Assessment of Groundwater Potential for Sustainable Urban Management in Mubi South Local Government Area, Adamawa State Nigeria: A Remote Sensing and GIS Approach

Assessment of Groundwater Potential for Sustainable Urban Management in Mubi South Local Government Area, Adamawa State Nigeria: A Remote Sensing and GIS Approach

James Jesse Shinggu¹, Jibir Audu¹, Danjuma Bawa Babale¹

¹Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal Polytechnic Mubi, Adamawa Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90300332

Received: 12 March 2025; Accepted: 17 March 2025; Published: 18 April 2025

ABSTRACT

This study addresses the critical challenge of unsustainable groundwater exploitation in Mubi South Local Government Area (LGA), Adamawa State, Nigeria, by employing a Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) approach to assess and zone groundwater potential for sustainable urban management. Rapid urbanization and increasing water demand in the region have heightened the need for a comprehensive understanding of groundwater resources. Integrating multi-source geospatial data—including Landsat imagery, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), soil data, and settlement information—the study analyzes six key factors (Drainage Density, Slope, Soil, Elevation, Land Use/Land Cover (LULC), and Aspect) to generate a composite groundwater potential index. Five distinct groundwater potential zones were identified: Marginally High (12,093.42 hectares), Average (7,189.67 hectares), High (8,361.73 hectares), Low (11,927.18 hectares), and Very Low (7,676.06 hectares). These zones exhibit varying degrees of groundwater availability, with the High and Marginally High zones supporting 38 and 72 settlements, respectively, while the Low and Very Low zones encompass 49 and 43 settlements. The findings reveal that depth, recharge rates, water quality, and sustainability are critical factors influencing groundwater potential. By enumerating settlements within each zone, the study provides actionable insights for local water resource management. This research contributes a nuanced understanding of groundwater dynamics in Mubi South LGA, offering a robust foundation for sustainable urban development and water resource planning. The results underscore the importance of zone-specific management strategies to optimize groundwater utilization and enhance resilience to climate change.

Keywords: Groundwater Potential, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS), Sustainable Water Management, Urban Management.

INTRODUCTION AND STUDY BACKGROUND

Urbanization is a prevailing global phenomenon, characterized by the rapid expansion of cities and the increasing concentration of populations in urban areas (Bačić et al., 2022; Chaudhury, 2023; Schuetze et al., 2013). This demographic shift has led to a surge in demand for essential resources, particularly water, which is a cornerstone of sustainable urban development (Haas & Streicher, 2015; Matlhodi et al., 2021). In many urban centers, groundwater serves as a critical source of potable water supply, industrial use, and irrigation, among other vital functions (Martins et al., 2015; Paper & Calicut, 2020; Van den Brink et al., 2017). Mubi South Local Government Area (LGA), situated in Adamawa State, North Eastern Nigeria, exemplifies this trend of urbanization. Over the past few decades, Mubi South has witnessed unprecedented growth, driven by factors such as population increase, economic activities, and improved infrastructure (Martins et al., 2015; Press et al., n.d.; Wanda et al., 2021). This surge in urban development places immense pressure on the existing water resources, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of the groundwater potential within the area. Groundwater, being a concealed and finite resource, demands systematic assessment techniques for its sustainable management. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as invaluable tools in this regard (Ahirwar et al., 2020; Arunbose et al., 2021; Martins et al., 2015; Mogaji et al., 2011). RS, involving the acquisition of data from satellites and aircraft, provides a unique perspective for understanding the Earth’s surface. Combined with GIS which allows for spatial analysis and modeling; these technologies enable accurate mapping and assessment of groundwater potential areas (Ahmed et al., 2021; Anbarasu et al., 2019; Majumder et al., 2023; Mosavi et al., 2020; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019; Owolabi, 2020; Paper & Calicut, 2020; Senthilkumar et al., 2019). Groundwater, often termed the “hidden resource,” constitutes a significant portion of the world’s freshwater reserves (Martins et al., 2015; Owolabi, 2020; Press et al., n.d.; Senthilkumar et al., 2019). It resides beneath the Earth’s surface in saturated zones within geological formations, offering a consistent and reliable water supply compared to surface water sources (Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019). Its importance extends across ecosystems, agriculture, urban settlements, and industrial processes, serving as a crucial reserve during droughts or emergencies (Ahmed et al., 2021; Ajibade et al., 2021; Anbarasu et al., 2019; Arunbose et al., 2021; Chaminé et al., 2021; Hairchi, 2023; Kolawole et al., 2016; Martins et al., 2015; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019; Owolabi, 2020). However, the knowledge gap regarding groundwater potential in Mubi South LGA poses critical problems, including inadequate resource knowledge, unsustainable exploitation, environmental degradation, inefficient urban planning, and vulnerability to climate change (A. A. et al., 2019; I. D. et al., 2021; Martins et al., 2015; Press et al., n.d.). Urban areas face increasing vulnerability to climate change impacts, highlighting groundwater’s resilience during prolonged droughts and extreme rainfall events (Ajibade et al., 2021). Groundwater infiltration systems mitigate floods and reduce inundation risks, enhancing urban resilience (Kaaronen, 2017). Moreover, clean groundwater contributes to public health by reducing waterborne diseases and healthcare costs (Elisha, 2012; Sharifi, 2018)

Sustainable urban management recognizes groundwater’s central role in ensuring a reliable water supply, especially in regions with limited surface water availability or erratic patterns (Ahmed et al., 2021; Ajibade et al., 2021; Arunbose et al., 2021). Integrating groundwater into urban water supply systems enhances resilience to challenges like droughts and population growth (Ahmed et al., 2021; Ajibade et al., 2021; Arunbose et al., 2021). Moreover, groundwater supports urban agriculture, reduces food miles, and fosters community well-being (Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019; Ajibade et al., 2021). However, over-exploitation can lead to adverse consequences like land subsidence and saline intrusion, necessitating regulation and sustainable management practices (Hairchi, 2023). Sustainable urban management necessitates careful land use planning to protect groundwater resources and minimize environmental impacts (Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019; Arunbose et al., 2021). Designating recharge areas and implementing regulations are vital for long-term resource availability and urban development (Ahirwar et al., 2020; Ahmed et al., 2021; Anbarasu et al., 2019; Senthilkumar et al., 2019). Recognizing groundwater’s multifaceted significance, this study aims to assess and map groundwater potential in Mubi South LGA, contributing to sustainable urban development goals.

Despite the critical importance of groundwater in sustaining urban life, there exists a notable gap in the knowledge and application of RS and GIS techniques for groundwater assessment in Mubi South LGA. Past studies have primarily focused on surface water resources, with limited attention given to the comprehensive evaluation of groundwater potential (A. A. et al., 2019; Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019; Adebayo & Zemba, 2012; Elisha, 2012; I. D. et al., 2021; Martins et al., 2015; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019; Press et al., n.d.). This research aims to bridge this gap by employing advanced RS and GIS techniques to delineate areas with significant groundwater potential within the LGA. Furthermore, this study recognizes the pivotal role of sustainable urban management in ensuring long-term access to quality water resources. Sustainable urban management encompasses a multidisciplinary approach, integrating environmental, social, and economic considerations (Maina & Yusuf, 2023; MohanRajan et al., 2020; Paper & Calicut, 2020). By identifying areas with high groundwater potential, urban planners and policymakers can make informed decisions to safeguard this vital resource for current and future generations. Summarily, this research endeavors to contribute to the body of knowledge on groundwater potential assessment in urbanizing regions, with a specific focus on Mubi South LGA. The application of RS and GIS techniques, coupled with a commitment to sustainable urban management, forms the cornerstone of this endeavor. Through this study, we aim to provide valuable insights and recommendations for effective groundwater resource utilization and urban development planning in the area. Existing literature exhibits gaps in sustainable urban management focus, climate change dynamics, advanced RS and GIS techniques utilization, consideration of socio-economic factors, spatial resolution in data collection, and long-term monitoring and prediction (Ahmed et al., 2021; Anbarasu et al., 2019; Ankidawa et al., 2019; Arunbose et al., 2021; Ishaku, 2011; Martins et al., 2015; Obiefuna & Orazulike, 2011; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019; Owolabi, 2020; Senthilkumar et al., 2019; Shao et al., 2020; Van den Brink et al., 2017). Addressing these gaps is crucial for providing a robust framework for groundwater potential assessment in Mubi South LGA.

The study aims to employ Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques to conduct a detailed assessment of groundwater potential in Mubi South Local Government Area, Adamawa State – Nigeria. The overarching objective is to provide essential spatial data for sustainable urban management and effective water resource planning by; conducting a comprehensive analysis of geospatial data through gathering, processing, and integrating various geospatial datasets, including Landsat imagery, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), soil data, and vector layers, to facilitate a thorough assessment of groundwater potential. The research is also poised to derive factor maps influencing groundwater potential by utilizing RS and GIS techniques, this objective aims to generate factor maps, such as drainage density, slope, soil type, elevation, land use/land cover, and aspect, which collectively influence groundwater potential. In addition, the research is set to create a composite groundwater potential index by a way of overlaying and reclassifying the factor maps to develop a composite groundwater potential index. This index will categorize different areas within Mubi South LGA into distinct groundwater potential zones. More so, the research is poised to Zone Groundwater Potential for Sustainable Urban Management by a way of building on the composite index; this objective aims to categorize the study area into specific groundwater potential zones, such as Very Low, Low, Average, Marginally High, and High, to formulate sustainable urban management strategies. Finally the research will be dedicated to providing recommendations for groundwater-based Urban Planning by analyzing the zonation results; this involves offering specific recommendations for sustainable urban management practices in Mubi South LGA. This may include suggestions for water resource allocation, infrastructure development, and community growth strategies.

STUDY AREA

Mubi South Local Government Area (LGA) is situated in the northeastern region of Nigeria, specifically within the coordinates of approximately latitude 10.0°N and longitude 13.0°E (Adamu et al., 2024). It forms a critical part of Adamawa State, a state known for its diverse landscapes and vibrant communities. The LGA shares borders with several neighboring LGAs, including Mubi North to the northeast, Maiha to the South, Hong to the northwest, and Cameroon to the West (A. A. et al., 2019; Adamu et al., 2024; I. D. et al., 2021; Martins et al., 2015; Press et al., n.d.). Mubi South Local Government Area in Adamawa State, Nigeria, exhibits a diverse and varied topography. The landscape encompasses both lowland expanses and elevated terrains, creating a dynamic geological setting (Martins et al., 2015). Elevations within the area range from 60 meters to 1000 meters above sea level. This significant variation in elevation profoundly influences the hydrogeological conditions and the patterns of groundwater flow. Geologically, the region is predominantly characterized by the Pan-African Older Granitoids formation. This geological stratum spans a considerable period, from Pre-Cambrian to Cambrian eras. Notably, lithological facies such as Porphyritic Granite Coarse porphyritic biotite and biotite hornblende granite contribute significantly to the geological composition (Adebayo & Zemba, 2012; Martins et al., 2015; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019; Press et al., n.d.). The presence of rock outcrops along the Mandara mountain range adds an additional layer of complexity to the geological features of Mubi South LGA. These outcrops play a crucial role in influencing groundwater storage and movement, further impacting the overall hydrogeological dynamics of the area.Top of Form

The hydrogeological setting of Mubi South Local Government Area is defined by a complex interplay of geological formations, topographical features, and hydrological processes that influence the distribution and movement of groundwater resources (Adamu et al., 2024; Kolawole et al., 2016; Martins et al., 2015; Press et al., n.d.). The predominant geological formation in this region is the Pan-African Older Granitoids. This geological substrate plays a pivotal role in groundwater occurrence and movement. The porosity and permeability characteristics of these granitic formations vary, impacting the capacity of the rocks to store and transmit groundwater (Kolawole et al., 2016; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019). The topography, with its diverse range of elevations, further shapes the hydrogeological conditions. Areas at lower elevations may serve as potential groundwater accumulation zones, while higher elevations could act as areas of groundwater discharge (A. A. et al., 2019; Adamu et al., 2024; Press et al., n.d.).

Additionally, the presence of rock outcrops, particularly along the Mandara mountain range, introduces localized variations in groundwater storage and movement patterns (Adamu et al., 2024; Elisha, 2012; Martins et al., 2015). The hydrogeological setting is also influenced by rainfall patterns, which play a vital role in groundwater recharge. The region experiences distinct wet and dry seasons, with an annual rainfall range of 700 to 869.4 millimeters (Adebayo & Zemba, 2012).

Figure 1: The Study Area in the Context of Nigeria and Adamawa State

This precipitation replenishes groundwater reservoirs, ensuring a sustainable supply for various uses. Furthermore, the presence of surface water features, such as streams and rivers, contributes to the hydrogeological dynamics. Perennial and intermittent streams interact with the underlying geology, influencing groundwater recharge in areas with higher drainage density. The demographic profile of Mubi South LGA is characterized by a mix of ethnic groups, with diverse cultural practices and linguistic variations.

In recent years, Mubi South LGA has witnessed rapid urbanization, driven by factors such as population growth, economic opportunities, and improved infrastructure (Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019). This urbanization has led to increased demands for various services, including water supply for domestic, industrial, and commercial purposes. The land use patterns in Mubi South Local Government Area (LGA) reflect a dynamic interplay of urban, agricultural, and natural areas, each contributing to the overall socio-economic and environmental fabric of the region (Audu et al., 2020; Mayomi & Yonnana, 2020; Wanda et al., 2021). Urban areas within Mubi South LGA are characterized by concentrated human settlements, infrastructure, and commercial activities. These zones exhibit high levels of built-up land cover, including residential, commercial, and industrial structures. Urban areas are vital centers for economic activities, social interactions, and the provision of essential services. Notable urban centers include Mubi town and its surrounding environs (Audu et al., 2020; Mayomi & Yonnana, 2020; Wanda et al., 2021). A significant portion of Mubi South LGA is dedicated to agricultural practices. These areas encompass a range of land cover types, including cultivated fields, orchards, and pasturelands. Agriculture serves as a fundamental economic pillar for the local population, providing livelihoods and sustenance. Crops such as maize, millet, and sorghum are commonly cultivated, along with livestock rearing (Adebayo & Zemba, 2012).

Natural and vegetated areas include forests, woodlands, and other natural vegetation cover. These areas play a crucial role in the local ecology, providing habitats for diverse flora and fauna. Additionally, they contribute to environmental sustainability by regulating water flow, enhancing soil stability, and mitigating climate impacts (Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019; Adamu et al., 2024; Adebayo & Zemba, 2012; Mayomi & Yonnana, 2020; Ojoina Omali & Samuel Kolawole, 2019). Water bodies, such as rivers, streams, and seasonal watercourses, form integral components of the landscape. They not only influence the hydrogeological dynamics but also serve as water sources for various uses, including irrigation and domestic needs (Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019; Adamu et al., 2024). These features are vital for the overall hydrological balance of the region. Infrastructure elements, including roads, bridges, and other transportation networks, are essential for connectivity and accessibility within the LGA. These features facilitate the movement of goods and people, supporting economic activities and development initiatives (Abdulwahab & Bello, 2019; Adamu et al., 2024). Certain areas within Mubi South LGA may be designated as reserved or protected, aimed at conserving natural habitats, biodiversity, or cultural heritage sites. These zones often have specific regulations to safeguard their ecological or cultural significance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data Types

The study utilized diverse data types to comprehensively assess groundwater potential in Mubi South Local Government Area. These data were crucial for understanding the factors influencing groundwater availability and its viability for exploitation. Primary data were gathered through field surveys, which provided ground-truth information on geological formations, hydrogeological conditions, and land use patterns. Secondary data included existing datasets and records obtained from government agencies, research institutions, and other reliable sources. Landsat satellite images of 2024, specifically Bands 2, 3, and 4, were acquired from the USGS EarthExplorer portal. These multispectral images offered critical insights into land cover and land use patterns within the study area. By stacking these bands, a composite image was created, enabling the classification of land cover types such as vegetation, water bodies, urban areas, and other features relevant to groundwater potential assessment.

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, also obtained from EarthExplorer provided topographical details, including elevation, slope and aspect. These parameters are vital for understanding groundwater dynamics, as elevation influences the groundwater gradient, slope determines flow direction, and aspect affects water infiltration and recharge rates (Dahy, 2023; Elisha, 2012; Feng et al., 2010; Halabisky et al., 2023; Hassan & Syakir, 2023; Mayomi & Yonnana, 2020; Nour-Eldin et al., 2023; Rahmani, 2023; Salako et al., 2016; Techniques et al., 2023; Yeong et al., 2022; Zungum & Imam, 2019). Soil data, sourced from the 2006 Nigerian soil map, outlined the distribution of soil types like silt sands, clayey sands, and loamy sands. These properties were essential for assessing water retention, percolation rates, and groundwater storage capacity.

Stream network and drainage density data were derived from hydrological analysis of the DEM. These datasets helped identify stream and river distributions, as well as areas with varying drainage densities. Higher drainage density areas were particularly significant for groundwater recharge. Local government boundary maps, along with settlement and road data, were obtained from GRID-3 by e-health Africa. These datasets provided administrative and societal context, including local settlement names and groundwater potential categories, which incorporated community perspectives on water resource availability and usage.

Collectively, the geospatial data played a pivotal role in groundwater potential mapping. Landsat imagery and DEM data were key for analyzing land cover, elevation, and terrain features affecting groundwater movement. Soil data contributed to understanding groundwater retention and storage, while stream network and drainage density data helped identify recharge zones. The inclusion of local government boundaries, settlement, and road data added valuable societal context, enhancing the overall groundwater potential assessment.

Data Processing and Analysis

In this study, GIS techniques were central to managing, analyzing, and visualizing geospatial data, enabling the integration of diverse datasets to identify areas with potential groundwater resources. The first step involved preparing and preprocessing the datasets to ensure they were compatible and consistent for analysis. The dataset for the analysis namely: Landsat imagery, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), soil data, and vector layers, were converted into standardized formats suitable for ArcGIS. Raster data, for example, were saved as GeoTIFF files, while vector data were stored as shapefiles. Each dataset’s spatial reference was carefully checked and aligned with the Projected UTM WGS 33N coordinate system, which was chosen for its relevance to the study area. To maintain consistency, datasets with varying resolutions were resampled to a uniform resolution, preventing any misalignment during integration. Additionally, NoData values were standardized to eliminate gaps or inconsistencies, ensuring the reliability of the datasets for spatial analysis.

The integration of multiple datasets, such as Landsat imagery, DEM, soil data, stream networks, and settlement points, was carried out systematically. This process provided a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing groundwater potential in Mubi South LGA. Georectification was applied to all relevant layers, including Landsat imagery, vector data, and raster datasets, to ensure they aligned accurately with the study area’s boundaries. The study area’s boundary vector layer was used to clip the georectified Landsat imagery, focusing the analysis exclusively on the target region and reducing unnecessary computational load. Similar steps were taken for other datasets, such as soil maps, stream networks, and drainage density, ensuring they were precisely aligned with the study area’s spatial framework.

Key topographic parameters—slope, elevation, and aspect—were derived from the DEM using ArcGIS Spatial Analyst tools. Slope, measured in degrees, indicated the steepness of the terrain, while elevation values represented the height of the land surface at each point, both of which were critical for understanding groundwater dynamics. Aspect, which describes the direction a slope faces, was also calculated from the DEM, providing insights into how terrain orientation influences water flow and infiltration.

To assess groundwater potential, variable maps—such as drainage density, slope, soil type, elevation, land use and land cover (LULC), and aspect—were reclassified into three categories: low, average, and high potential. This reclassification was based on domain-specific knowledge and hydrogeological principles, with appropriate thresholds assigned to each variable to distinguish between the three potential levels. This step ensured that all factor maps were on a consistent scale, allowing for their integration into a single composite map. Using the overlay tool in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, the reclassified maps were combined into a groundwater potential index, with each factor weighted according to its influence on groundwater availability. The final groundwater potential map was then calibrated using local knowledge and hydrogeological expertise to refine the results and enhance their accuracy. This comprehensive approach provided a detailed and reliable assessment of groundwater potential in the study area.

The use of RS and GIS techniques was justified by their ability to integrate multi-source geospatial data and provide accurate spatial analysis. These methods are widely recognized for their effectiveness in groundwater potential assessment, as demonstrated by previous studies (Ahirwar et al., 2020; Arunbose et al., 2021; Mogaji et al., 2011).

Figure 2: Groundwater Potential Parameters of the Study Area; (a) Soil Map, (b) LULC Map, (c) Elevation Map, (d) Aspect Map, (e) Drainage Density Map, (f) Slope Map

The reclassification and weighting of factor maps were based on established hydrogeological principles, ensuring the reliability of the results. o ensure data validity and reliability, the following measures were taken: Cross-validation of secondary data with field surveys, standardization of NoData values and resampling to a uniform resolution, calibration of the final groundwater potential map using local knowledge and expert input. Missing or inconsistent data were addressed through interpolation techniques and the use of standardized thresholds for reclassification. Gaps in soil data, for example, were filled using spatial interpolation, while inconsistencies in elevation data were resolved by cross-referencing multiple sources.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Groundwater Potential Zonation in Mubi South LGA

The assessment and zonation of groundwater potential in Mubi South Local Government Area (LGA) have provided critical insights into the spatial distribution and characteristics of groundwater resources across the region. After calibration, the study categorized the area into five distinct groundwater potential zones: High, Marginally High, Average, Low, and Very Low. Each zone was analyzed in terms of its areal coverage, the number of settlements it encompasses, and the implications for sustainable water resource management. These zones were characterized by varying areal coverage, settlement distribution, and groundwater availability, as summarized below:

Table 1: Groundwater Zonation Table

The High Groundwater Potential Zone, covering approximately 8,361.73 hectares, represents areas with excellent groundwater availability, offering a reliable and sustainable water supply. This zone supports 38 settlements, including Bagang, Bitako, Kwakwatu, and Vunokgwai, highlighting its importance in meeting the water needs of local communities. The Marginally High Groundwater Potential Zone, with the largest areal coverage of 12,093.42 hectares, indicates moderately promising groundwater potential. This zone supports 72 settlements, such as Gude, Kojoli, Lugga, Yashi, and Vunoklang, underscoring its significance in providing access to groundwater resources. However, the marginally high potential suggests the need for cautious management to address challenges like seasonal fluctuations and geological constraints. The Average Groundwater Potential Zone, spanning 7,189.67 hectares, represents regions with moderate groundwater availability. This zone supports 35 settlements, including Dangwala, Kwajaffa, Mararraban Garin Bello, and Mararraban Yelwa. While groundwater resources in this zone are not as abundant as in higher potential zones, effective management practices can ensure sustainable utilization. The Low Groundwater Potential Zone, covering 11,927.18 hectares, signifies areas with limited groundwater availability. Despite these challenges, 49 settlements, such as Bazza, Betso, Demsa, Masa, and Shuwa, are located within this zone. Specialized management strategies, including optimized extraction and conservation measures, are essential to address the constraints posed by geological factors and over-extraction. The Very Low Groundwater Potential Zone, encompassing 7,676.06 hectares, represents areas with the least favorable conditions for groundwater availability. This zone supports 43 settlements, including Gaya, Gude, Lugga, Mararraban Bello, and Pella. Given the restricted groundwater resources, alternative water sources and conservation measures are critical to meeting the water needs of these communities.

Implications for Sustainable Urban Management

The delineation of groundwater potential zones has profound implications for sustainable urban planning and management in Mubi South LGA. These findings enable informed decision-making to optimize water resource utilization, enhance resilience to climate change, and promote economic and environmental sustainability. Areas within High and Marginally High Groundwater Potential Zones are well-suited for leveraging groundwater as a primary water source, facilitating streamlined infrastructure development for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes.  In contrast, Low and Very Low Potential Zones require careful planning, including the integration of alternative water sources and advanced water treatment facilities to supplement limited groundwater resources. The variation in groundwater potential across the study area underscores the need for strategic water resource allocation. High Potential Zones can support water-intensive sectors, while Low and Very Low Potential Zones should prioritize conservation efforts and the utilization of alternative sources such as rainwater harvesting, surface water reservoirs, and treated wastewater reuse. In High and Average Potential Zones, sustainable groundwater management requires robust monitoring and regulation to prevent over-extraction. Measures such as water metering, well-drilling regulations, and extraction limits are essential to maintain long-term sustainability.

In Low and Very Low Potential Zones, water conservation measures, including the promotion of water-efficient technologies and restrictions on non-essential water use, are critical to optimizing available resources. High Potential Zones serve as natural reservoirs during periods of drought or water stress, enhancing the region’s resilience to climate change. Investments in infrastructure for capturing and storing excess groundwater can further bolster this resilience. In Low and Very Low Potential Zones, drought preparedness plans, water-saving technologies, and alternative water sources are necessary to mitigate the impacts of water scarcity.

While the study provides valuable insights, certain limitations must be acknowledged. The accuracy of the groundwater potential map depends on the quality and resolution of the input data. For instance, the 2006 soil data may not fully reflect current soil conditions, and the Landsat imagery’s spatial resolution may limit the detection of small-scale variations in land cover. Additionally, the study assumes uniform recharge rates across the study area, which may not account for localized variations in rainfall patterns or human activities. Despite these limitations, the findings align with previous studies (Ahirwar et al., 2020; Arunbose et al., 2021) and provide a reliable framework for groundwater potential assessment in urbanizing regions.

Figure 3: Groundwater Potential Factor Maps of the Study Area; (a) Soil Factor, (b) LULC Factor, (c) Elevation Factor, (d) Aspect Factor, (e) Drainage Density Factor, (f) Slope Factor

The integration of RS and GIS techniques offers a scalable and replicable approach for similar studies in other regions. Understanding groundwater potential zones allows for accurate cost assessments in urban planning, minimizing unnecessary expenditures in areas with limited groundwater availability. Additionally, protecting ecosystems dependent on groundwater is crucial, particularly in Low and Very Low Potential Zones, where over-extraction could lead to ecological degradation.

Figure 4: Overall Groundwater Potential Map of Mubi South LGA

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The study focused on the assessment and zonation of groundwater potential in Mubi South Local Government Area, employing advanced Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques. Geospatial datasets, including Landsat imagery, DEM, soil data, and settlement data, were integrated to delineate distinct groundwater potential zones. The findings revealed significant spatial variation in groundwater potential, with areas ranging from Marginally High to Very Low potential. Areal coverage analysis indicated that Marginally High and Low potential zones covered extensive areas, while the High potential zone covered a relatively smaller area. The number of settlements correlated with groundwater potential levels, highlighting the critical role of groundwater availability in supporting communities. Challenges in groundwater availability were identified, particularly in the Low and Very Low potential zones, necessitating specialized management practices.

Figure 5: Settlement Data Overlaid on Groundwater Potential Map of the Study Area

The study concludes that a nuanced understanding of groundwater potential zones is essential for sustainable water resource management. Tailored strategies are required to address the specific challenges associated with varying groundwater potential levels. The research contributes to a contextually informed approach to groundwater potential mapping, providing critical insights for decision-makers and stakeholders. The findings of this study have significant implications for water resource management within Mubi South LGA, providing a critical foundation for developing targeted strategies to optimize groundwater utilization. Ensuring a reliable water supply and effectively addressing challenges associated with the diverse groundwater potential zones requires a well-coordinated management approach. A major recommendation emerging from this study is the need for zone-specific management strategies tailored to areas with varying groundwater potential levels. Such an approach would promote the sustainable use of groundwater resources, preventing over-exploitation in high-potential zones and enhancing availability in regions with limited groundwater reserves. In areas identified as having low or very low groundwater potential, implementing measures such as artificial recharge and groundwater conservation efforts could significantly enhance groundwater availability. These interventions should be designed to suit the unique hydrological characteristics of the affected zones, thereby improving their resilience against water scarcity. Furthermore, establishing a robust monitoring system to track changes in groundwater potential over time is essential. Continuous monitoring would facilitate adaptive management practices that respond to evolving environmental and anthropogenic pressures, thereby promoting long-term groundwater sustainability.

The engagement of local communities in water resource management initiatives is another critical aspect highlighted by the findings. Incorporating community perspectives and needs can enhance the effectiveness of groundwater management strategies, ensuring they are practical, culturally appropriate, and widely accepted. Expanding research efforts is also crucial for improving groundwater management within the study area. Further investigations should focus on assessing the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources, particularly concerning climate change, population growth, and changing land-use patterns. Additionally, evaluating the effectiveness of interventions such as artificial recharge and conservation measures is necessary to inform future management decisions.

Investigating the underlying geological processes influencing groundwater potential variations would provide valuable insights into the hydrogeological dynamics of the region. Such knowledge could inform more precise and effective management strategies. Moreover, analyzing the social and economic impacts of varying groundwater potential on local communities and industries would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of groundwater-related challenges. Integrating traditional knowledge and practices into groundwater management strategies also holds promise for improving outcomes. Recognizing and incorporating indigenous knowledge systems could enhance the design and implementation of water management practices, promoting a more holistic approach to resource management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to acknowledge the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (Tetfund) Institutional Based Research (IBR) grant for this study. We also commend the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal Polytechnic Mubi – Adamawa State for allowing us access to some of her Hardware and Software Systems. The United States Geological Surveys’ EarthExplorer, the Nigeria GRID3 spatial data center, the Nigeria Geological Surveys, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) are also acknowledged for the satellite and other spatial data provided for this paper.

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