Criminal Victimization Among Immigrants: A Socio-Demographic Perspective from Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya

Criminal Victimization Among Immigrants: A Socio-Demographic Perspective from Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya

Dennis Mosoti^1*, Christopher N’konge Kiboro², John Onyango Omboto³

^1,2Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Chuka University, Kenya.

³Lecturer, Department of Security, Diplomacy and Peace Studies, Kenyatta University, Kenya.

^*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000479

Received: 10 September 2025; Accepted: 16 September 2025; Published: 15 October 2025

ABSTRACT

The growing diversity of the immigrants’ populations in the Northern part of Kenya poses challenges not only to the criminal justice system but also to the well-being of immigrants themselves. This is occasioned by not only concerns about their involvement in crime, but also the need to provide them with physical security and address their broader challenges. The research aimed at investigating the socio-demographic characteristics that predicted criminal victimization among immigrants at Kakuma Refugee Camp in Kenya. The study used a descriptive survey research design. The study was based on primary data collected from a parsimonious sample of 430 subjects that were inclusive of 8 peace and safety officers, 22 law enforcers, and 400 refugees drawn from Kakuma. Structured questionnaires collect data from the immigrants and an interview schedule from key informants. Descriptive statistics, chi square and ordinal logistic regression allowed the prediction of socio-demographic characteristics on criminal victimization. Overall, the preliminary analysis demonstrated that there was a link between socio-demographic characteristics of immigrants and criminal victimization. Regression analysis showed a positive and statistically significant relationship (p<0.001) between socio-demographic characteristics of immigrants and criminal victimization. Based on the finding, the study recommended that the government through the department of the refugee services, need to develop and implement programs that would address the unique vulnerabilities of the specific demographic population in the camp.

Keywords: Camp, Crime, Criminal Victimization, Immigrants, Predictor, Socio-Demographic Characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

Criminal victimization refers to exposing individuals to unexpected and unwelcome fear resulting in unsettling experience and frightening thoughts. It is often unanticipated, largely unpreventable, and quite demoralizing. Victimization increases people’s fear in daily life and heightens their concern about future victimization (27). Victims often experience depression, anger, and confusion grappling with unanswered questions about why the events occurred and why they were targeted. Exposure to violence and victimization leads to depression, dissociation, and anger among immigrants (7). Additionally, a variety of interrelated social, economic, political, and sociological victimization may be experienced by immigrants, increasing their exposure to violence and significantly contributing to detrimental effects on their mental health.

Most immigrants find themselves in new environments with unique features and challenges that expose them to high levels of victimization. (43) suggest that immigrants living in newly established immigrant settlement cities face higher vulnerability to crime victimization due to the specific contextual characteristics of these cities. (11) further postulates that the new cities settled by the immigrant lack an established immigrant population that can serve as a source of connection, relief, familiarity, and mainstream social integration.

Victimization subject immigrants to high-risk situations such as living in crowded environments as a result of fear, (1), inadequate knowledge on how to access the social services (68) and mere pay employment sectors with lesser benefits and little or no job security (14). Immigrants portraying these features are considered suitable targets for victimization occasioned by their increased physical visibility especially from their language accent and race or ethnicity. Moreover, frequent exposure to motivated offenders and lack of protection from law enforcement, often due to strained relationships, further increases immigrants’ vulnerability to victimization (39). This gives a highlight on the vulnerabilities that subjects immigrants to victimization, but there is limited documented evidence regarding victimization among immigrants in Kenya, particularly in Kakuma Refugee Camp.

Criminal victimization amongst immigrants is a common feature in most countries of the world. These immigrant populations are at an escalating risk of criminal victimization with respect to crimes such as homicide (22), intimate partner violence (52), sexual assault (19), gang violence (18) and wage theft and robbery (23). They are further exposed to other victimizations which includes physical and emotional assaults, human trafficking for forced labour, sexual exploitation and domestic abuse (38). These types of victimization have detrimental psychological repercussions on immigrants, a reason for the likelihood of the criminal tendencies among them to counter the effects of their victimization. Although studies have identified forms of victimization the immigrants face, predictors of the victimization have less been examined. This is what the study endeavored to address.

In ranking the largest refugee-hosting region in the world, East Africa emerges to be the third one after Europe, Central and South America (58). Kenya, one of the host countries in East Africa, is considered an economic hub region, and a relatively stable and safe haven for hosting refugees seeking safe places of stay and economic opportunities (53). A report by (60) shows that Kenya remains a refugee hub that hosts over a half a million refugees who have found their way in Kenya in search of livelihood opportunities as well as safety from their conflicting countries. Despite the considerations for being a safe haven for hosting immigrants, cases of victimization have been reported. Further, little is known whether the immigrants are suffering from abuses but decide to endure the abuse since there are more good opportunities for livelihood.

Kenya has been hosting immigrants for many years owing to its open-door policy towards refugees and asylum seekers and its obligation to the refugees’ conventions (51). As of March, 2024, there were 577,492 refugees and asylum seekers registered and living in Kenya. 87% of refugees and asylum seekers were living in a refugee camp (63). Dadaab, which is Garissa County, is the leading with the largest number of refugees (44%) while Kakuma in Turkana follows closely (40%) and an approximation of 16% of the country’s refugee population lives in Nairobi (60). Dadaab camp is a home to approximately 382,568 refugees but only 233,828 refugees have legal registration. 105, 280 refugees were profiled and are awaiting registration. The population surpasses the originally planned maximum capacity of 90,000 refugees in the camp (63). This led to the establishment of three more camps; the Ifo, Hagadera and Dagahaley. On the other hand, Kakuma refugee camp provides relief to over 252,066 refugees. The camp was originally built to accommodate a population of about 35,000 refugees but it has fluctuated to 80,000 in 2009 and over 160,000 in 2016 (64) to 285,238 refugees in 2024. The Urban Nairobi refugee camp has a total of 91,598 refugees.

The United National High Commission for Refugees (60) report reveals that most of the refugees by country of origin in Kenya is Somalia (53.4%), which has the most of the Kenyan refugees, with South Sudan (25.1%), the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (8.9%), Ethiopia (5.6%), Burundi (3.5%), Sudan (1.8%), Uganda (0.6%), Eritrea (0.4%), Rwanda (0.4%), and other countries (0.2%). All these immigrants, who finds their way to Kenya are accorded the physical security and protection as enshrined in the refugee instruments. Although Kenya has been described as one of the Country in East and Horn of Africa that provides asylum to victims who seek protection because of their sexual orientation, gender identity and sex characteristics, it has been a hub of victimization to immigrants who sort refuge in her. A report by the (3) indicates that the LGBTI+ asylum seekers and refugees living in Kakuma camp are at risk of rape and violence, suffer hate crimes and other serious human rights abuses. Further, refugees are facing discrimination in job opportunities as they are unable to obtain and hold job and integrate into the local economy thus selling a portion of their food ratio to obtain more varieties of food (61). This is indicative of the plights of the immigrants with inadequate evidence on the protection of social health.

Despite the fact that the immigrants are experiencing criminal victimization, they rarely report to police for many reasons including fear of deportation, shame, embarrassment to family, low responses to the concerns of immigrants by the officials and fear of lost wages (18). Underreporting is also linked to immigrants’ unfamiliarity with host country cultures and languages (32). Further, they are likely to form new lifestyles, adapt new values and social norms. Despite this challenge, it is not clear whether the immigrants bring with them preconceptions about the Kenyan criminal justice system and the police in particular that presents a significant barrier to reporting their victimization. Further, little has been documented on the impacts of social networks that provides immigrants with an opportunity to connect, communicate, share information and form relationship with families, friends, and those with the same interests in the refugee camp. This is documented to enable immigrants move about their daily undertakings in the camp.

Although immigrant involvement in crime has attracted public attention, their experiences as victims remain understudied (6). Evidence of studies focusing on victimization experience of immigrants are inadequate as opined by (66). Kenya, in particular has limited literature on immigrant victimization compared to their involvement in criminality. Kakuma refugee camp, which is in north-western Kenya is home to more than 200,000 asylum seekers and refugees (3). Despite Kakuma Refugee camp’s role as a sanctuary, it is plagued by significant security challenges, including criminal victimization of its inhabitants. Understanding the factors contributing to this victimization is crucial for improving safety and well-being within the camp. This study aims to analyse the predictors of criminal victimization among immigrants at Kakuma Refugee Camp.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Recent studies on refugee camps highlight a range of factors contributing to criminal victimization. According to UNHCR reports, socio-demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and ethnicity significantly influence victimization risks (60). Social predictors can escalate or decrease an individual’s risk of developing a mental health problem after settling (53). Therefore, socio-demographic data collection is fundamental to identifying and addressing inequities on the well-being of immigrants (55). The (40), further prioritized a number of key social predictors that influences criminal victimization among immigrants’ population, including education, unemployment and underemployment, language, hate crimes income, and discrimination. The study reports that the immigrant, refugee, ethno cultural, and racialized (IRER) populations experience myriads of equity related issues after settling, which crops out of the socio-demographic characteristics. This outcome likely calls for an increasingly urgent need for an action to salvage the refugee population.

Sexual and gender-based violence has been cited as one of the key predictors that poses a significant threat to women refugees due to ethnic risks (2). According to the (65), this violence may include forced prostitution, harassment and sexual slavery, forced abortion, and forced marriage. Additionally, (24), points out that women refugees often face high risks of gender-based violence occasioned by a combination of cultural norms and inadequacies in camp protective structures. Young male refugees particularly from the minority nationalities are often victimized by both the within the camp communities and by host country authorities (54). In Syria, for instance, several refugees, staff of government offices as well as non-governmental organizations reveals that many incidents of violence against women refugees goes unreported for reasons such as lack of research and the ‘dark figures’ of violence (2). Further, even though the immigrant victims have become aware of some cases, they rarely report them because of fear of the barriers in the criminal justice process such as their legal status, language and their political situation. There is insufficiency of evidence on whether immigrants at Kakuma refugee camp are facing similar impediments that informs criminal victimization in the camp (21), (36) and, (56) all concludes that displaced people from their own country is a violence that led to trauma and mental health disorders. Continued subjection to physical violence and sexual assault among the immigrants without reporting results in post-traumatic stress disorders has a significant social problem to immigrants in return.

(10) examined the social ecological factors associated with experiencing violence among urban refugee and displaced adolescent girls and young women in informal settlements in Kampala, Uganda. The study reported that urban forcibly and socially displaced adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) are at the nexus of violence targeting refugees and violence in informal settlements. However, the report indicates that little is known of their experiences with violence. Inequitable gender norms are a community factor associated with violence targeting immigrant women (5). Low social support, alcohol and drug abuse, mental health and coping mechanisms are all identified as social predictors exposing immigrants especially women and children’s refugees to violence. These predictors are highly prevalent in the informal settlements that registers higher incidences of violence against the immigrants due to insecurities emerging from economic indicators that can amount to familial conflict and insecure living conditions (9). It is not clear, however, whether in Kakuma camp, male, women and adolescent girl immigrants are exposed to this kind of victimization. Although in other regions it appears to be a thorny issue, little is known of the situation in Kakuma camp which might be suffering silently the violence without blowing the whistle.

(57) provide a thought-provoking framework analysis that delves into the gender as a socio demographic predictor of criminal victimization on women refugees. While the study does not directly report on male refugees as victims of violence acts, its findings are pertinent in informing male victimization. Male refugees have been criminally victimized just as female refugees, (16), analyzed the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and associated factors among male refugees within a refugee community. The study findings are that male refugees just as women can be victims of intimate partner violence. Therefore, there is an importance in recognizing the need for supportive resources and assistance to male victims, which has usually been preserved for female refugees. By uncovering the underlying predictors of victimization, such as the gender disparities, the study underscores the importance of addressing root causes contributing to criminal victimization among male refugees.

Further, (42) delves into the interaction of age and victimization and focuses on the age group mostly vulnerable to victimization. Age is a key socio- demographic predictor that offers valuable insight to criminal victimization as it is associated with different levels of experience, knowledge, and cognitive abilities (30). Understanding the age in which criminal victimization on immigrants is quite critical. (28), argues that age differences in the immigrant’s population, both younger and old are exposed to specific risk factors that renders them vulnerable for victimization. The study further argues that while older population may suffer exclusion form aid and neglect, the young may be an easy target for recruitment into armed groups and vulnerable to sorts of exploitation not limited to sexual assaults. (15) further emphasize that though policies might be in place within the camp, they may not protect against age-based vulnerabilities. The policies are more inclined towards supporting the general needs of the adults and overlook the special needs of the other age groups including the children and the elderly. This is likely to harbour victimization because the neglected groups become vulnerable at the camp. Similarly, (43) study point to the fact that of all the age groups, the very young and old were more exposed to risk of abuse compared to the middle-aged adults who had more chances to access protection networks and economic opportunities. The age helps in understanding the vulnerability and literacy levels of immigrants in relation to their intellectual ability to defend against any form of criminal victimization. Further report provides discourse analysis on the literacy rates for refugees focusing more on age. By incorporating insights from the report, while over 60 percent of all refugees above age 15 report being able to read or write in at least one language, only 44 percent of women in this group are able to do so versus over 80 percent of men. More than half of refugees (55 percent) speak one of Kenya’s two official languages, that is, English (49 percent) or Swahili (29 percent). What is not clear from the report is whether age contributes to immigrant’s vulnerability to victimization. Further, among the refugees fleeing their country, youths constitute that population and most are orphans or traveling alone thus vulnerable to exploitation.

The level of education has further been theorized to be a key predictor of criminal victimization among immigrants. Education level of the refugees being one of the specific characteristics of refugees, and its influences on the immigrants’ skills has been theorized as a key predictor of the native’s attitude to the immigrants (26). (49), supports this observation by alluding that language exposes the immigrants not only to abuse on a multilingual society but impedes them from accessing resources and also increasing the level of social vulnerability. The study further points to the fact that linguistic marginalization serves as a form of structural violence. (12) similarly reveal that socio-integration and safety is closely linked to the language proficiency among the immigrants. Labor exploitation, non-reporting of victimization and discrimination is more linked to the inability of the immigrants to understand the host language skills. Thus, language renders immigrants vulnerable to victimization as they cannot negotiate on simple incidences, they find themselves in. additionally, competition arising from job is a predictor of immigrants’ vulnerability to victimization by the natives whose skills are similar to the natives (25). In Germany, for instance, fear for labor markets among the natives has been cited as the major predictor of refugees’ opposition by the host nation’s citizens, a situation that is likely to cause silent victimization on immigrants (48). Although education can positively serve as a protective factor against victimization, it has been classified as a likely tool of oppression on immigrants. It is not clear whether immigrants in Kakuma Refugee camp could be victimized as result of their level of education. The study will delve into study of this demographic feature to see whether it has manifested itself in the study locale and if so, to what extent does it inform criminal victimization among the immigrants.

Language barrier has been a reason for immigrants being more vulnerable to scams and fraud (4). Language inadequacies have also been used to maintain abusive situation by exploiters of immigrant spouses. (31) on domestic violence among Sudanese immigrants. Immigrants’ inability to understand the native language further leads to victimization such as barriers to education, job training employment, securing housing, tax preparation and family conflict resolution (41). This has been a challenge experienced by the immigrants in Minesota, of which little is known for Kenya whether the same is experienced. It is even more devastating that due to underdeveloped reading skills and limited English proficiency among the immigrants, they have been unable to sign important documents without an interpreter present, rendering them victims of scams. (34) female immigrants’ inability to converse in fluent English which most often leads to social isolation, creating impediments to financial independency, and present barriers to searching for outside assistance. This confirms that immigrants have been subjects of victimization despite being given little attention, in particular Kenya. However, little is known on whether domestic violence among the female immigrants is attributed to language deficiencies.

Marital status has been identified as a key victimization factor although little evidence is provided. Those families that are headed by women, divorced or separated faces higher risks of victimization as compared to those who are married. (37), study offers insights on the households headed by women to be at risk of victimization. Gender roles are well defined in a household thus marital status intersects with gender norms as it protects against sort of abuse. (46) further argues that one’s marital status can influence some benefits such as leadership roles in the camp and being prioritized in aid distribution. While marital status may indicate biases especially on those who are single or childless, Omata emphasizes on reinforcing the marital systems in the camp so that everyone will benefit not on the basis of his marital status. This is similarly supported by a study by Yimer and Ibrahim (2023), who indicated that there is a correlation between marital status and chances of accessing some services in the camp such as shelter, social support and safety. The study points out that those males who are single faces stigmatization resulting from the camp members who view them as potential threat in the camp while those women who are single are equally seen as easy candidates for economic and sexual exploitation.

Scholarly literature has pointed out that criminal victimization among immigrants has been linked to inter-marriages with the hosts members (35). The intermarried immigrants were taken advantage of due to their deficiency with cultures and languages of the host country. They experienced verbal harassment, denial of aid on the basis of betraying their cultural dilution and social exclusion. (47) further argues that institutional discrimination was linked to intermarriages between the immigrants and the host nationalities. The study further indicates that the individuals often face legal challenges in trying to access citizenship, property or legal rights thus increasing level of vulnerability to victimization. There was less reporting of the victimization to authorities by the married couples due to fear of deportation and detention especially for those who had no legal documentation to stay in the camp (8). Generally, any immigrant of both genders with pending legal clearances was at risk of victimization. (33) indicates that refugees and asylum seekers whose documentation has lapsed often faces police extortions, arbitrary arrests and even exclusion or discrimination form aid distribution especially in African states that hosts refugees. The study concludes by giving an emphasize on ensuring clarity in legal provisions and institutional accountability to reduce cases of victimization in the camp. While victimization has been linked to intermarriages, there is no evidence nor data from Kakuma refugee camp on intermarriage as a predictor of criminal victimization.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study was informed by routine activity theory as proposed by (13). The essence of this theory is that criminal victimization occurs when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians converge in time and space. The theory purports that the daily interaction of immigrants exposes them to victimization. The vulnerable target, who is the immigrant, is attracted to victimization based on the activities they take part in. It is these routine activities that are likely to bring an immigrant, the defenseless target, into contact with a motivated high-risk offender. An individual is deemed an attractive target when there is presence of fewer guardians that will prevent victimization from occurring.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. Out of a population of 252,066 immigrants, 40 peace and safety officers and 88 law enforcers, a sample of 430 was selected. Purposive sampling procedure was used to select a sample of 8 peace and safety officers and simple random for selecting 22 law enforcement officers. The sample size of the refugees from Kakuma camp was determined by Israel (2009) Formula: at 95% confidence interval and 0.05 population variable.

Where,

n = Number of samples,

N = Total population and

e = Error tolerance.

The total sample from Kakuma refugees camp was 400. Stratified sampling method was used to classify the refugees’ nationalities population into Somalia (13.0%), South Sudan (61.5%), DR Congo (8.2%), Ethiopia (4.1%), Burundi (7.8%), Sudan (3.9%), Uganda (0.9%), Eritrea and Rwanda (0.6%). Using Kothari’s formulae, proportionate sampling was used to sample 400 refugees from the camp.

Where,

= sample size from stratum 1

= total sample size

= proportion of population included in stratum I (Somalis)

= Total population                         

=52

Using Kothari’s formulae, the sample size of Somalia was 52, South Sudan was 246, DR Congo was 33, Ethiopia was 31, Burundi was 31, Sudan was 16, Uganda was 4, Eritrea and Rwanda were 2. Random number generator was then used to pick respondents from each of the strata.

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

The study targeted all the refugees in Kakuma camp. A self-administered questionnaire was hand-delivered to each respondent. Out of all the 400 respondents targeted by the study, 317 respondents filled out and returned questionnaires for analysis. Additionally, 6 peace and security officers and 12 law enforcers were interviewed.

Response rate and Descriptive Analysis

Table I below presents the demographic characteristics of the study respondents.

Table I. SOCIO-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table I above further revealed that male respondents had a frequency of 188 (59.3%) of the valid responses who were the vast majority of participants. The female respondents had a frequency of 127 representing 40.1% of the total sample. The female results represented the second largest group while only two responders, (0.6%) of the total valid respondents, represented the “any other” gender category. The results indicated that both male and female genders were well represented in the study.

Additionally, the data on the age distribution data of the respondents showed that the majority fall within the younger age brackets. The largest group, 104 which accounted for 32.8% of respondents was between 25-30 years of age followed by 87 that accounted for 27.4% of the ages between 31–35 years. 80 (25.2%) of the respondents were within 18–24 age bracket While older age brackets were notably underrepresented, with only 18 (5.7%) of respondents being in the 36–40 age range and 28 (8.8%) of the respondents fall into 41years and above category, these two older groups together made up less than 15% of the total sample. The data revealed a dominance of the younger age bracket of the respondents across all the respondents.

Further, on the educational background of respondents, the results showed that 179 (56.5%) of the respondents had attained a secondary level of education while 83 (26.2%) had attained a primary level of education. Those who had attained primary level of education suggests that the respondents might have a limited access to higher educational opportunities as compared with those who had attained a higher level. While only a small portion, 24 (7.6%) of the respondents reported having attained a higher education qualification (bachelor and a master degree), 82.7% of all responses that had either primary or secondary represented the majority in the analysis. Finally, the “Any other” category, which included vocational training or informal education, accounted for 25 (7.9%) respondents, while 6 (1.9%) respondents reported never attended school. This highlighted the presence of educational diversity within the population, with a minority facing significant educational disadvantages.

Results from the table I above revealed that 284 (89.6%) of the respondents are officially recognized as refugees. This result suggests that most immigrants have successfully gone through the necessary procedure and clearances to attain a refugee status. Immigrants who have a legal status enjoys most rights enshrined in the UNHCR like protection for their rights and access to most of the social amenities such as healthcare, access to housing and education. In contrast, 33 (10.4%) of the respondents, are categorized as asylum seekers. These are those who have in most cases applied for refugee status and are awaiting a decision from the office of the Department for Refugee Services.

The results from the table I represented the national distribution of the respondents. Of the sampled population, 89 (28.1%) of the respondents originated from South Sudan and comprised the largest group in the analysis. The Sudanese nationals followed closely with a total of 69 (21.8%) respondents. Somali, comprised of 56 (17.7%) respondents. These three regions put together represented a significant majority of 67.6% of the total sample. This was suggestive of a strong representation from nationals that have a history of a prolonged conflict and a possible displacement. The presence of immigrants from the Democratic Republic of Congo 16 (5%), Ethiopia 19 (6.0%), and Burundi 19 (6.0%) also reflected regional instability, with each of these countries facing various challenges such as political unrest, ethnic violence, or economic hardship that contributed to their outward migration. This suggests that while the dataset is diverse, it is heavily skewed toward a few dominant nationalities, possibly reflecting regional migration or refugee patterns within East and Central Africa. Notably, Uganda, Rwanda, and Eritrea contributed smaller but still significant numbers, with Uganda and Rwanda each at 20 (6.3%) and Eritrea at 9 (2.8%). While Uganda itself hosts many refugees, the presence of Ugandan nationals as refugees in Kakuma suggested internal displacement or political dissent. Eritrean refugees were likely fleeing a harsh political regime, including forced military conscription and restricted freedoms. Rwanda’s inclusion pointed to residual effects of past conflict or individual cases of political persecution.

Further, the study findings investigated descriptive statistics on the socio-demographic characteristics of immigrants as a predictor of criminal victimization. The respondents were given a series of statements and were asked to respond. Table 2 below shows that the respondents either strongly agreed (SA), Agreed (A), were neutral (N), Disagreed (D), or Strongly Disagreed (Sd) with the statement being made.

Table II: Descriptive Statistics on the Socio-Demographic Characteristics

The results from the table II above revealed that 98 (30.9%) of the sampled respondents strongly agreed that the victimization was linked to the immigrant’s inability to communicate in the native language. 102 (32.2%) of the respondents agreed on the same. The two statements suggested that language can be a barrier to communication. The inability to communicate effectively either through English or Kiswahili that appear to be the chief languages of communication in Kenya may expose the immigrants into untold victimization.

One of the respondents in a statement said that he was stolen from due to his inability to understand Swahili language that was used to communicate by the thieves.

Information from the Table 2 above further revealed that 41 (12.9%) of the respondents were neutral, while 69 (21.8%) of the respondents disagreed and 7 (2.2%) strongly disagreed that language could be associated with one’s victimization. The mean rating of the descriptive statistics of 2.32 on a Likert scale, 1 being strongly and 5strongly disagree, indicated response that agrees with the statement. The standard deviation of 1.19 suggests that though there are some moderate variabilities in the responses, a large portion clustered around agreement. This descriptive statistic results highlighted that language is a challenge among the immigrants that warrants an attention. Inefficiency in native language can expose immigrants into abuses and exploitation. They will also face a lot of problems trying to access services and justice and even negotiate their way out in case they are caught up in stressing situation. (49), supports this observation by alluding that language exposes the immigrants not only to abuse on a multilingual society but impedes them from accessing resources and also increasing the level of social vulnerability. The study further points to the fact that linguistic marginalization serves as a form of structural l violence.

From the information on Table II, the results indicated that 89 (28.1%) of the sample population strongly agreed that victimization could be linked to one’s ethnic group. 93 (29.3%) of the sample agreed that they their victimization could be linked to their ethnic identity. These two responses suggested that prevalences of conflicts in the camp could be a result of one belonging to a particular ethnic group. This would impede on accessing services, thus discouraging social interactions that fosters unity among the immigrants in the camp. The results further indicated that 44 (13.9%) were neutral while 91 (28.7%) of the sampled population disagreed and strongly disagreed. The mean score of 2.62 on a five-point Likert scale also indicated skewness towards agreeing with the idea that victimization was ethnically motivated. This average suggested that immigrants were more likely than not to perceive biases due to ethnicity, a contributing factor to their victimization. The standard deviation of 1.46 reflected a moderate to high level of variability in response, which gave an implication that while many agree that ethnicity was linked to victimization, experiences differed across the population as shown due to none uniform in regional origin and ethnic representation. (29) study correlates with these findings as it indicates that immigrants carry the burden of ethnic conflicts from their home countries into the camps they settle in and these identities continue to shape social interactions and power dynamics. The study points too that ethnic based divisions can impact refugee lives in the camp form resource distribution such as food to leadership structures. This is a reason for the suffering among the minority groups in the camp.

Peace and safety officers pointed out that winning a zonal election in the refugee camp was not easy particularly for those who came from the minority groups. Losing an election is one of the stressing experiences in life, after the candidate had fully invested his few savings gotten from the humanitarian aids and donors. Some refugees may engage themselves into some criminal acts such as theft and hate crimes to manage their stressful situation.

Further, the results on Table II indicated that age was not strongly perceived across the group as a predictor of victimization. Only 37 (11.7%) strongly agreed that age was a key predictor of immigrants’ victimization while 81 (25.6%) agreed on the same idea. Though the two groups of responses were not the majority, it however pointed out that exploitation and age-related discrimination were linked to the age of the immigrants. Age can render an immigrant variable and thus a candidate of exploitation. 146 (46.1%) of the respondents were neutral. This proportion of the respondents was the largest implying that majority of the respondents could have insufficiency of the awareness on age as a predictor of victimization. On the other hand, 19 (6.0%) and 34 (10.7%) disagreed and strongly disagreed that age was a predictor of criminal victimization. The means score of 2.79 on a 5-point Likert scale supported the idea that age cannot predict victimization. The standard deviation of 1.08 indicated a moderate variation suggesting that the while age is a factor to some groups of the respondents, it is not universally accepted as a major cause of victimization among immigrants at Kakuma refugee camp. (28), study was in contrast with these findings as the study indicates that age differences in the immigrant’s population, both younger and old are exposed to specific risk factors that renders them vulnerable for victimization. The study further argues that while older population may suffer exclusion form aid and neglect, the young may be an easy target for recruitment into armed groups and vulnerable to sorts of exploitation not limited to sexual assaults.

Similarly, the results on table II indicated that 120 (37.9%) of the participants strongly agreed that an immigrant was likely to be victimized because of their marital status. 116 (36.6%) of the respondents agreed while 45 (14.2%) were neutral that marital status was linked to victimization. Of the sampled population, 14 (4.4%) disagreed while 22 (6.9%) strongly disagreed with the statement. The data above suggested that marital status significantly relates to victimization. Being victimized on the basis of someone being single, married, divorced or widowed was dependent on how they are treated or targeted. Vulnerability was linked to how immigrants are perceived and treated in the camp environment. The mean score of 2.06 indicated that a largest portion of the respondents agreed on the idea that marital status was linked to victimization. The standard deviation of 1.15 showed some variability in the responses, but the clustering near the lower end of the scale showed that the consensus leaned toward recognition of marital status as a key victimization factor. (37) study resonate with these findings. The study offers insights on the households headed by women are at risk of victimization. Gender roles are well defined in a household thus marital status intersects with gender norms as it protects against sort of abuse. Similarly, (46) study further supports these findings by arguing that one’s marital status can influence some benefits such as leadership roles in the camp and being prioritized in aid distribution. While marital status may indicate biases especially on those who are single or childless, Omata emphasizes on reinforcing the marital systems in the camp so that everyone will benefit not on the basis of his marital status.

Moreover, 96 (30.3%) of the respondents strongly agreed that their level of education significantly contributed to their victimization in the refugee camp while 107 (33.8%) of the respondents agreed with the statement. Education was one of a very powerful tool of empowerment and it informed how someone was able to negotiate for some benefits in the camp. Those who are academically empowered have minimal chances of being taken advantage of since they are aware of the available policies protecting them against any abuse. 58 (18.3%) of the sampled population were neutral while 20 (6.3%) and 36 (11.4%) of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed that educational background influences their victimization. Those who disagreed and strongly disagreed suggests that their victimization is not only linked to the education level one has attained but other variables such as gender, legal status and even ethnicity. The study yielded a mean score of 2.35 that was positioned closer to the agree which supports the idea that education can inform one’s vulnerabilities to victimization. The standard deviation of 1.23 points to the fact that although there is a general agreement, it is not evenly disputed as there were some moderate variations across the population. These findings are in concordance with (20) study that indicates that education is a key determinant in the camp for some roles and other duties. Those who have education are considered for responsibilities in the camp since they are instrumental to the aid workers and camp administrators in managing the immigrants with a history of a multilingual and cultural diversities. The study however alludes that education can also harbor hatred and jealousy and negative attentions that easily leads to some form of verbal, social and even physical victimization.

At the same time, the information on Table II also showed that 65 (20.5%) of the respondents strongly agreed that immigrants face criminal victimization due to being married to natives. 192 (60.6%) of the sampled population agreed on the statement while 31 (9.8%) were neutral. 15 (4.7) of the sample disagreed while 14 (4.4%) strongly disagreed that criminal victimization is not linked to being married to the natives. The study registered a mean score 2.12 on a five-point scale and the relatively low standard deviation 0.94 suggests a strong central tendency towards agreeing with the statement that an immigrant’s victimization is highly linked to being married to a native. Though this is not widely perceived, it appears to be consistently experienced among the respondents. A study conducted by (35), found that intermarriages between the immigrants and the host nationals was incorporated with cases of victimization. The study indicates that the intermarried immigrants were taken advantage of due to their deficiency with cultures and languages of the host country. They experienced verbal harassment, denial of aid on the basis of betraying their cultural dilution and social exclusion.

Finally, it was noted that 75 (23.7%) of the participants strongly agreed that the legal status could predict immigrant criminal victimization in the camp. 115 (36.3%) of the sampled population agreed while 99 (31.2%) were neutral. Contrary to that, a total of 28 (8.8%) respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed that legal status predicts immigrants’ criminal victimization. The study results with a mean rating of 2.29 and a standard deviation of 1.01 which further revealed that the respondents agreed that the legal status was a significant concern for immigrants. These findings indicated that legal insecurity was a key predictor of vulnerability to criminal victimization, therefore a need for policies protecting immigrants who had not been cleared to stay in the camp. These study finding is consistent with (33) study which added that refugees and asylum seekers whose documentation has lapsed often faces police extortions, arbitrary arrests and even exclusion or discrimination form aid distribution especially in African states that hosts refugees. The study concludes by giving an emphasize on ensuring clarity in legal provisions and institutional accountability to reduce cases of victimization in the camp.

A.Findings from Inferential Statistics

To complement the descriptive results, the researcher conducted inferential analysis involving Chi-Square and Spearman Correlation analysis. The dependent variable in this study was criminal victimization while the independent variables was socio-demographic characteristics.

1) Chi-Square Test: The study used Chi-Square to test the association between the socio-demographic characteristics and criminal victimization. The study results are presented in Table III below

Table III: Chi-Square Tests for Socio-Demographic Characteristics

378 cells (99.5%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .00.

The Chi-Square tests results in table III above indicated a statistically significant association between socio-demographic characteristic and criminal victimization among immigrants in Kakuma refugee camp. The results indicated that Chi-Square χ² (342, N = 317) = 422.41 with p-value of 0.002 which was significant at confidence level of 95% (0.000<0.05). Additionally, the Linear-by-Linear Association value of 44.602 with a highly significant p-value (< .001), suggest that certain changes in socio-demographic characteristic variables such as age, gender, education and ethnicity are systematically related to changes in victimization experiences. Therefore the null hypothesis which stated that there is no statistically significant relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and criminal victimization among immigrants at Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya was rejected. The study findings concur with the findings by (49), who supports this observation by alluding that language exposes the immigrants not only to abuse on a multilingual society but impedes them from accessing resources and also increasing the level of social vulnerability. The study further discrimination is more linked to the inability of the immigrants to understand the host language skills. Thus, language renders immigrants vulnerable to victimization as they cannot negotiate on simple incidences, they find themselves in.

Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient: To explore the strength and direction of relationships between socio-demographic characteristics and criminal victimization, the study conducted a spearman rank correlational analysis. The results are presented in the Table IV below.

Table IV: Correlation between Socio-Demographic Characteristic and Victimization

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The results from the table IV above showed that there was a significant relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and criminal victimization amongst the immigrants at Kakuma refugee camp. The findings showed a positive correlation between the socio-demographic characteristics and criminal victimization with a correlation coefficient of 0.376 (p-value 0.01 < 0.05), which was significant at a 5% significance level. The results suggested that while socio-demographic characteristic is not the only predictor to criminal victimization, they are significant contributing factor. This significance level at 0.01 confirms that the changes is consistent across the entire sample of 317 respondents. Thus, the null hypothesis that there was no statistically significant relationship between socio-demographic characteristics of immigrants and criminal victimization among immigrants in Kakuma Refugee Camp was rejected.

The Research Conclusion On Socio-Demographic Characteristics Of Immigrants

According to the findings above, the subsequent deductions were arrived at. First, there are variations on socio-demographic characteristics of immigrants in respect to their victimization. While there are a majority that agreed that factors such as age, gender, education level, and marital status play a critical role in influencing the likelihood of criminal victimization within refugee settings, some were opposed. However, the link between the socio-demographic characteristics of immigrants and criminal victimization, the study confirmed that there might be a good percentage of immigrant within the camp who could be disproportionately vulnerable to criminal victimization due to their socio-demographic characteristics. It was evident from the results that those who had low level of education were easy targets of criminal victimization as compared to those who had some education. The aged and those who had not been legally cleared to stay in the camp were more victimized as compared to other camp residents.

RECOMMENDATIONS

There is a need to address the unique vulnerabilities of the specific demographic populations in the camp by developing and implementing intervention programs specific to those vulnerabilities. This should be through incorporating socio-demographic concerns into protection strategies in the immigrants’ communities.

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