Determinants of Job Performance among Personnel of the Nigeria Police Force

Determinants of Job Performance among Personnel of the Nigeria Police Force

Suraju Adewale Ramoni^*

Department of Management Science, Nigeria Police Academy, Wudil, Kano State, Nigeria

^*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90400334

Received: 16 April 2025; Accepted: 19 April 2025; Published: 13 May 2025

ABSTRACT

Rising waves of crimes and criminalities have raised a lot of concerns among the Nigerian people about the levels of performance of the Nigeria Police Force, an organization responsible for maintaining internal security of lives and properties in the country.  The purpose of this research was to explore factors that impacted work performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. Primary quantitative data were obtained from personnel of the Nigeria Police Force in Osun State through systematic sampling technique. Work performance was regressed jointly on work environment, monochronicity, polychronicity, intrinsic and extrinsic factors and the results revealed that polychronicity, intrinsic and extrinsic factors significantly predicted work performance among personnel of the force; while work environment and monochronicity had no significant effects on work performance among the staff of the Nigeria Police Force. It is recommended that management of Nigeria Police Force and Police Service Commission restructure content of policing job so as to encourage multitasking as well as rewarding personnel with career advancement and improved pay packages.

Keywords: job performance, job behavior, tasks, policing, correlations

INTRODUCTION

Effective policing is critical to social – political and economic development of any country. In Nigeria, Nigeria Police Force (NPF) is responsible for maintaining law and order as well as ensuring internal security across the length and breadth of the nation.  In the recent time, however, NPF and its personnel have come under heavy criticism due to rising cases of kidnapping for ransom, armed robbery, farmers – herder clashes and inter communal violence. According to Oguntunde (2018) Nigeria has been included among countries most affected by terrorism, least peaceful in the world; and at high risk of mass killing or genocide. Increasingly, Nigerians are becoming victims of communal and inter – ethic violence which are real signals calling the capacity of the Nigeria Police Force into questioning. In response, political leaders across the nook and crannies of the Nigerian state are mulling the idea of community policing and multi-level policing arrangement to tackle the problem of security breaches that are leading to incessant killings in the country. Although authorities at Federal Government have stepped up recruitment and selection of more personnel into the Nigeria Police Force so as to increase more boots on the ground, the efficacy of this move is in doubt going by the revelation coming from some senior police officers that close to 80% of staff of the force is attached to Very Important Personalities (VIPs). In the literature organizational or work performance is linked to some sets of factors, namely, job satisfaction, work environment, multitasking, leadership (Marshal. Aguinis & Beltran, 2024, Ryan & Dici, 2000, Malaka, Meyer, Hlatywayo & Mpofu, 2022). Thus, this paper attempted to determine, from managerial perspective factors that could account for job or organizational performance with special focus on NPF.

Job/work performance is a concept, owing to its importance that has received critical attention from scholars across management sub – domain such as strategic management, organization behavior and personnel management. Job performance is what a firm or organization recruit individuals to do and done well. According to Babin and Boles (1998) job performance measures an individual’s productivity compared to peers at the same level measured on work related behaviors and outcomes.  Thus, scholars do conceptualize job performance in two different ways, namely as action (behavior) and as outcome.  It should be noted that performance is not always defined by action alone, but by judgment and evaluation processes because action can be scaled or measured.  In practice, therefore it may be difficult to describe action of performance without making references to the outcomes. Viswesvaran, Schmidts and Ones (2005) describe work performance as scalable actions, behavior and outcomes personnel engaged in but linked to the attainment of organizational goals. Van Scotter, Motowidlo and Cross (2000) distinguish between firm level performance and individual level performance and that the latter is a process leading to favourable output. However, work output cannot be substituted for work or job performance. Work productivity is a much narrower concept and is defined as input divided by output.in the extant literature,

Scholars have proposed several theories of performance in the management literature; the behavioural theory of the firm (Gavetti, Greve, Levinthal& Ocasio, 2012); upper echelons theory (Hambrick & Mason, 1984); self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000); social identity theory (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Concepts from these theories have been empirically investigated to determine factors that could predict performance by management researchers from either two approaches, namely, individual level wherein the focus is on attributes such as traits, job knowledge, demography (Martinez, Kane, Ferries & Brooks, 2012; Asendorpf & Wilpers, 1998) or firm level that emphasizes organizational structure, organizational experience, quality management and environmental management (Paruchuri & Eisenman, 2012; Kemper, Wieseke &Van Dick, 2012).  However, in order to push the frontier of knowledge further and enrich literature on job/work performance, this study relied on the integrative model of performance proposed by Marshal, Aguinis and Beltran (2024) described as meta theoretical constructs of the performance system that are isomorphic across levels such that firm and individual levels shared some fundamental features.  Specifically, five concepts from this integrative performance model, namely, work environment, extrinsic factors, intrinsic factors, monochronicity and polychronicity were simultaneously examined as antecedents of job/work performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. Thus, this study provided answers to the research question: what are the key factors that determined work performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force? In term of organization, this introductory section is followed by literature review, methodology, findings and discussion of findings, implications of the findings, conclusions, recommendations as well as limitations of the research.

LITERATURE  REVIEW

Meaning of Job Performance

According to Allen and Griffeth (1999) work performance measures the outcome of work that an employee achieves in comparison with predetermined standards set by an organisation. Similarly, Hoang (2015) opines that a worker’s performance measures work related behaviors and outcomes that can be quantified in terms of output and attitude displayed in achieving those results compared to, assigned plans, expectations, fellow members of staff, and with individual’s roles in the organization.  Performance is a multi-dimensional concept and therefore Borman and Motowidlo (1993) differentiate task performance from contextual performance. Task performance is an employee’s proficiency with which he or she carries out activities that contribute to a firm’s technical core. Such activities could be direct as we have in a factory worker or indirect such as managerial or clerical work. Contextual performance are those activities that do not contribute to technical core but which support organization’s social and psychological environment in which firms pursue their goals or objectives and mission – vision. Thus, from the foregoing, three basic assumptions underpinned differentiation of performance into the above two groupings. One, activities relating to task performance may vary across organization, but contextual activities are largely the same. Two, task performance is largely related to abilities of individual employee whereas contextual related activities depend largely on personality and motivational levels of individual. Three, task performance is in – role behavior from employees; whereas contextual activities are, to some extent discretionary.

Theories of Job Performance Knowledge Based Theory of Performance

Knowledge based theory proposes and acknowledges the fact that knowledge represents special resource that impacts all other resources owned by an organization which helps to optimally combined all assets in most valuable ways. According to Grant (1996) since markets by themselves have no capacity to combine talents and knowledge in productive manner, the administrative functions of organization is to combine in the most effective manner specialized knowledge of individuals so as to add value to the society in form of goods and services. Knowledge is usually created and held by individual rather than by organization and this is the concern of organizational theorists who denounced seeming difficulties of achieving cooperation between employees that created own knowledge and organizational owners that required created knowledge to add value to the society, due to differences in goals incongruity. In order to overcome this challenge, Grant (1996) suggests formation of team across organizational structure so as to enhance knowledge transfer to all nooks and crannies of the organization. However, Choo and Bontis (2002) opined that combination and knowledge transfer might be difficult because the greater the differences in specialized knowledge between two people, the more complex the communication between them.

Ethical Climate Theory

Victor and Cullen (1988) combined Kohiberg’s 1974 work on operational research on ethical development with Schneider’s research on operational sociological theories of organization to produce ethical climate theory wherein business ethics and climate is view as shared perceptions within an organization of what is right and reasonable behavior and how an organization could enforce such behaviors. Although Victor and Culler (1988) mention reasonable behavior and ethical climate, specific behaviours and right climate were omitted in the original theory.  However, Mayer (2009) opine that ethical environment or climate should include processes and policies of organization that support, encourage and motivate employees to behave in desirable ways.  Similarly, Dickson, Smith, Grojean and Ehrhart (2001) recommended ethical environment with correct and reasonable behavior because when managers choose behavior, they consider correct and reasonable for organization as conceputalised by Victor and Culler (1988), they may not necessarily be consistent with prevalent social norms and values. Thus, the question of right behaviours in an organization can be answered by sound basic business ethics/principles such as honesty and transparency, respect for partners, social responsibility, strict adherence to the rule of law and commitment to delivery of high product and service.

Meta – Theory of Performance

In view of the fact that there are parallel and siloed research streams addressing firm and individual level performance, and a never – ending search for seemingly novel theories without satisfactory progress toward integrating them; Marshall, Aguinis and Beltran (2024) proposed meta theory that captures the connections among constructs across theories.  A meta theory subsumes other more narrowly focused theories and helps integrate disjointed, redundant models because it explains phenomenon more abstractly. The result of this integrative approach showed that performance is neither an outcome nor a process; but rather a system that comprises interdependent group of items that formed a unified whole. Mitchell (2009) opines that performance is a multi-component because it combines into a whole firm level capability, structures and transactions with individual level knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs), roles and relationships.

According to Marshall, Aguinis and Beltran (2024 firm performance shows how organization create economic value through adequate deployment of right resources. Thus, firm capabilities are internal resources such as human capital, cognitive traits, leadership that organization leverages upon in pursuit of firm level performance. Similarly, a firm level structure represents a formal configuration of roles and procedures or the patterned regularities and processes of interactions. Organizational processes, procedure, and routine are embedded in firm’s structures (Teece, 2000). Also, firm level transactions allow organization to conduct broader strategic actions, given the lower transaction costs in structuring, bundling and leveraging resources (Sirmon, Hitt & Ireland, 2007).

Individual level performance consists of Knowledge, skill, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs), roles and relationship. Marshall, Aguinis and Beltran (2024 argue that KSAOs represent employees’ attribute but strictly emphasizing roles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in improving firm’s capabilities and ultimately performance.  Also, individual level roles relate to human interactions through established processes designed to make group level decisions. Thus, Biddle (2013) contends that individuals interact in a social system via functionalism, social interactionism and structuralism enabled by managerial roles, gender-based stereotype as well as role clarity so as to enhance individual and organizational performance. Work relationships are fundamental to behavior in organization especially where workers must interact formally or informally in the process of getting work done. Resource exchange, reciprocity, interpersonal transactions, leadership and resource allocation are the key constructs being explored to determine performance in the modern organization. The Meta theoretical constructs of performance system are isomorphic across levels, such that both the firm and individual levels of performance shared some fundamental characteristics and this has made Marshall, Aguinis and Beltran (2024 offer the following parsimonious equation to represent the isomorphic performance system called CORE:

Performance (P) = Capacity (C) + Opportunity (O) + Relevant Exchanges (RE). Specifically, the CORE model of performance applicable at both levels of analysis is: Performance (P) = Capacity (C): firm level capability and individual level KSAOs + Opportunity (O): firm level structures and individual level roles + Relevant Exchange (RE): firm level transactions and individual level relationships. Guided by this theory, work environment representing both individual and organizational capacity, time orientation i.e. monochronicity and polychronicity representing individual roles and organizational level structure; and hygienic/extrinsic factor and  intrinsic/motivational factor representing relevant exchanges i.e. firm level transaction and individual level relationship, are being isolated for this study and their collective impact on work performance determined through multiple regression.

Conceptual Framework

Work Environment and Work Performance

Work environment is the employer’s premises and other locations where employees are engaged in work related activities which may have impact on the productive of both the organization and firm in general. Opperman (2002) defines work environment as consisting technical environment which are tools, technical and technological infrastructure; human environment which includes leadership and management, peers, teams and work groups; and organizational environment including firm’s values, policies and procedure. Crouncher (2013) identifies human resource practices, wages/salaries, training, working time, and occupational safety and health as key dimensions of work environment and could help predict job performance. Also, Yating and Yang (2017) listed equipment, communication, privacy, and supervisor support and coworker relationships as critical elements of work environment that formed a firm’s capability and ultimate performance and effectiveness. Work environment enhances job satisfaction, work – life balance, motivation, and which in turn lead to increase organization productivity. Thus, it is hypothesized that work environment has positive effects on work performance.

Motivation and Work Performance

Few things interfere more with work than does discontent or lack of interest among a team of employees. A cursory look at any organization quickly suggests that some people work harder than others. An individual with outstanding abilities may consistently be outperformed by someone with obviously inferior talents. Motivation of people at workplace deals not only with problem of stimulating them to effective efforts; it also addresses the ways through which people are made to be satisfied with their jobs. Thus, managers, short of using gun must devise means to stimulate interest of employees to do their work voluntarily.  Motivation is the ways urges, aspirations, drives and needs of human beings direct and control, or explain their behavior (Lawrence, 1984). Ran (2009) defines motivation as a process that explains how an individual’s intensity, directions, and persistence of efforts toward attaining a goal.  The key words in the definition above are intensity, direction and persistence. According to Robin and Judge (2012) intensity describes how hard an employee tries and high intensity may not lead to favourable job outcome except the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits organization. Therefore, effort directed towards and consistent with organizational is always the focus of managers. The persistence dimension measures how long a person can maintain the efforts as motivated workers stay on a task long enough to achieve their goals.

Central to the concept of motivation is job satisfaction/dissatisfaction which, according to Hertzberg (1953) do not come from presence or absence of one set of factors.   Instead, they come from two different sets of factors which Hertzberg label satisfiers as motivating factors and dissatisfies as hygiene factors. Specifically, intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility and achievement are related to job satisfaction because satisfied employees tend to attribute these factors to themselves. However, as argued by Hertzberg absence of this set of factors would not necessarily create job dissatisfaction as it was traditionally assumed, instead workers merely experience no – satisfaction on the job. Thus, it may be hypothesized that intrinsic factors positively related to job performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force.

Similarly, Hertzberg listed extrinsic factors such as quality of supervision, pay, organizational policies, relationships with others and job security as hygiene factors.  Positive rating by employees, of these factors known as dissatisfies would not lead to job satisfaction but merely absence of dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that create job dissatisfaction will be placating rather than motivating their employees. Thus, it may be hypothesized that presence of a set of extrinsic factors has no significant relationship with job performance of personnel of the Nigerian Police Force.

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework: Note that ITF = intrinsic Factor, WKE = Work Environment, MON= Monochronicity EXF = Extrinsic Factor, POL = Polychronicity, WKP = Work Performance

Time Orientation and Work Performance

Hall (1989) proposes time, context and space as three concepts that can best explain cultural differences among people of the world. In the recent times, differences in time orientation have gained attention of human resource managers and this has led to call for more researches on the two extreme ways of handling task in organization aptly labeled monochronicity and polychronicity. The concepts of monochromic versus polychromic time orientation describe how cultures structure their time. The monochromic time concept follows the notion that one thing be done at a time; while the polychromic concept emphasizes multiple tasks being handled simultaneously at a time because time is subordinate to interpersonal relations. In other words, for a monochron, time is rigid, tangible, and inflexible because work time can be clearly separated from personal live as activities are isolated from organization due to the fact that tasks are measured as output per minute/hour.  And for polychromic, time is flexible, fluid because work time is not distinct from personal time, hence, activities are integrated into organization as a whole which makes it possible to measure tasks as part of organizational wider goal (Hall, 1989).

Traditionally employment time is viewed as commodity that can be sold and bought, and therefore management sees time as money as exemplified by the work of Fredrick Winslow Taylor’s time and motion study. In a modern organization such as police force, time orientation could have implications on multitasking behaviour especially as varying tasks occur at some intervals. For example, a police officer may be on the beat but simultaneously required to engage in intelligence gathering. Zhang, Goonetilleke, Plochers and Liang (2003) found significant variations in time orientation of citizens of the United States of America and Chinese nationals because while the former exhibited monochromic behavior at work, the latter showed more of polychromic tendencies. Thus, it can be hypothesized that monochronicity is significantly related to job performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force and Polychronicity is significantly related to job performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force

METHODOLOGY

This research was a cross – sectional design that integrated explanatory framework through quantitative approach. According to Sekran (2018) this approach seeks to determine impact of predictor variables on dependent variables while still accounting for error terms. The population of study was the 350, 000 staff strength of the Nigeria Police Force. However, Osun State police command was the focus of this study with 11,204 staff strength; and it was from this working population that a total of 450 personnel were selected for this study using systematic sampling technique in which every 25 staff on the check list was persuaded to participate.

The research instrument for the study was a self – complete structured questionnaire prepared for the purpose of obtaining primary data from the respondents and divided into 7 sections, with section one eliciting information about the bio data of respondents, while the remaining 6 sections sought the opinions of respondents on the six variables of interest, namely, work performance, work environment, intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors, monochronicity and polychronicity. Job performance was measured using and adapting scale developed by Ramos – Villagrasa, Barrada, Fernandez – del – Rio and Koopmans (2019), work environment measured using items from Badayai (2012), items that tapped work motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic factors) were adapted from the work of Robbins and Judge (2013), time orientation (monochronicity and polychronicity) measured on scales proposed by Lindquist, Knieling and Kaufman – Scarborough (2001). All indicators were measured on a 5 – point likert rating scale.

Confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the usable returned copies of the questionnaire so as to establish validity and reliability of the research instrument. Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS version 27) was the statistical software employed for data analysis. Similarly, all hypothesized relationships were tested using multiple regression analysis with the help of Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS version 27) software.

RESULTS

Features of the Respondents

Although a total of 450 copies of questionnaire were administered to the respondents, only 306 returned copies were valid for data analysis, thus the survey yielded 68% response rate. Descriptive statistic showed that 236 were male while 70 were female, Turning to their marital status, it was found that 70 respondents were single, 165 were married, 43 have divorced their spouse, another 15 were widowed, while the remaining 13 have separated from their husbands/wives.

Construct Reliability, Validity and Test of Common Method Bias (CMB)

The result of confirmatory factor analysis showed that Cronbach Alpha value for each of the variable exceeded recommended threshold of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978), while composite reliability values were in excess of 0.8 thereby confirming internal consistency of the research instrument. Also, indicators for all the variables had at least factor loadings of 0.7 which suggested that convergent validity of the instrument was sound. It should be noted that standardized factor loading shows magnitude of correlations between each indicator and its construct.

 Table 4.1: Reliability and Validity of the Constructs

Note that ITF = intrinsic Factor, WKE = Work Environment, MON= Monochronicity EXF = Extrinsic Factor, POL = Polychronicity, WKP = Work Performance.

As if to further establish convergent validity of the questionnaire, Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for each of the construct were obtained after calculating the average sum of the squared values of factor loadings of each variable and the result showed that the construct explained more than half of the indicators. This means the questionnaire satisfied the criterion established by Yamin and Kurniawan (2011) in which AVE of at least 0.5 was recommended to pass the test of convergent validity.

Furthermore, AVE values were greater than the square of inter correlational values among constructs which satisfied (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) discriminant validity. In order to mitigate the problem of Common Method Bias (CMB), Harman’s one factor test that used Explorative Factor Analysis was adopted and it showed that not all items from the entire six constructs loaded on a single factor. According to Fuller, Simmering and Atinc (2016) CMB is not a pervasive issue when all variables of interest account for proportional variance explained by the factors and therefore, in this study the measurement context effect showed multiple distinct factors as job performance, work environment, intrinsic factor, extrinsic factors, monochronicity and polychronicity accounted for 16%, 11%, 17%, 13%, 15% and 19% respectively. Similarly, the mean and standard deviation of each construct were within acceptable level and the values of skewness and kurtosis were closer to zero suggesting normality of the data set.

Hypotheses Testing

In testing the hypotheses, work performance was regressed on work environment, monochronicity, polychronicity, intrinsic factor and extrinsic factor jointly and thus multiple regression analysis was performed on the data. The procedure yielded pair wise correlations matrix between dependent variable (work performance) and each of the independent variables and it was found that correlations between work performance and all independent variables are positive and significant.

Table 4.2: Correlations among Work Performance, work Environment, Polychronicity, Monochronicity, Intrinsic and Extrinsic factors.

Note: Pearson Correlation is significant at 0.001 (two – tailed)

Note that ITF = intrinsic Factor, WKE = Work Environment, MON= Monochronicity EXF = Extrinsic Factor, POL = Polychronicity, WKP = Work Performance.

The hypothesized effects of independent variables on dependent variables were assessed using values of R squared, causal paths or standardized coefficients as well as p values. The results showed that extrinsic factor, monochronicity, intrinsic factor, work environment and polychronicity jointly explained 90% of variation found in work /job performance. However, only the contributions of extrinsic factor (Beta = 0.035, p < .005), intrinsic factor (Beta = 0. 90, p < 0.001) and polychronicity (Beta = 0.027, p < 0.05) were significant in the regression analysis result, but contributions of monochronicity (B = 0.003, p > 0.05) and work environment (B = 0.019, p > 0.05) were not significant. It means that the more personnel of the Nigeria police force are encouraged to exhibit polychronicity; and the more there are intrinsic and extrinsic factors in policing job, the more personnel organisational performance would be enhanced.  A summary of the relationships among the studied variables are presented in table 4.3

Table 4.3: Multiple Regression Analysis of Work Performance on Extrinsic Factor, Intrinsic Factor, Monochronicity, Polychronicity and Work Environment.

F (5, 300) = 9282.913, p < 0.001,       R – Squared = 90.4.     Adjusted R – Squared = 90.3

Note that ITF = intrinsic Factor, WKE = Work Environment, MON= Monochronicity, EXF = Extrinsic Factor, POL = Polychronicity, WKP = Work Performance

DISCUSSIONS

The ultimate success of any internal security organization such as Nigeria Police Force depends on the work and job performance of its personnel. It was proposed that work performance was dependent on some key variables and therefore this study proposed that work environment, intrinsic factor, monochronicity, extrinsic factor and polychronicityr would predict job or work performance among the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. The results of this present study based on multiple regression analysis revealed that the trio of polychronicity, intrinsic and extrinsic factors were jointly and significantly associated with work performance; while the duo of work environment and monochromic job behavior showed no significant association with job performance. This is opposed to the work of Parashakti, Fahlevi and Ekhsan (2019) who found work environment, employees competency and work motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic factors) as major determinants of personnel job performance in the Indonesian health sector.

The insignificant contributions of monochronicity and work environment in the regression analysis showed that although providing excellent working tools for policemen is desirable, mere reordering of work and ambience environment might not necessarily trigger high work performance from men and women of the Nigeria Police Force. But Zakarani and Noor (2021), Kvassov (2005) found significant effects of environmental factors and time orientation on job performance. This investigation demonstrated that job enrichment that enables employees to juggle across various tasks simultaneously, and making them feel satisfied with good pay package while allowing for personal growth could help secure high performance from personnel. Among these factors, intrinsic and extrinsic factors accounted for the largest variation found in job performance. This was supported by Maleka, Meyer, Hlatywayo and Mpofu (2022) who found that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations promoted high job performance among workers in Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Thus, the earlier proposed model of job performance was confirmed by the results of analysed data for this study.

Theoretical Implications

Work performance is a central construct in management research and therefore there is growing interest among scholars and management practitioners on its antecedents. While previous researches and models have focused more on either firm level performance or individual level performance; this present study combine the two levels by incorporating individual level variables such as intrinsic and extrinsic factors with organizational level variables such as work environment and time orientation which represents organizational structures/roles and their joint effects on work performance statically determined. In essence, findings from this investigation demonstrated significant attempt to stop researchers from thinking dichotomously about performance as either a process or an outcome; but instead permitted new perspectives that view performance in its big picture as a process which affects performance outcome and affected by outcome. By incorporating work environment, time orientation, intrinsic and extrinsic factors and work performance into a single study, this investigation validated integrative theory of performance by Marshall, Aguinis and Beltran (2024 in which performance was thought to be a system composed of interconnected meta theoretical constructs.

Managerial Implications

This study has confirmed the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors as well as polychronicity in enhancing job performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. At a time when the Nigerian state is facing massive security challenges, Inspector General of Police and Police Service Commission could stem the tide by implementing job enrichment that allows men and women of force to juggle among various tasks while putting in place adequate monetary and non – monetary rewards. Rather than continue in the battle of supremacy, the management of Police Service Commission and Inspector General of Police must collaborate to improve work environment of the policemen as well as conducting intermittent study on the police welfare so as to respond adequately to knotty issues.

CONCLUSIONS

This study explored those factors that determined work performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force and effects of five factors, namely, work environment, monochronicity, polychronicity, intrinsic and extrinsic factors on work performance was determined. Thus, five hypotheses were formulated and tested and it was found that three variables, namely, intrinsic factor, polychronicity and extrinsic factor impacted positively on the work performance. However, monochronicity and work environment have no significant effect on work behavior. It should be noted, however, that all the five factors have significant and positive correlations with job performance in the work place.

Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Further Research

This investigation is about factors that determined work performance among personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. Although some five variables, namely, monochrronicity, polychronicity, work environment, intrinsic and extrinsic factor were included as key determinants of work performance; future researcher may incorporate more constructs for study because these constructs are not exhaustible. Also, the study employed quantitative research strategy to test all the five hypotheses formulated, future studies may employed mixed research method to provide answers to future research questions. It should be noted that data for this research were provided by just 306 personnel of the Nigerian Police Force, thus generalization of findings from this study may be limited and therefore future investigation on this topic may consider larger sample size and in other non-policing jobs Similarly, future research on this topic may consider the nature of relationships among variables of interest by devising path diagrams that incorporate mediating and or moderating variables as antecedents of work performance.

REFERENCES

1. Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social Identity Theory and the Organization. Academy of Management Review, 1(4): 20–39
2. Babin, B. J., & Boles, J. S. (1996). The effects of Perceived Co-worker Involvement and Supervisor Support on Service Provider Role Stress, Performance and Job satisfaction. Journal of Retailing, 72(1), 57- 75.
3. Badayai, A.R. (2012). A Theoretical Framework and Analytical Discussion on Uncongenial Physical Workplace Environment and Job Performance among Workers in Industrial Sectors. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 4(2): 486-495.
4. Biddle, B. J. (2013). Role Theory: Expectations, Identities, and Behaviors. New York: Academic Press
5. Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the Criterion Domain to include Elements
   of Contextual Performance. In N. Schmitt & W. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations 71–98). New York: Jossey-Bass.
6. Choo CW, & Bontis N. (2002). The Strategic Management of Intellectual Capital and Organizational Knowledge, Oxford University Press, New York,
7. Gavetti, G., Greve, H. R., Levinthal, D. A., & Ocasio, W. (2012). The Behavioral Theory of the Firm: Assessment and Prospects. Academy
8. Griffin, R. W. (1991). Effects of Work Redesign on Employee Perceptions, Attitudes and Behaviors: A Long-Term Investigation. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 425–435.
9. Hall, E.T. (1989). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Press.
10. Hoang HY. (2015). The Impact of knowledge Management and the Ethical Business Environment on the Job Performance of Bank Employees. Doctoral thesis, University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City,
11. Kaufman-Scarborough, C., & Lindquist, J.D. (1999). Time Management and Polychronicity: Comparisons, Contrasts, and Insights for the Workplace. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 14(3-4), 288-312.
12. Kohlberg L. (1984). The Psychology of Moral Development. Harper & Row. San Francisco
13. Kvassov V. (2005). The Effects of Time and Personality on the Productivity of Management
    Information Systems. Proceedings: 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
    Honolulu, Hawaii.
14. Lindquist, J.D., Knieling, J., & Kaufman-Scarborough, C. (2001). Polychonicity and Consumer Behavior outcomes among Japanese and U.S. students: A study of response to culture in a U.S. university setting. Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial World Marketing Congress. City Hall Cardiff, UK.
15. Maleka, M.J., Meyer, I., Hlatywayo, C.K. & Mpofu, M. (2022). Moderated Mediation Effect on the Relationship between Job Satisfaction, Employee Engagement and Commitment in Organisations Operating in three Southern African Development Community Countries, Journal of Contemporary Management, 19 (2): 444 – 466
16. Marshall, J.D., Aguinis, H. & Beltran, J.R. (2024). Theories of Performance: A Review and Integration, Academy of Management Annals, 10 (00): 1 – 26
17. Martinez, A. D., Kane, R. E., Ferris, G. R., & Brooks, C. D. (2012). Power in leader–follower work relationships. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 19: 142–151
18. Mayer, D.M. (2009). Making Ethical Climate a Mainstream Management Topic, Psychological Perspective on Ethical Behavior and Decision Making
19. Noon, M., Blyton, P., & Morrell, K. (2013). The Realities of Work: Experiencing Work and Employment in Contemporary Society. Palgrave Macmillan.
20. Nunnally J.C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. 2nd. Edition, McGraw-Hill: New York
21. Oguntunde, P.E., Ojo, O.O. Okagbue, H.I. & Oguntunde, O.A. (2018). Analysis of Selected Crime Data in Nigeria, Website: (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), 1242 – 1249
22. Opperman C. S. (2002).Tropical Business Issues. Partner Price Water House Coopers. International Business Review.
23. Parashakti, R.D., Fahlevi, M. & Ekhsan, M. (2019). The Influence of Work Environment and Competence on Motivation and its Impact on Employee Performance in Health Sector, Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, 135: 259 – 267
24. Ramos-Villagrasa, P. J., Barrada, J. R., Fernández-del-Río, E., & Koopmans, L. (2019). Assessing job performance using brief self-report scales: The case of the individual work performance questionnaire. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 35(3), 195-205.
25. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68.
26. Teece, D. J. (2000). Strategies for Managing knowledge Asset: The role of firm structure and industrial context.
27. Van Scotter, J. R., Motowidlo, S. J., & Cross, T. C. (2000). Effects of Task Performance and Contextual Performance on Systemic Rewards. Journal of Applied Psychology,8(5): 526 – 535
28. Victor B. & Cullen J.B. (1988). The Organizational Bases of Ethical Work Climates. Administrative Science Quarterly.;3(3):101-125.
29. Viswesvaran C, Schmidt, F.L & Ones, D.S. (2005) Is there a general factor in Ratings of Job Performance? A Meta-Analytic Framework for Disentangling Substantive and Error Influences. Journal of Applied Psychology, ;9 (2):108–131.
30. Yating, W. & Yang, Y. (2017). Job Performance Modeling: A Holistic Theoretical Analysis, Management Science and Engineering, 11 (4): 20 – 29
31. Zakarami, M.Z, & Noor, N.H. (2021). Workplace Environment and Job Performance of Police Officer during Covid – 19 Crisis, Journal of Administrative Science, 18 (1): 249 – 267.
32. Zhang Y., Goonetilleke, R.S., Plocher, T., & Liang, S. F. (2003). Should we worry about the Time Orientation of Cultures when Designing Systems? Proceedings of the IEA 2003 XVth Triennial Congress. Seoul, Korea.