent roles in the Nigerian government. Hausa leaders have held positions such as President military leaders, Vice President, and Governors. Influence in regional politics: Hausa-dominated states (Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, etc.) play significant roles in Nigerian politics. Traditional institutions: Emirs and other traditional leaders maintain significant influence in Hausa communities. Despite the infiltration of Colonialism with Western-influenced

Cultural preservation is another area where efforts to maintain the Hausa language, literature, and art have continued unabated. Economic growth and challenges have continued to trail Hausa entrepreneur’s drive in trade and commerce in northern Nigeria. Social challenges such as poverty, education, and healthcare in another part of Nigeria continue to form part of the agenda of current administrations in Hausa-land. Some Contemporary Issues and challenges experienced among the Hausa states include the Boko Haram insurgency which an impact on Hausa communities and regional security and generated tension among the people’s economic development Diversifying the economy beyond agriculture and trade.

The Igbo of South East Nigeria

The Igbo people are found in the eastern part of Nigeria and do not have a single tradition of origin like most other ethnic groups of Nigeria. Igbo people also extend to part of the mid-western and Delta regions of Nigeria. The Igbos share borders on the East with the Ibibio people and on the West; it is bounded by Benin and Warri people while they share their Northern boundary with the Igalas, Idomas, and the Tivs and their Southern boundaries with the Ijaws and the Ogoni of Rivers States. The Traditional Practices of the Igbo People before Colonialism include social and cultural practices such as the Elders council/Assembly, Age Grades Men’s social hierarchy based on age, governing community decisions, Umuada the Women’s social and cultural organization promoting unity and cooperation, the Ikoro Village meetings for discussion and conflict resolution, the Ovia which represent Patrilineal inheritance and succession and festivals such as Igba Nkwu, New yam celebrating harvest.

Further, spiritual and religious practices include the worship of Chukwu, the Supreme God, believed to be distant and unknowable, Ani the Earth goddess, revered for fertility and agriculture, the Ndi Ichie which are Ancestral spirits, honored through rituals, Akalog: Divination and oracle consultation, and the Osu which represent messengers of the gods worshiped sacred shrines and sacred forests for cleansing the society. Rites of Passage include Ikpochaku, representing birth rituals, and welcoming newborns, Igba Nto, the circumcision and naming ceremonies for males, Iwa Akwa which is the traditional ceremony for coming of age for females, Igba Nkwu Nwanyi, the marriage rituals for newlyweds and Okorocha, Funeral rites and burial ceremonies.

Apart from these social and cultural practices, the Igbos also had traditional economic and Political Practices, such as Agriculture which was Subsistence farming of food crops, consisting mainly of yams, cassava, and cocoyams. Trade constituted another important economic activity linking different regional trade networks, exchanging goods like palm oil and salt and other food crops. Complementing the trade network were products of the Craftsmanship industries managed by expert craftsmen in woodcarving, blacksmithing, and pottery.

The traditional political system consisted of the Igbo direct democracy was practiced up to the lineage level. At that level, the oldest man in the unit was the focus of justice and authority. He took charge of the ofo, the symbol of justice and authority, and offered sacrifice to the ancestors for the welfare of his men. If there was any dispute it was settled by an assembly of all the men and women when the issue concerned the latter.* Government at the village level was in the hands of the village assembly comprising all the male adults. This assembly has at its core an inner core made up of lineage heads, title holders, and men when who were respected for notable achievements in their fields. In the western Igbo, the Monarchical system, with kings (Eze) ruling over communities and Nze na Ozo was in charge of political administration in areas such as Asaba, Ibuza, Onicha Ugbo and up to Onitsha in Anambra State. In the title systems, Ozo recognized achievement and status. The education and knowledge system among the Igbo included the following institutions, Igba Afang which was the apprenticeship for skill acquisition, Akalogu which functioned as divination and oracle consultation system in the various communities. These traditional practices shaped Igbo identity and community life before colonialism.

Colonialism in Igboland, Eastern Nigeria

British colonialism in Igboland began around the late 19th century, specifically in the early 1900s. During this time, British military imperialism and colonial exploitation played a significant role in shaping the region. The Igbo people’s acceptance of Christianity was, in part, a strategic response to the new colonial regime, as it offered social advantages and potential protection from colonial over-rule. The British colonial administration employed indirect rule in Igboland, utilizing local leaders and traditional institutions to maintain control. This approach was formalized by Lord Frederick Lugard, the first Governor-General of Nigeria.

The first contact between Igboland and Europe came in the mid-fifteenth century with the arrival of the Portuguese. From 1434-1807 the Niger coast acted as a contact point between African and European traders, beginning with the Portuguese, then the Dutch and finally the English. At this stage, there was an emphasis on trade rather than empire-building. In this case, the trade consisted primarily of Igbo slaves. With the abolition of the slave trade and concentration on agricultural produce such as palm products, timber spices, and so on, the British began to combine aggressive trading with aggressive imperialism. They saw the hinterland as productive and refused to be confined to the coast. In 1900 the area that had been administered by the British Niger Company became the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, also incorporating what had been called the Niger Coast Protectorate. Control of this area then passed from the British Foreign Office to the Colonial Office. Long before it had officially been conquered, Igboland was being treated as a British colony. Between 1900 and 1914 (when Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated) there had been twenty-one British military expeditions into Igboland. In 1928 for the first time in their history, Igbo men were made to pay that they were a subject people.[22]

The warrant chief system turned out to be a strange fire among the people and expectedly failed when compared to indirect rule in other Nigeria ethnic groups. At this point, one could assert that the initial bane of colonialism in Igbo society was the appointment of the warrant chiefs, which were alien to the character and the customs of the people. What worsened the already bad situation was the fact that the persons appointed as warrant chiefs had no traditional status such as titles in the Igbo society. For instance, communities who had thought that the appointees would be sold as slaves chose slaves as their delegates. Also, criminals and people who were despised in the various communities were also selected for the positions of warrant chiefs.[23]

These selected chiefs were vested with excessive powers beyond what they had before colonialism; this signaled another formed another round of transformation of the Igbo traditional political system. The net effect of this was the abuse of power and oppression of the general populace by the warrant chiefs. These chiefs received certificates which were called ‘warrants’. To source funds for the administration of the colonial government, Sir Hugh Clifford felt the need to establish a taxation system. To do this, first, a detailed assessment of the people’s wealth was to be carried out using the warrant chiefs who also would carry out the collection of taxes. Already the warrant chiefs had attracted for themselves hatred, thus using them for the collection of taxes would further establish the failure of the system. As a prelude to taxation, a census of the lands, livestock, palm trees, and yam farms was taken, which resulted in a protest by the people. The people could not readily understand how prices of imported European goods were skyrocketing, and those of palm produce and other local goods were on the decline.

The first year’s round of taxation had some considerable opposition but did not bring about any clear-cut confrontation. However, the second year’s collection came with rumors that women would be taxed alongside the men. This snowballed into the famous Aba Women Riot of 1929 which took the British government unawares and dealt a heavy blow to the warrant chiefs system as well. It should be noted that the outbreak of the Aba Women Riot sparked a major transformation in the British indirect rule system. It led to the abolishment of the warrant chief system. This more than every other thing justified the fact that the Igbo were never ruled by an absolute monarch unto whom the whole Igbo society paid allegiance or a single-man chief who had control over others. This led to the establishment of a representative government. Village assemblies were created which allowed every adult member of the community access to participate in governance.[24] Thus the communal integrity of the people was reassured. To check the abuse of power in the new system as it was in the ill-fated warrant chief system, the British separated the executive, legislative, and judicial powers from being vested in an organ or individual to a body. This was the official beginning of the local government system. This arrangement enjoyed an initial success, however, around the 1940s; the excitement that greeted the system had waned considerably. They soon found out that arrangement cheapened the erstwhile revered position of a chief as a result of the largeness of the size of chiefs. Also, the outbreak of World War II dealt a major blow to the administration. This was because the British administration was braced to satisfy the war needs of human and material resources, hence British Empire suffered empire fatigue that made it difficult to execute the war and administer her colonies concurrently.

It can therefore be argued that the attempt to take over political control of Igboland met with resistance and cultural protest in the religious decades of the twentieth century. A nativist religious movement sprang up (the ekumeku) which inspired short-lived but feverish messianic enthusiasm. The rumors that the Igbo women were being assessed for taxation, sparked off the 1929 Aba Riots, a massive revolt of women never encountered before in Igbo history. However, the engine of imperialism could not be stopped, and once it had begun, Igbo culture would never be the same again.[25]

Positive Impacts:

Some of the positive effects of colonialism as in other parts of Nigeria, Modern Education as Colonialism introducing Western education, increasing literacy rates, establishment of primary and secondary schools and resorting to modern communications, transport infrastructural development, and modern political administration modeled after the British government. Other infrastructural development included roads, bridges, and healthcare facilities which were built to improve the living standards of the Igbo people. Given that Igbo men were commercially oriented from time immemorial, international trade set in and brought global connectivity to the Igbo people as they gained access to global markets and ideas. Christianity which had started even before colonialism spread throughout Igboland as the people adopted various Christian faiths which influenced their worldview. Despite the fact that colonialism brought many positive impacts, nonetheless it affected various aspects of the Igbo man and lifestyle negatively.

Some of the Negative Impacts recorded after the Igbo were colonized include the following; Loss of Traditional Institutions: Colonialism undermined Igbo traditional governance, replacing it with British administrative structures. Also, Igboland witnessed the suppression of Indigenous practices such as restrictions on cultural practices. Missionaries and colonial authorities discouraged traditional Igbo practices, labeling them “heathen.” It must also be emphasized that colonialism brought forced assimilation of the British norms and practices as Igbo people were forced to adopt Western customs, dress, and language. Although, it has been argued that colonialism improved the economic system in Nigeria, it cannot be sustained that the imposition of British rule did not disrupt the economic systems of Indigenous Nigerians. For example, local Indigenous craft industries were relegated to the background as rural-to-urban migration for white-collar jobs became the order of the day. Colonialism disrupted Igbo trade networks and introduced exploitative economic systems. More importantly, colonialism encouraged the cultural superiority of Western culture above the indigenous Igbo culture leading to the erasure of Igbo language, literature, and art which were marginalized in favor of the British.

As of today, some important effects of colonialism on modern Igbo culture include the cultural identity crisis as Igbo people struggle to balance traditional and Western values. Colonialism also brought about social stratification as it created social classes, favoring Western-educated elites. That is not to say that there has been no effort made to bring about cultural revival as post-colonial governments have resorted to preserving Igbo language, literature, art, and indigenous education which has incorporated Igbo culture into school curricula.

Yoruba People of South West of Nigeria

The Yoruba People

The Yoruba today occupy the land to the South and West of the Lower Niger and one of the leading ethnic groups of Nigeria. They are found in the following states, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Kwara, Ondo, Kogi, Ekiti and Lagos states. During the colonial era, most of the Yoruba people fell under the Western Region of Nigeria with a few exceptions as Kwara, Kogi and a part of Ekiti states. Some of the traditional practices of the Yoruba include their political system of administration which was a democratic monarchy. Yoruba kingdoms were ruled by Obas (Kings) and their wives were called Oloris (Queens) as they had a traditional role of supervising the women folk of the kingdom. They had an extended family system as they lived in large family compounds (Agbo-ile). Yoruba people practiced respect and honor for Elders as elderly individuals were highly respected and played important roles in decision-making. Traditional marriages involved payment of the bride price and various rituals which played important roles for the family unit which extended to the nuclear family household. Expectedly, after the marriage came the naming ceremonies children were named on the eighth day after birth. Other traditional practices include various religious ceremonies such as the Ifa divination which the Yoruba people consulted the oracle for guidance and the justice system. Yoruba people worshipped various deities (Orishas) like Ogun, Oya, and Sango, and ancestral worship as the Yoruba people honored their ancestors through rituals. There were various festivals such as Egungun, Oro, and Osun traditional festivals celebrated the goddess of fertility and prosperity, Oya Olokun festival marked to honor the god of the ocean, Ijala festival was celebrated during the harvest season, while the Agemo festivals and the Egungun festival were celebrated to honor the dead and cleanse the society of evil spirits.[26]

The major economic activities of the Yorubas included farming various crops which remained the most important occupation of the people. All other vocations were subsidiary to farming such as wood carvings as the Yoruba people were skilled wood carvers. They also engaged in textile making as the people created beautiful Adire (tie-dye) and Aso Oke (traditional clothing). Music, art and cultural dances all had their practitioners who could be consulted at special occasions such as marriages, naming ceremonies, etc. which formed part of the cultural heritage of the Yoruba people. Poetry and storytelling also made the Yoruba culture unique as they had a rich tradition of oral poetry and storytelling.

Effects of Colonialism on the Yoruba People of South-West Nigerian  

As J.F. Ade Ajayi has noted, there was a great deal of “economic adaptation” during the colonial period which could be considered a positive development in the lives of the Yoruba people and as a nation. New crops such as cocoa, and Kolanut, (colamtida) were introduced from top real South America and the West Indies while existing ones like rubber acquired new values; new means of transport were introduced, and internal and external trade rose to an unprecedented height, among others, yet the basis of the economy remained largely the traditional farming system.[27] It is equally true that though in the social sphere, new concepts such as marriage institutions (the white church wedding), and the development of wage labor were introduced, the old concepts were still to a large extent adhered to by the majority of the people.

An important aspect of the steps taken by the native administration to improve the tapping of natural and agricultural resources was improvement through the infrastructure development of the transport sector. The transport sector from 1900-1960 covered the entirety of Nigeria, and ethnic groups as the Railway construction which began in Lagos in 1896 linked Ibadan (South West) and proceeded to the commercial center of the Hausas, Kano, Maiduguri and moved t[28]o the South East, Aba, Umuahia and Port Harcourt in various phases of development. Railway transportation was further accompanied by road transportation and the construction of roads to reach strategic rural areas to tap the agricultural products. Maritime transportation included the expansion of old parts and the building of new facilities leading to other territories of the Yoruba and Lagos. The justification for these in infrastructural development was for exploitation by the colonial government, yet the people of Nigeria inherited these facilities, particularly to build on after independence in October, 1960. Another argument was that the transport infrastructures provided had limited accessibility for the rural populations, yet the level of accessibility attained at the end of the colonial period reduced vastly the level of head porterage which was the norm before the colonial period. Another undeniable factor was that the transportation level achieved promoted both internal and external linkage and enhanced greatly, the import-export earnings of Nigeria during the period under consideration.

Further, as Adesote has noted, the construction of roads in Ondoland and adjoining towns and villages was a project for which both the British Administrators on the one hand and the Yoruba chiefs, on the other hand, deserve commendation. While the latter cooperated in ensuring an adequate supply of labor, the former gave direction and supervision, as road construction made it possible to commence motor transport services.[29] By 1926, the construction and maintenance of roads became the joint responsibility of the Native Administration and the Public Works Department which was responsible for 2,970 miles of roads alone. Yet as time went on, great distances in the Yoruba hinterland were covered not just in the Ondo provinces but cutting across to Lagos, Abeokuta, Shagamu, Ijebu-Ode, Akure and several other routes which generated further commercial interests all over Yorubaland.[30] The introduction of cash products brought immense development to Yoruba hinterland, Ibadan, Ondo Ijebu-Ode, Ado Ekiti and many other centers of cocoa plantations, kolanuts and coffee which once harvested got ready-made market through the produce sales division. Kolanut export flourished in the colonial period as farmers invested their time, money and activities towards the ventures.

Other vital sectors that recorded positive attainments for the colonial government include the Education and Health sectors which assured more vibrant attainment and had an overwhelming impact on the lives of the citizenry. Among the Yoruba people, the introduction of Western Education in Nigeria started in Lagos and spread rapidly to other parts of the hinterland. Education was introduced by British Missionaries and the colonial government in the early 1840s. The first missionary school was established by an Anglican Church missionary in 1842. The colonial government later supported the missionaries through the establishment of primary and secondary schools. Interestingly, Nigeria already had two major types of education before the arrival of the British, Islamic education and indigenous Education.[31] Islamic education was prominent in the North but later spread to Yorubaland and Islamic education focused on the teachings from the Quran and Arabic Alphabet, while indigenous education involved practical skills and community activities that focused on habits and good mannerisms. It must be highlighted that the introduction of Western education played a significant role mannerisms in shaping the socio-economic and political growth of the Nigeria we have today. The apogee of colonial education development was attained in 1948 with the establishment of the University College, Ibadan. Chief Obafemi Awolowo’s legacies as a major actor during the colonial government left a huge legacy that transversed the Yoruba landscape and this cut across his programs of free Education which was introduced in 1955, infrastructural development, economic development revival of the Yoruba culture and language and the political motivation engendered through the political party he established, the Action Group (AG).[32]

At the local level where this system of indirect rule was adopted, the traditional ruler was answerable to the British agent. He had the power to appoint certain Nigerian officials who were in all respects submissive to him, while he, on the other hand, was responsible to the British resident or the District officer. He and his officers often presided over local courts to settle local disputes by applying native laws. They were also vested with the power of levying taxes, part of which was used to defray the administrative costs, and the other remaining was generally remitted to the central government. The first part of the taxes was spent on development like roads, sanitation, markets, and schools as well as paying the salaries of the local officials. In collecting taxes, the local British Resident or District officer who was in turn accountable to the Central government must supervise and report back to the central government. The above is a description of the system when it was first adopted and to other regions where it was later extended.

Some of the positive effects of colonialism on the traditional practices of the Yoruba people include the adoption of Modern Education Colonialism introduced Western education, which led to increasing literacy rates among the people generally. The Yorubas are some of the most educated ethnic groups in Nigeria to date. Sequel to education was modernization, urbanization, and infrastructural development. Roads, bridges, and healthcare facilities were built across major towns and cities of the Yoruba people. Given that Lagos became the administrative capital of the colonial government, it was easier for the Yorubas to gain international and Global Connectivity. It must be asserted that the Yoruba people gained access to global markets and ideas during the colonial period and thereafter. With the likes of Bishop Ajayi Crowther and other early missionaries, many Yoruba people adopted Christianity, influencing their worldview.

Negative Effects

As earlier highlighted among other ethnic groups, colonialism brought about some negative effects. These include suppression of traditional institutions as British colonial authorities undermined Yoruba monarchical systems. Also, colonialism led to the erasure of some traditional Practices as Missionaries and colonial authorities discouraged Yoruba practices, labeling them as “heathenism” or “backwardness.” To a reasonable extent, it may be argued that colonialism brought a loss of cultural identity among the Yoruba people as they were forced to adopt Western customs, dress, and language. From the economic perspective, it may also be asserted that colonialism contributed to the disruption of economic systems as it disrupted Yoruba trade networks and introduced exploitative economic systems. In addition, the colonial authorities destroyed or looted Yoruba artifacts.

The Efik People of South-South Nigeria

The Efik people are an ethnic group located primarily in the southeastern part of Nigeria, particularly in the present-day Cross River and Akwa Ibom States. Before colonialism, the Efik had a rich cultural heritage and traditional practices that were unique to their society. There is much scholarly debate as to the origins of the Efik people. However, some theories have more support than others based on empirical studies. Evidence suggests that the Efik people were initially Semitic-speaking people, perhaps somehow related to the Philistines and Palestine, in the region of the Levant, while other evidence indicates Nubian or Ethiopian origins. It has been posited that the Efik people came from the Levant to Ethiopia or Nubia and eventually migrated down into Nigeria. The Efik people are believed to have arrived in the Southeastern portion of Nigeria circa the 17th century CE. The Efik people are related somehow to the Ibibio people, with some scholars listing them as a branch of the Ibibio tribe, along with the Eket, Anang, Enyong, and Andoni-Ibeno. The Efik ethnic group, along with the aforementioned peoples, share certain characteristics, such as similarities in language and cultural practices, which point to shared ancestry. The Efik people established city-states, including Old Calabar, Duke Town, Old Town, Creek Town, Archibong Town, Eyamba Town, Cobham Town, and Henshaw Town. Each of these city-states had its ruler who had authority over local matters; however, the Obong, or king of Calabar, was the ultimate authority. The Efik was organized into a monarchical system, with the “Obong” (King) as the highest authority. The Obong was advised by a council of elders and chiefs. The rulers communicated and interacted with other Efik city-states, but no strong central authority existed. The secret society called Ekpe made most of society’s governmental and political decisions.

After the age of exploration, as Europeans gained a foothold in Africa and began trading and colonizing portions of the continent, the Efik people became an invaluable source to European slave traders. The Efik people supplied these slave traders with their human chattel and, in some cases, allowed slavers to hunt for people to enslave on Efik territory. They also acted as intermediaries between European traders and tribes in the region’s interior.

The British abolished the slave trade in 1807, but it was not until 1841 that the Efik people ceased the trade and established a relationship with Britain that benefited them economically. After the slave trade ended, the economic base for the Efik tribe transitioned to palm oil plantations. The British gained prestige among the Efik city-states and became preferred trading partners, while other European countries were shut out. Old Calabar took things further by asking the British to annex the city-state.

In 1851, with the encouragement of the British, the Efik people agreed to stop practicing the tradition of killing twins; they believed at that time that it was unnatural for humans to have twins. The Efik people also were convinced to stop using poison extracted from the Calabar bean in trials by ordeal. A trial by ordeal is when a person suspected of a crime is made to do something that could harm or kill them. The belief was that if a person were innocent, that poison and other types of harm would not affect them. With time, the Efik ruling class, because of their positive relationship with the British, began sending their children to be educated in Great Britain and be apprenticed to British merchants. Gradually, the British became more involved in Efik politics and influenced how the Efik people governed themselves. The English language and English laws began to make inroads into Efik society, change the traditional way people handled legal issues, and add new words to the Efik language. By the 1860s, the British built settlements in Efik city-states but were only allowed access to coastal areas and markets. Nigeria remained a colonial possession of Great Britain until it claimed independence in 1960.

Religion formed one of the most important traditional practices of the Efik people. The Efik believed in a supreme being called “Abasi,” and also worshipped various deities and ancestors. They practiced ancestral worship and consulted oracles for guidance in every sphere of their life. Efik marriage involved payment of bride price, which included goods such as palm oil, yams, and cloth. The marriage ceremony involved various rituals, including the presentation of gifts to the bride’s family. The Efik had initiation rites for young men and women, such as the “Nsibidi” society for men and the “Ekpe” society for women. These rites marked the transition from childhood to adulthood. Traditional Festivals were also part of the socio-cultural and religious perspectives of their lives. The Efik celebrated various festivals, including the “Userreren” festival to honor the goddess of fertility and the “Ekpe” festival to honor the ancestors.

Art and Craftsmanship also enriched the economic life of the people as the Efik were skilled craftsmen, known for their wood carvings, pottery, and textiles. Traditional Medicine was regarded as a profession with diviners and female assistants. The Efik had a well-developed system of traditional medicine, using herbs and other natural remedies to treat ailments. Economically, Fishing and agriculture were important activities among the Efik. They fished in the Cross River and cultivated crops such as yams, cassava, and palm trees. Traditional Clothing industry was part of economic activities as the Efik wore traditional clothing made from cotton, palm leaves, and raffia. Men wore loincloths, while women wore wrappers and head ties. Men’s Wear consisted of loincloths, wrappers, and head ties made from cotton, palm leaves, or raffia, while women’s wear included wrappers, blouses, and head ties adorned with beads and cowry shells. These were accompanied by adornments Coral beads, cowry shells, and ivory jewelry. It must be emphasized that music and cultural dances formed part of the traditional practices as the Efik had a rich tradition of music and dance, including the “Ekpe” masquerade dance.

Perhaps, Efik cuisine is one of the most popular traditional dishes in Nigeria with their Afang soup, edikaikong soup made from leafy greens, typically pumpkin leaves or water leaves, and coconut rice. These could be prepared with different Seafood such as fish, shrimp, and crayfish from the Cross River. It is noteworthy to mention two key figures in the history of the Efik people. These are King Eyamba V A 19th-century Obong who resisted British colonization and Mary Slessor, a Scottish missionary who worked among the Efik and helped to put a stop to the killing of twins among Efik people. These traditional practices were significantly impacted by colonialism, which introduced Western values and Christianity, leading to changes in the Efik way of life. Some of the positive effects of colonialism on the traditional practices include, Modern Education as Colonialism introducing Western education, increasing literacy rates, Infrastructure Development as Roads, bridges, and healthcare facilities were built; and Global Connectivity as Efik people gained access to global markets and ideas. Christianity changed the lives of many Efik people as they adopted Christianity, influencing their worldview.

In as much as positive impacts were recorded for colonialism, there were equally a lot of negative effects. These include suppression of Traditional Institutions: British colonial authorities undermined the Obongship and Council of Elders, replacing them with colonial administrative structures; Erasure of Traditional Practices: Missionaries and colonial authorities discouraged traditional Efik practices, labeling them “heathen” or “backward.” Loss of Cultural Identity was another area in which colonialism affected the Efik people as they were forced to adopt Western customs, dress, and language, leading to cultural assimilation. As earlier noted, colonialism also led to the disruption of Economic Systems. Colonialism disrupted Efik trade networks and introduced exploitative economic systems. Also, colonialism led to the destruction of traditional artifacts as Colonial authorities destroyed or looted Efik artifacts, leading to cultural heritage loss. Today, it can be argued that the Efik people as well as many other Nigerians experienced a cultural identity crisis as they struggle to balance traditional and Western values. This has brought a language Shift as English now dominates the Efik language in formal settings. Loss of Traditional Skills is another area that has been affected by colonization. Many Efik artisans and craftsmen lost their livelihoods during the period. Social Stratification became imminent as Colonialism created social classes, favoring Western-educated elites.

Finally, it must be asserted that the Cross River State has been making Post-Colonial Efforts aimed at Cultural Revival to preserve the Efik language, traditions, and customs. Also, Traditional Institution Revitalization has been made to revive the Obongship and Council of Elders. Efforts have also been made in the improvement of indigenous education by incorporating Efik culture into school curricula. As a result of these guided policies, prospects of economic empowerment, promotion of Efik entrepreneurship and self-sufficiency are being guaranteed.

CONCLUSION

This work has examined the effects of colonialism on the traditional practices of the Nigerian people. An attempt was further made to consider how some of the major ethnic nationalities or groups were impacted in positive and negative ways by colonialism. No doubt, the emergence of a Nigerian state through the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914 brought various groups that had lived independently of each other, without much consideration for their ethnic backgrounds and practices. It must be emphasized that the introduction of the indirect rule system brought about several contradictions to the status quo which only manifested in conflicts, disagreements and forced cooperation under the divide-and-rule system which the British imposed upon the people with their political administration.

Given the exploitative nature of the colonial system and agenda, it must be asserted that many changes were recorded in the economic sphere which altogether had effects upon the traditional systems of the Nigerian people hitherto the colonial experience. The modernization of economic activities in the area of agriculture and the extractive industries which to an extent, not only justified the actions of the colonizers but to a large extent undermined the traditional industries and professional craftsmanship much to the detriment of the Nigerian people. Nigerian crafts and cottage industries were abandoned as the attraction of the rural-urban migration caused a neglect of the traditional industries and how they were previously maintained. Although the introduction of education by the colonialists had a strong transformational impact on the people’s ways of life, thinking and advancement, the immediate products of this educational system were not accepted by the colonial administration as equals with their European counterparts in the civil service and other European conglomerates. About the socio-cultural life of the people, a lot of influences impacted the youths and the religious converts to Christianity who reverted to the new imperialism and habits. However, as Onyekpe has succinctly noted, “colonial capitalist penetration has meant the monetization of social and human relations, a development which has negated the traditional commercial lifestyle”.

On the whole, it may be asserted that the experiences of the Nigerian people during and after the colonial period have had a neo-colonial impact on several aspects of Nigerians, politically, economically and socio-culturally today. Apart from the fact, that the dichotomy which earlier had been set by the colonial masters still continues to manifest in the Northern and Southern socio-political gap, but in the economic realm, Nigerians continue to battle with the socio-economic effects of multinational  companies manifestations/exploitation on Nigeria’s economy. Finally, it must be asserted that Nigerians have not entirely abandoned their age-old traditional practices as there has been a mix of the old and the modern especially in the areas of marriages, local markets and the traditional agricultural practices which has continued to reflect a mixture of the old and new in many spheres of life such as health, dressing habits, food culture, naming ceremonies, religious and educational pursuits.

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