Assessing the Strengths of Existing Security Intelligence and Conflict Resolution Mechanisms in Katsina State, Nigeria

Assessing the Strengths of Existing Security Intelligence and Conflict Resolution Mechanisms in Katsina State, Nigeria

Abdallah Dauda¹, Yakubu Jafaru²

¹Sustainable Development Centre, University of Abuja.

²Department of Sociology, University of Abuja.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000066

Received: 24 July 2025; Accepted: 30 July 2025; Published: 28 August 2025

ABSTRACT

The work examined economic growth, sustainable development, and security intelligence challenges in Katsina State from 2022 to 2024, with a focus on the local governments of Jibia, Safana, and Musawa. The research filled the existing literature gap by concentrating and narrowing the study to the three local governments in Katsina State. The theory of conflict resolution was adopted as the theoretical framework, and purposive and stratified sampling techniques were deployed. Both questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used in the study. Eighty-six respondents were selected from the security intelligence agencies of Nigeria, which include: CID, NIA, SSS, and DMI. Respondents were also chosen from the general public in the affected areas. Some of the findings include that security intelligence helps prevent security threats in Katsina State; however, poor coordination was identified as the major obstacle to the effective use of security intelligence in Katsina State. Other factors identified here also include: lack of resources, corruption, and insufficient training. The study recommends that adequate social amenities (hospitals, schools, and recreational facilities) and development projects (construction of roads, markets, and other essential infrastructures) be provided for the people. This should help prevent individuals from falling into vulnerable situations that expose them to conflicts and insecurity. A prioritisation by the Federal, State and Local governments of special schemes and projects to create jobs and promote entrepreneurship among youths. National security agencies and other stakeholders need to enhance their intelligence gathering, sharing, detection, and investigative capabilities. National Orientation Agencies, related agencies, and non-governmental organisations should continually raise awareness and sensitise people to the importance of peaceful coexistence, respect, tolerance, and appreciation of diversity. Continuously training and capacity building of all national security agents on security intelligence and the modus operandi of modern organised criminal activities.

Keywords: Security Intelligence, Conflict Resolution, Katsina.

INTRODUCTION

Katsina State is one of the States in northwestern Nigeria which has experienced an alarming rise in violence over the past few decades, manifesting primarily through banditry, kidnapping, and cattle rustling. Banditry has become one of the most pressing security threats, with armed groups terrorising rural communities, abducting individuals for ransom, and looting villages (Magaji, Musa & Salisu, 2022). Kidnapping has emerged as a lucrative criminal enterprise, exacerbating the vulnerability of local populations (Abdulazeez & Magaji, 2023). These forms of insecurity have had devastating consequences on the socio-economic activities in the State.

Thousands of lives have been lost, and many more people have been displaced. According to Magaji, Kari, and Jafaru (2020), such violence has further deepened poverty levels and disrupted societal cohesion. The displaced populations often live in camps with inadequate resources, which further exacerbates the region’s developmental challenges (Magaji, Kari, Abbas, & Jafaru, 2024). The security crisis not only in Katsina State but also in the entire North-Western Nigeria has severely hindered economic growth and development. The State, in particular, which was known for its agricultural potential, abundant natural resources, and hospitality, has seen a decline in productivity due to the constant threat of violence. Farmers are often unable to access their lands for cultivation, resulting in food insecurity and a loss of livelihoods. Businesses have closed or relocated to safer areas, reducing economic activity. The lack of investor confidence has further stifled development. The region’s infrastructure is grossly inadequate, characterised by poor road networks, limited access to healthcare, and substandard educational facilities, according to Otu et al. (2022). These developmental deficits, combined with high poverty and unemployment rates, have perpetuated a cycle of underdevelopment (Magaji, 2008). Katsina State remains one of the least developed regions in the country despite its vast natural and human resources.

Otu et al. (2022) traced the roots of insecurity and underdevelopment in Katsina State and other States in North-Western Nigeria back to the colonial era. During colonial rule, policies were implemented that suppressed indigenous governance structures and created ethnic and religious divisions. Colonial authorities frequently exploited these divisions to maintain control, resulting in profound mistrust between various groups. The legacy of these policies persists, as security intelligence failures, ethnic and religious tensions, poverty, and inequality continue to fuel conflicts in the area (Zailani,  Magaji & Jafaru, 2025).

This study explores the relationship between security intelligence, conflict resolution, and sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria. By examining the root causes and impacts of insecurity, intelligence, as well as the effectiveness of current policies, the research aims to provide actionable recommendations for addressing security intelligence challenges in Katsina State, Nigeria. The findings will contribute to a deeper understanding of the State’s complexities and offer insights into achieving peace and development strategies.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Review

Security Intelligence          

Thomas’s (2022) definition of security intelligence aligns with the conceptualisation presented in the Homeland Security Intelligence Report (2023). Thomas highlights that security intelligence involves analysing national and organisational security threats through data-driven assessments. This includes studying external influences and potential disruptions while recommending proactive measures to protect assets.

Maryland (2020) in intelligence-led policing defined security intelligence as a systematic approach to gathering and analysing information to support law enforcement in crime prevention and counter-terrorism efforts. It emphasises collaborative intelligence-sharing between local, state, and federal agencies.

Al-Muhaisen et al. (2019) viewed security intelligence from the perspective of cybersecurity threat intelligence. They viewed it as a systematic process of gathering, processing, and evaluating cyber-related data to predict and prevent unauthorised access or cyberattacks.

From the foregoing definitions, security intelligence can be defined as the collection of information related to security, aimed at protecting a country and its citizens from various security threats.

Conflict Resolution

Tjosvold et al. (2021) defined conflict resolution as an act that involves open-minded discussions where conflicting parties integrate their perspectives and collaboratively develop solutions that satisfy shared goals, emphasising cooperative approaches over competitive ones.

Their perspective on conflict resolution highlights the importance of cooperative dialogue in achieving effective outcomes, particularly in team or organisational settings.

According to Fortin et al. (2020), conflict resolution is viewed as a dynamic engagement process in which parties negotiate differences to achieve positive outcomes, employing strategies such as compromise and cooperation rather than avoidance. Their definition focuses on the active and adaptive nature of conflict resolution, emphasising collaboration as the cornerstone of successful outcomes.

Laursen (2024) defined conflict resolution as managing opposing interactions through constructive strategies, such as negotiation and compromise, prioritising empathy and social adaptability. His definition emphasises the emotional and situational sensitivity required to resolve conflicts effectively, aligning strategy to specific contexts.

Based on the previous definitions, we can define conflict resolution as a method of resolving clashes between conflicting parties in society through a conflict resolution mechanism.

Empirical Review

Usman’s (2023) work examines the role of counselling in fostering improved security architecture in Nigeria. It defines counselling as applying mental health, psychological, and human development principles through cognitive, affective, behavioural, and systematic intervention strategies. The relevance of counselling in nation-building is emphasised, highlighting its contribution to national growth and security. The modern concept of national security encompasses a range of dimensions, including social, economic, cultural, political, environmental, and technological factors.

In Nigeria, security challenges such as ritualistic kidnapping, terrorism, banditry, religious conflicts, and clashes between farmers and herders are discussed, with a particular focus on the relationship with religious differences (Abiola, Magaji & Musa, 2025). The causes of insecurity are attributed to factors such as porous borders, marginalisation of minority groups, weak security apparatus, corruption, and external influences (Adekoya, Magaji & Ismail, 2025). Counselling is proposed as a solution to address these security challenges. The implications for counselling are discussed, particularly for individuals suffering from depressive disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to insecurity-related incidents. It is recommended that counselling centres be established to assist individuals affected by these conditions, including security agents and kidnappers who may exhibit abnormal behaviours. The paper also emphasises the importance of empathy in counselling, highlighting it as a technique counsellors use to address clients’ emotional states.

The significance of security in economic growth, political stability, and ethno-religious harmony is underscored, underscoring the increasing role of counselling services in achieving these objectives. Several recommendations are provided to address the security challenges in Nigeria. These include providing proper training for security agents, establishing skill acquisition centres to offer opportunities for youth employment, strengthening border control measures, ensuring transparent financial management of security funds, training more counsellors, and creating employment opportunities for counsellors across various communities nationwide. In conclusion, the paper emphasises the importance of counselling in fostering a more secure architecture in Nigeria. By addressing mental health issues, fostering empathy, and providing support for individuals affected by insecurity, counselling can contribute to national growth and security. The recommendations aim to enhance security measures and create a conducive environment for delivering counselling services effectively.

Magaji, Kari, Abbas, and Jafaru (2024) analysed the concept and theoretical perspectives of insecurity and sustainable development. Their work aimed to examine the views, opinions, and attitudes of scholars, analysts, and institutions on the concepts of insecurity and sustainable development. Their work established a nexus between the two concepts. They examined various empirical literature and contemporary sociological theories to explain and understand the link between insecurity and sustainable development. The research found a connection between insecurity and sustainable development. Insecurity negatively affects sustainable developmental stride. Thus, it concluded that the link between insecurity and sustainable development is strong and, therefore, should not be undermined. Their work focused on the nexus between insecurity and sustainable development, rather than security intelligence challenges.

The study of Imaobong (2022) identifies security as a promoter of national development. He emphasised that sustainable development cannot be achieved without peace and security in any nation. Enforcing peace and ensuring adequate security involves a wide range of efforts by various actors in government and civil society at the community, national, and international levels to address the primary causes of violence and ensure that people are free from fear of humiliation, war, and conflict. This paper, therefore, highlights peace and security as a panacea for sustainable national development in Nigeria. His work was primarily concerned with how security could promote national development in Nigeria, rather than how security, intelligence and conflict resolution can contribute to sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria.

In his research, Adeleke (2013) expresses that insecurity has become a monster that security operatives in the country appear incapable of handling vis-à-vis its multifaceted manifestations, like bombing, kidnapping/hostage taking, destruction of property, creation of fear, to mention but a few. His paper examined the causes and administrative efforts aimed at fostering peace, as well as the impact of insecurity on human beings and the nation’s economy. The study further revealed that the power shift from the north to the south-south is currently at the top of the list of issues instigating groups and individuals against the state’s interests. The study suggests that since Nigeria cannot be sold to private managers as is usually done with public enterprises, the government should facilitate dialogue through a conference of ethnic and minority groups to fine-tune a more peaceful way forward for Nigeria.  His work failed to address how security intelligence and conflict resolution can solve sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria.

Another investigation into how the Boko Haram (BH) uprising as a terrorist group has affected Nigeria’s various socio-economic and security activities was conducted by Illugbami & Adeniran (2023), which was based on the Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT) and a literature review methodology. They argued that, despite sub-regional and regional actors having devised various countermeasures to combat the danger and menace created by the Boko Haram group, the existence, nature, and actions of this group have had multiple dynamics with considerable socioeconomic impacts and have also given rise to calamitous and horrific regional and sub-regional repercussions.  They advised stakeholders to engage in sociological, psychological, military, political, economic, environmental, regional, and sub-regional efforts to combat the existence of the BH. Unfortunately, their work failed to address how security intelligence and conflict resolution can contribute to sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria.

Again, research by Jafaru, Magaji, and Abdullahi (2024) examined the relationship between family status and youth criminality. Their research was linked to social control theory. Using stratified sampling, 380 respondents were selected for the study. The result from their work revealed that negative characteristics of parents are likely to instigate criminal behaviours among the youth. The research recommends the development of a program by the government and other stakeholders aimed at sensitising parents to their roles and responsibilities, and empowering the youth economically. Again, the study failed to address how security intelligence and conflict resolution can solve sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria.

Another study by Ovaga (2012) suggests that Nigeria’s populace currently experiences a general sense of insecurity.  He went further and identified the terrorising effect of the activities of the fundamentalist sect, Boko Haram, on the socio-economic condition of the northern states of Nigeria, as it has become so devastating that some financial institutions and other business ventures have closed in many areas, thereby causing relocation of non-indigenes to their states. Based on the above, his research aims to investigate the impact of the Boko Haram insurgency on the socio-economic situation in Nigeria’s northern region. During his study, he discovered that the tense situation in the north was so unstable that even the indigenes began to send their children and wards to the southern parts of the country for education. Ultimately, the paper offered solutions to the problem. Unfortunately, the paper was unable to address how security intelligence and conflict resolution can contribute to sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria.

Ojo et al. (2021) and Brookings (2022) emphasised that human security, encompassing health, education, and community welfare, is also heavily compromised due to security intelligence failure in northwestern Nigeria. Scholars argue that integrating human-centric intelligence approaches could help mitigate the crisis, emphasising the importance of prioritising community involvement and addressing socio-economic disparities. Their work failed to address how security intelligence and conflict resolution can solve sustainable development in Katsina State, Nigeria.

Theory of Conflict Resolution

Deutsch’s (1973) Conflict Resolution Theory provides a comprehensive and structured framework for effectively managing and resolving conflicts through various strategic approaches, including negotiation, mediation, and arbitration. The theory emphasises that disputes should not be addressed at a superficial level but instead should be examined thoroughly to identify and resolve their root causes. By focusing on underlying issues rather than temporary fixes, this approach aims to prevent recurring disputes and promote long-term harmony among conflicting parties.

A key aspect of Deutsch’s theory is the importance of fostering mutual understanding and trust between individuals or groups engaged in conflict. This is achieved by encouraging open communication, active listening, and the expression of differing perspectives in a constructive manner. The theory also advocates for cooperative problem-solving, where parties work together to find mutually beneficial solutions rather than engaging in adversarial or competitive behaviours that can exacerbate tensions.

Additionally, the framework highlights the crucial role of empathy in conflict resolution. By recognising and validating the emotions and concerns of others, conflicting parties are more likely to engage in meaningful dialogue and be open to compromise. The willingness to explore alternative solutions and prioritise shared interests over individual gains is central to achieving sustainable and peaceful resolutions.

Given its broad applicability, Deutsch’s Conflict Resolution Theory remains highly relevant in addressing a wide range of conflicts, from interpersonal disputes to large-scale societal and international tensions. Its principles serve as a guiding foundation for conflict management in various settings, including workplaces, communities, and diplomatic relations. This study is deeply grounded in the insights provided by this theory, as it offers a well-rounded and practical approach to conflict resolution that prioritises long-term stability and cooperation.

METHODOLOGY

Two survey methods were adopted in this work. The first method was questionnaire distribution among the respondents. The second method adopted was the In-depth Interview method.

The study area is Katsina State. The State is located in northwestern Nigeria and is predominantly occupied by the Hausa/Fulani. All other tribes, apart from these two, are minorities. The primary economic activities in the State are farming, herding, some commercial activities, and public service work. The study was centred on three local governments in the State, which are: Jibia, Musawa, and Safana local governments. The study population consisted of intelligent operatives within the formal security apparatuses in Nigeria, including personnel from the State Security Service (SSS), the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), the National Intelligence Agency (NIA), and the Department of Military Intelligence (DMI). The second population category consisted of individuals from the affected areas in northwestern Nigeria who were 18 years of age or older during the research period. The study comprises 86 respondents selected from these departments. Twenty-four people were chosen from the SSS, two people from NIA, fifty-six from CID, and four respondents from DMI. The selection was based on the officers involved in intelligence gathering in the affected areas of Katsina State, Nigeria, who were willing and able to participate in the exercise. The second population category consisted of individuals from the affected areas in Katsina State, Nigeria, who were 18 years of age or older during the research period.

The researcher adopted sampling techniques to administer questionnaires. Due to the nature of the study, both purposive and stratified sampling techniques were employed. The purposive sampling technique was used due to the research’s purpose. In contrast, the stratified sampling technique was used because the research participants are spread across different States and local government areas in Katsina State, Nigeria. We adopted both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods in this research.

DATA ANALYSIS

This section presents data analysis and discussions of the findings. The questionnaires are divided into two categories under this study. The first category is distributed to the intelligence unit of the Nigerian security under the purview of the State Security Service (SSS), the Nigerian Intelligence Agency (NIA), and the Department of Military Intelligence (DMI). In contrast, the second category comprises respondents from the general public in Katsina State, Nigeria, who are eighteen years of age and above.

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents from Security Intelligence Officers (NIA, SSS, CID, and DMI)

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.1 displays the frequency of respondents in different age groups, with a significant number concentrated in the 41–50 age range. The table further indicates the predominance of Islam among respondents, followed by Christianity, and a minimal representation of Traditional beliefs. Again, the table highlights that most respondents belong to the CID, with smaller contributions from SSS, DMI, and NIA. Furthermore, the table shows that most respondents are senior cadre personnel compared to junior cadre personnel. The table reveals several vital demographic characteristics of the respondents. Firstly, most respondents were relatively experienced security personnel, with 69.9% falling within the age range of 31 to 50 years old. Secondly, the religious composition of the respondents was predominantly Muslim, accounting for 66.28%, followed by Christians at 32.56%, and a small percentage adhered to traditional religions. Thirdly, regarding service affiliation, the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) had the highest representation, with 65.12% of respondents belonging to this service. Lastly, most respondents (89.53%) were senior cadre officers, suggesting that the survey primarily targeted experienced personnel within the security intelligence sector.

Table 4.2: Responses on the Role of Security Intelligence in Preventing and Mitigating Security Threats in Katsina State, Nigeria

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.1.1: Responses on the Role of Security Intelligence in Preventing and Mitigating Security Threats in Katsina State, Nigeria

Most respondents, 54.65%, strongly agree, and 37.21% agree that security intelligence plays a role in preventing and mitigating threats in Katsina State, Nigeria. This indicates that 91.86% of respondents have a positive perception of the role of security intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria. Only 2.33% of respondents are neutral, indicating that very few participants are indifferent about the effectiveness of security intelligence. 5.81% strongly disagree, and no respondents outright disagree. This suggests minimal opposition to the view that security intelligence has a role in addressing security issues.

One of the implications of these findings is a positive Outlook on security intelligence among the respondents, as the overwhelming agreement (91.86%) highlights that most individuals believe security intelligence is pivotal in tackling security threats in Katsina State, Nigeria. This perception may suggest trust in the potential or actual effectiveness of security intelligence systems, despite the State’s ongoing challenges.

Again, the small percentage of strong disagreement (5.81%) indicates that dissatisfaction with the effectiveness of security intelligence is not widespread. However, it should still be addressed to build broader confidence in the system. Also, the low neutrality rate (2.33%) suggests most respondents have explicit opinions, which could indicate the topic’s relevance and direct impact on the respondents’ lives.

Table 4.1.2: Responses on the Security Intelligence and Improvement of Security in Katsina State, Nigeria

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.1.2 indicates that a significant majority of respondents (84.88%) agree that security intelligence has contributed to improving security in the State. This shows widespread recognition of its importance. The overwhelming majority supporting its effectiveness suggests that security intelligence efforts are perceived positively. This can be a foundation for further investments and improvements in this area.

A tiny fraction of respondents (3.49%) believe that security intelligence has not improved security. This could indicate scepticism or dissatisfaction in specific areas. The minority (3.49%) who disagree may represent areas or demographics where security efforts are less effective. Understanding their concerns could provide targeted solutions.

Also, a notable proportion of respondents (11.63%) are unsure about the effectiveness of security intelligence, suggesting either a lack of awareness or inconsistent results. The “Maybe” responses indicate a lack of clarity or tangible evidence of results in some communities. This may reflect poor communication or insufficient reach of security measures.

Table 4.1.3: Responds on the Main Challenges Hindering Effective Use of Security Intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria (This question may require multiple answers)

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.1.3 presents data on the challenges impacting the effective use of security intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria. The table disclosed that lack of resources and corruption share the highest frequency (48 occurrences each, 55.8%). These factors are significant barriers, indicating systemic issues such as inadequate funding, personnel, essential tools, and unethical practices within the system.

Secondly, poor coordination is also significant, with 50 responses (50.1%). This suggests inefficiencies in communication or collaboration among stakeholders in intelligence operations.

Furthermore, 43 respondents (50%) highlighted the need for insufficient training. This reflects gaps in professional development, technical knowledge, or capacity-building initiatives, which are crucial for practical intelligence work.

Consequently, the “others” category, with 19 occurrences (22.1%), likely aggregates a mix of minor but noteworthy issues not explicitly captured in the main categories.

The percentages for each category are significantly high due to the nature of the question, which allows multiple responses. Respondents could select multiple options, resulting in a cumulative total of 233.8%, rather than the standard 100%. This reflects the multifaceted nature of the problem.

The data emphasises that the effectiveness of security intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria, is hindered by a complex interplay of challenges such as:

Resource constraints and corruption emerge as structural issues that need urgent attention.

Poor coordination and insufficient training highlight operational and capacity-related weaknesses.

The relatively high proportion of “others” suggests that additional factors, potentially contextual or localised, require further investigation.

Another factor that hinders the effective implementation of security intelligence in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria, is a lack of knowledge, as mentioned by one of the interviewees:

“… People in the State lack knowledge on how intelligence activities are being carried out. As such, there is minimal effect on social cohesion and trust in Katsina State”.

In an interview answer related to this, one of the participants revealed that:

“Adequate funding will ensure the provision of the required equipment and personnel training for effective information gathering and dissemination, which will help implement effective security intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria”.

Another interviewee suggests the following:

“Decentralisation of intelligence gathering: Empower local intelligence units to operate independently while aligning with national frameworks. Community engagement: Establish grassroots intelligence networks involving local leaders, vigilante groups, and civil society. Real-time communication: Invest in advanced technology for rapid data sharing and real-time surveillance.  Capacity building: Train intelligence personnel on the dynamics of local cultures, languages, and conflict patterns. Feedback mechanisms: Set up channels where communities can report threats without fear of reprisal.

It will help implement practical security intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria.

Again, the interviewee also suggests that:

“There is a need for robust policies to ensure proper cooperation and liaison between security agencies in the region. There should be a deliberate attempt to encourage the populace to provide timely information to intelligence agencies to aid in curbing security threats in the bud”.

Another interviewee provides policies that will effectively implement security intelligence in Katsina State, Nigeria. According to him, these policies are as follows:

“Economic empowerment programs: Address root causes like unemployment and poverty through vocational training and entrepreneurship initiatives. Border security enhancements: Secure porous borders to limit the flow of arms and illegal activities. Conflict early warning systems: Implement systems to predict and prevent conflicts before they escalate. Amnesty programs: Offer DE- radicalisation and reintegration opportunities for repentant criminals or insurgents.

Consequently, an interviewee disclosed that security intelligence challenges have impacted negatively on the region in the following ways:

“Disruption of agriculture: Insecurity forces farmers to abandon fields, reducing food production. Decline in investments: Businesses avoid conflict-prone areas, resulting in a loss of job opportunities. Infrastructure decay: Frequent attacks damage critical infrastructure, including roads and markets. Migration: Skilled individuals migrate to safer regions, causing a brain drain. Tourism decline: Potential income from tourism is lost due to safety concerns”.

Analysis of Questionnaires from the General Public

This category comprises respondents from the general public in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria, who were eighteen years of age and above.

Table 4.2.1 Analysis of Questionnaires

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.2.1 disclosed the rate of questionnaires. Four hundred valid questionnaires were distributed, constituting 80% of the 520 questionnaires. The respondents did not return 5 per cent, and 15 per cent were returned but deemed invalid, totalling 520 questionnaires. Thus, this analysis was guided by the returned and valid questionnaires, which totalled 400, constituting 80% of the questionnaires the researcher distributed.

Table 4.2.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.2.2 disclosed the demographic characteristics of the respondents who were not part of the security personnel.

The table revealed that most respondents (60.5%) are aged 56 and above, indicating that the study population is predominantly older. Younger respondents (18-35 years old) comprise only 9.5% of the population, suggesting limited youth representation. This skewed age distribution could imply that the findings may broadly reflect the perspectives of older individuals.

Again, the study revealed that a significant portion (37.5%) of respondents have no formal education, highlighting low non-formal educational attainment in the region. Those with higher education (secondary school and advanced tertiary education) account for 50% combined, suggesting that half of the population possesses some level of formal education. The low percentage of respondents with primary school education (12.5%) may suggest an educational gap between basic and higher levels.

Furthermore, the study revealed that farmers constitute the largest occupational group, at 38.25%, reflecting a predominantly agrarian community. A significant portion (26.25%) of the population is unemployed, which may highlight the area’s economic challenges. Civil servants and labourers comprise 11.25%, indicating limited representation in the formal employment sectors.

Consequently, the findings exposed that the largest ethnic group is Fulbe (34.25%), followed closely by “Others” (35.25%) and Hausa (30.5%). This diversity could impact the study, as ethnic differences might influence responses, especially on culturally sensitive topics.

Accordingly, the research revealed that Islam dominates (68.75%), reflecting its prevalence in the region. Christianity is the second-largest religion (19%), while traditional religious adherents are the minority (12.25%). This distribution indicates a predominantly Islamic population with minority religious groups.

Subsequently, the majority (89%) are male, indicating a gender imbalance in the sample. Female respondents represent only 11%, suggesting limited female participation or accessibility during data collection.

Finally, the marital status distribution is relatively balanced between married (30.75%) and widowed (30.75%). Singles (24.5%) and divorced individuals (14%) comprise smaller but notable portions of the population. The high proportion of widowed respondents may reflect regional challenges such as insecurity or health issues affecting longevity.

Table 4.2.3: Responses on how Traditional Conflict Resolution Methods are Effective in Resolving Conflicts in Katsina State, Northwestern Nigeria

Source: Survey, 2024

Table 4.2.3 presents survey responses on the effectiveness of traditional conflict resolution methods in resolving conflicts in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria. Four hundred respondents provided their views, categorised into three responses: Yes, No, and Not Sure. 41.75% (167 respondents) affirmed that traditional conflict resolution methods are effective. This suggests that a significant portion of respondents believe in the effectiveness of conventional approaches, indicating that these methods remain relevant and credible within the community. Another 14.25% (57 respondents) expressed that these methods are ineffective, which is a small proportion. This group may reflect scepticism or dissatisfaction with traditional systems, possibly due to changes in societal dynamics or unresolved conflicts. Again, 44% (176 respondents) were unsure, making it the largest group. This high percentage reflects a lack of consensus or clarity among respondents, possibly indicating limited awareness or mixed outcomes of these methods in practice.

The high percentage of “Not Sure” responses (44%) suggests a gap in understanding or communication about the role and effectiveness of traditional conflict resolution mechanisms. This could be pointed out to:

Insufficient documentation or promotion of successful cases.

A generational divide, where younger individuals may not be familiar with these methods.

Situations where modern legal systems may have overshadowed traditional methods. The 41.75% “Yes” response shows that conventional methods still have considerable acceptance. This highlights their continued relevance, possibly due to cultural alignment, accessibility, or trust in local leaders and systems. The 14.25% “No” response, while small, indicates dissatisfaction. This may require improvements in these methods or better integration with formal systems.

Table 4.2.4: Respondents on How Often Community Members or Traditional Leaders Mediate in Conflict Situations in Katsina State, Northwestern Nigeria

Source: Survey, 2024

The data in Table 4.2.4 provide insights into the frequency of community members or traditional leaders mediating conflict situations in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria.   A significant proportion of respondents (33.25%) indicated that conventional leaders or community members often mediate in conflicts. This suggests that traditional or community-based mechanisms are critical in conflict resolution. Another 31% of respondents stated that mediation happens sometimes. This implies that, although the involvement of traditional leaders or community members is inconsistent, it still occurs regularly. Again, 22.25% reported that mediation rarely happens. This suggests that conventional mediation is either less effective or less frequently utilised in certain areas or situations. Furthermore, 13.5% of respondents indicated that traditional leaders or community members never mediate conflicts. This suggests a potential gap in the utilisation of local mechanisms for conflict resolution in certain areas.

Table 4.2.5: Effectiveness of Civil Society Organisations in Mediating Conflicts and Promoting Peace in Katsina State, Northwestern Nigeria

Source: Survey, 2024

The data in Table 4.2.5 evaluates the effectiveness of Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) in mediating conflicts and promoting peace in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria. The table categorises respondents’ opinions into five levels of effectiveness: Very Effective, Effective, Neutral, Ineffective, and Very Ineffective.

Most respondents (44.25%, 177 respondents) perceive CSOs as Very Ineffective in their roles. A significant portion (32.25%, 129 respondents) also rated them as Ineffective. 76.5% of the respondents believe CSOs fail in their mediating and peace-promoting roles. Only 8.25% (33 respondents) rated CSOs as Very Effective, while 9% (36 respondents) considered them Effective. This totals 17.25%, indicating that a minority of the population recognises positive outcomes from CSO efforts. Only 6.25% (25 respondents) were neutral, reflecting a small portion of the population who find CSOs effective or ineffective.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This study investigated the strengths of security intelligence and conflict resolution mechanisms in Katsina State, north-western Nigeria.

Given the purpose of the study, a review of related literature is made up of a conceptual review, concerning the concept of security intelligence, and conflict resolution mechanism; an empirical review in line with the objective of the study; and a theoretical framework, reviewed the theory of conflict resolution, and the study was anchored on the theory.

The work adopted survey research design with the aid of questionnaire and Key informants interview, the primary data were from the State Security Service (SSS), Criminal Investigation Department (CID), National Intelligence Agency (NIA), and Department of Military Intelligence (DMI) and stratified and purposive sampling methods were used to select the respondents and responds from the general public was also used. The data gathered was therefore analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively using descriptive statistics and content analysis, respectively.

First, the findings revealed that security intelligence has a role in addressing security issues. Essentially, security intelligence is pivotal in tackling security in Katsina State, Nigeria. This suggests a trust in the security intelligence systems ‘potential effectiveness, despite challenges.

Secondly, the results further revealed the effectiveness of security intelligence efforts. This underscores the positive connection between security intelligence and sustainable development in the study area.

Peace and security are fundamental aspects of human relationships and interactions, inherent in all societies. Hence, the issue of human quest for peace, order, and stability in security is a recurring issue in any society. This is because the significance of peaceful coexistence in realising the goals of broad-based, sustainable development cannot be overstated.

A cursory look at Katsina State, Nigeria, suggests that almost the entire state has experienced some form of insecurity. Conflicts exist at various levels, including interpersonal, intra-group, inter-group, intra-regional, and inter-regional, which manifest in ethnic conflicts, religious conflicts, communal conflicts, and more complex conflicts involving multiple identities, such as ethno-regional conflicts, ethno-religious conflicts, and ethno-cultural conflicts.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are suggested:

The provision of adequate social amenities (hospitals, schools, recreational facilities) and development projects (construction of roads, markets, and other essential infrastructures) for the people. This should help prevent individuals from falling into vulnerable situations that expose them to conflicts and insecurity.

A prioritisation by the Federal, State and Local governments of special schemes and projects to create jobs and promote entrepreneurship among youths.

National security agencies and other stakeholders need to enhance their intelligence gathering, sharing, detection, and investigative capabilities.

National Orientation Agencies, related agencies, and non-governmental organisations should continually raise awareness and sensitise people to the importance of peaceful coexistence, respect, tolerance, and appreciation of diversity.

Continuously training and capacity building of all national security agents on security intelligence and the modus operandi of modern organised criminal activities.

CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

The study contributed to the knowledge in the following ways:

The findings of this study will provide policymakers, security agencies, and other security stakeholders with data-based information necessary to address security challenges in Katsina State, northwestern Nigeria.

Additionally, the study will make a significant contribution to the existing literature on security studies, peace and conflict, and sustainable development, ultimately benefiting future researchers in the field.

Finally, the study presents how the security intelligence gathering, sharing, detection and investigative capacities can be harnessed and utilised positively to resolve conflict for sustainable development.

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