Diversity of Higher Fungi on University of Ibadan Campus (3)

Diversity of Higher Fungi on University of Ibadan Campus (3)

¹*Jonathan,SG; ²Abubakar, AK; ¹Omotayo OO; ¹Omojola JD; ³Omeonu FC; ⁴Nwaokolo, VM;  ⁵Okpewho OP; ¹Alabi, VJ and ¹Wood, TT

¹ Myco-Pathology &Applied Microbiology Group, Department of Botany, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

²Department of Biological Science, Yobe Sate University, Damaturu. Nigeria

³Department of Microbiology,, Chrisland University, Abeokuta

⁴Federal College of Forestry, Jericho, Ibadan, Oyo State. Nigeria

⁵Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, Delta State University, Abraka,. Nigeria

⁶ National Biotechnology Research and Development Agency, FCT, Abuja, Nigeria

*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.906000203

Received: 03 June 2025; Accepted: 07 June 2025; Published: 08 July 2025

ABSTRACT

In our first report, twenty-four (24) wild higher fungi from Ibadan University Botanical Gardens were collected; characterized and reported .Our second published article investigated the diversity, distribution, and ecological significance of twenty-one (21) additional macro- fungi from University of Ibadan campus. Findings from previous studies emphasized the ecological importance of these fungi in relation to nutrient cycling, decomposition, and soil enrichment. In this present study, additional fungal collections within the University of Ibadan campus were   reported Higher fungi used for this research study were collected between April and October 2024 (during the rainy season). .These were randomly obtained   from 18 different locations on the main campus. The samples were hunted for in wet places that contained decaying plant materials such as richly loamy soil, agro-industrial wastes, decomposing litters and decaying wood. The GPS was used to measure, temperature, humidity and habitat environment of each sampling locations. Our investigation revealed that the myco-organisms collected belong to fourteen (14) families and twenty-four (24) genera. Results showed that Ibadan University Botanical Gardens has the highest macro-fungal population of 14,298 , while Uwba dam and Botany Nursery had 10,122 and 8,936  population which ranked  second and third highest populations respectively .The least population (1,787) was recorded in Abadina. The most frequently occurred fungus was Tyromyces chioneus (Polyporaceae) with 2,227 population, while Hydnum repandum, an Hydnaceae, had the least occurrence (20 collections). Out of 24new genera collected, only 11 were found to be edible. The significance of these findings were discussed.

Keywords: diversity, macro-fungi, campus, Ibadan University, Botanical Gardens

INTRODUCTION

University of Ibadan, the first University in Nigeria, was established in 1948.The campus  site is located in the South-Western Nigeria and  situated on 7.4433° N, 3 .9003° .The campus covers over 1,032 hectares of land which was leased out by the chiefs of Ibadan for 999 years.

University of Ibadan can be found  in the tropical  rain forest belt of Nigeria which supports luxuriant growth of different macro-fungi (Gbolagade et al.,2006 ^a,b.).There are many species of higher fungi in the forest belt of Nigeria .These may include the following majour groups-

agarics,auricularias,boletes,cantharellas,clavarias,hydnums.lycoperdons,morels,pezizas,xylarias and polypores ( Jonathan et al.,2025 ^a,b,c,d).These fungi usually   grow on soil or on different types of  substrates within their natural habitats (Atri et al.,2019; Aminuzzaman et al.,2024). Cells of fungi do not exhibit cellular differentiation and therefore lack roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark etc like green plants (Das et al.,2021; Darshan  et al.,2024).

Generally, most microscopic fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures that are 2 -10 micrometers ( µm ) in diameter and up to several centimeters in length . On the average, the size of  most fungi hyphae are between 5 – 50 µm in length (Agbaje et al.,2024; Okpewho et al,2024; Omotayo et al.,2025). Macro fungi on the other hands could be much larger. The part that is visible to the eyes is called basidiocarp,fruiting body, carpophore or sporophore (Alexopulous et al.,1996).Higher fungi basidiocarps may range between 0.5–25 cm in diameter and heights of 0.5–30 cm. Some larger fungi may also exist. for example bracket fungi, can attain diameter of up to 40 cm  while some puff balls  may be up to 150 cm (5 feet) in diameter. (Otunla et al.,2018; Oyebanji et al.,2018; Omojola et al.,2025).

The  largest organism on the earth have been described to be  an  humongous fungus called Armillaria ostoyae .It is a sprawling fungus which was discovered  in Malheur National Forest, Oregon in 1998 . This fungus covers 2, 385 acres or 10 square kilometers which is equal to 1665 football fields. Armillaria ostoyae weighs  about 605 matric tons. The large clumps of yellow-brown basidiocarps that appear above ground are the fruiting bodies of very large fungus. They consist mainly of black bootlace-like rhizomorphs that spread out below surface in search of new hosts, and underground networks of tubular filaments called mycelia (Jonathan,2019).

Fungi could exist in a variety of shapes and sizes and different types. They may range from single cells to enormous chains of cells that can stretch for miles. Fungi include single-celled living things that exist individually, such as yeast, and multicellular clusters, such as molds or mushrooms. Fungi usually grow best in environments that are slightly acidic. They can grow on substances with very low moisture. Fungi are present in the soil,air,water   body, and available substrate. A single teaspoon of topsoil in a garden  contains about 120,000 fungi(Jonathan,2019).

Fungi are basically stationary. But they can spread either by forming reproductive spores that are carried on wind and rain or by growing and extending their hyphae. Hyphae grow as new cells form at the tips, creating even longer chains of cells. Fungi absorb nutrients from living or dead organic matter that they grow on. They absorb simple, easily dissolved nutrients, such as sugars, through their cell walls. They give off special digestive enzymes to break down complex nutrients into simpler forms that they can absorb (Baldrian ,2017; Jonathan et al.,2024).

Macrofungi are an important component of Kingdom Fungi, and they play significant roles in natural ecosystems. Many of these fungi act both as key decomposers and as food sources for animals. Most macrofungi produce fleshy and colloidal fruiting bodies representing sexual reproductive structures; however, some visible structures, such as sclerotia, represent the asexual reproductive stage. Most macrofungi belong to Basidiomycota or Ascomycota while a few are Zygomycota(Gbolagade et al.,2006a; González et al.,2020;Anakaa et al.,2025).

The economically important species are found mostly in Hymenogastrales (Basidiomycetes) and Tuberales (Ascomycetes) (Jonathan ,2019). The black truffle belongs to Tuberales and is often referred to as the “black jewel” of European dining tables (Guan et al.,2021). As a result, the ascocarps of the genus Tuber (true truffle) have been studied extensively for their genetic structure and fungi–animal interactions (Jonathan,2019). Tuber is the monophyletic truffle genus in Tuberaceae that includes truffle and non-truffle species (Liao et al., 2016). The genus evolved from an epigeous ancestor and dispersed with host plants’ migration (Benoit et al., 2015). Currently, there are over 200 species in this genus (Vargas et al., 2015).

Similar to other hypogenous macrofungi, Tuber truffles require and recruit mycetophagous mammals to disperse their spores (Mueller and  Schmit, 2006). Generally, mycetophagous animals are attracted by truffle volatiles, which then consume sporocarps and disseminate spores in their fecal pellets (Cejudo et al., 2016). In the case of truffles, the dispersing distance is determined by two factors: (i) the gut-retention time of spores in mycetophagous mammals, which generally might be more than 20 hours, and (ii) the travel distance of the mammals within that time span, which may cover dozens of hectares (Jonathan,2019). The mycetophagous mammals help Tuber species to disperse and, by association, increase the health and productivity of host plants (Andrew et. al.,2013). Tuber melanosporum and Tuber magnatum are two highly prized truffles in Europe. They are the favorites of gastronomers and businessmen and can be cultivated semi-artificially by inoculation of young trees and plantations (Jonathan,2019).

They form large fruiting bodies, visible without the aid of a microscope and include fruiting bodies, such as gilled fungi, cup fungi, jelly fungi, flask fungi, entomogenous fungi, tongue fungi, coral fungi, stinkhorns, bracket fungi, puffballs and bird’s nest fungi (Mueller and Schmit, 2006). There are many thousands of species which are unique and each species beautiful in its own way. Since the dawn of civilizations, macro-fungi have been fascinating to man due to their unusual characters like sudden appearance in isolated places in groups, rings and in different geometrical shapes. Macrofungi grow prolifically and are found in many parts of the world. They intermingle and participate or compete with other micro-organisms behavior and predators (Andew et al., 2013).

Deadwood is an important substrate for a large number of forest-dwelling Basidiomycota—Aphyllophorales species, viz., polypores (Stahl et al., 2010). Wood-inhabiting fungi release the carbon fixed during photosynthesis and stored in the form of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and return other nutrients from the woody debris back to the soil (Purahong et al., 2018). The bracket fungi are the main wood decayers (Andew et al., 2013).. Wood-decaying polypores play important roles in forest ecosystems. They decompose woody debris and provide microhabitats for others. In addition, they produce long-lasting fruiting bodies that are easily monitored in the field (Mueller et al., 2004).

Macrofungi studies have long been of interest to scientists and the public due to their significant roles in human welfare, the food industry, medicinal applications, and biodegradation (Gupta et al., 2020). Macrofungi are considered ideal for evaluation as biosorbents because many fungal species exhibit high biosorptive potentials (Wu et al., 2019). Research has been conducted on the antimicrobial activities of lower fungi, but edible mushrooms have not been adequately explored (Jonathan,et. al.,2003;Chikwem et al., 2018; Chikwem et al., 2019;Wu et al., 2019;). The visible macroscopic fruit bodies have economic value as aesthetic components of the natural environment and as a food crop in the case of edible species (Gbolagade et al., 2005b).

Macrofungi are also important components of the diet of many animals, including soil invertebrates and small mammals (Otunla et al.,2018).Many saprophytic macrofungi play an important role as soil aggregators. Basidiomycetes are the main decomposers of recalcitrant components of plant litter through the production of lignin-modifying enzymes such as lignin peroxidases, manganese-dependent peroxidases, and laccases (Omeonu et al.,2022;). The majority (>95%) of boreal forest tree root tips are colonized by symbiotic ectomycorrhizal  fungi. Macrofungi play an extraordinarily important role in the catalysis of the nutrient cycle in deciduous and coniferous forests, increasing their fitness by enhancing nutrient uptake, which is crucial for tree health and balancing soil pH (Jonathan, 2019).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

The study area was the University of Ibadan campus.(Latitude N 7° 22′ 39.1296″ and Longitude E 3° 56′ 49.344″).The sites covered under this study were the Botanical Gardens, Teaching and Research Farm, The Heritage Park, Botany Nursery, Uwba dam, Sokoto Cresents, Benue Road, Niger Road, Abadina, Staff School, Vet.  Medicine, Ijeoma Road, Sankore, and Crowder Lane. University of Ibadan is situated within the Tropical rain forest that enhanced the growth of different types of macro fungi during the rainy season

Collection and preparation of samples

Higher fungi used for this research study were collected between April and October 2024 (during the rainy season) .They were randomly obtained   from the above listed locations within the University of Ibadan campus. Wild higher fungi samples were hunted for in wet places that contained decaying plant materials such as richly loamy soil, agro-industrial wastes, decomposing litters decaying wood  . (Jonathan et al.,2025a). Necessary precautions were taken not to destroy any part of the specimen. The GPS was used to measure, temperature, humidity and habitat environment of each sampling locations. Humidometer and thermometer  were used in each of these locations to take the  humidity and temperature respectively. Compass software was also used to take GPS readings . fruitbodies of each fungus were collected randomly from each location using the methods of Jonathan et. al.,(2025a) . Preliminary identification of the specimens were  carried out done by observing  their  morphology (  pileus color, stipe morphology, presence of annular ring, arrangement of gills and volva  (Jonathan , 2019) Digital photographs were taken for each collected. Chemicals tests and spore prints were also carried out (Bassette et al.,2019).Micro-morphological features  were observed under the X60 objective of the light  microscope for the completed identification(Alexopolous et al,1996) .

Spore prints

These were carried out according to the methods described by Jonathan,et al.,(2025a)

RESULTS

 Plates of collected Fungi

Plate 1: Antrodia serialis (Fr.) Donk

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Fomitopsidaceae

Genus: Neoantrodia

Species: Neoantrodia serialis 

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 2: Chlorophyllum molybdites (G. Mey.) Massee

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Agaricaceae

Genus: Chlorophyllum

Species: Chlorophyllum molybdites 

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 3: Apioperdon pyriforme (Schaeff.) Vizzini

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Agaricaceae

Genus: Apioperdon

Species: Apioperdon pyriforme         

Edibility: Inedibe

Plate 4: Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Fomitopsidaceae

Genus: Fomes

Species: Fomes fomentarius   

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 5: Omphalotus nidiformis (Berk.) O.K. Mill

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Omphalotaceae

Genus: Omphalotus

Species: Omphalotus nidiformis

Edibility: Inedible

 Plate 6: Trametes  cubensis (E. Cooke) Ryvarden

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Polyporaceae

Genus: Trametes

Species: Trametes cubensis                

Edibility: Inedible.

Plate 7: Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P. Karst.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Fomitopsidaceae

Genus: Fomitopsis

Species: Fomitopsis pinicola

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 8: Daldinia concentrica (Bolton) Ces. & De Not.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Ascomycota

Class: Sordariomycetes

Order: Xylariales

Family: Amphisphaeriaceae

Genus: Daldinia

Species: Daldinia concentrica 

Edibility: Inedible 

Plate 9: Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Amanitaceae

Genus: Amanita

Species: Amanita muscaria    

Edibility: Inedible and Toxic

Plate 10: Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Ganodermataceae

Genus: Ganoderma

Species: Ganoderma lucidum 

Edibility: Inedible           

Plate 11: Calvatia gigantea (Batsch) Lloyd

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Agaricaceae.

Genus: Calvatia

Species: Calvatia gigantea     

Edibility: Edible

Plate 12:Auricularia polytricha (Mont.) Sacc

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Auriculariales

Family: Auriculariaceae

Genus: Auricularia

Species: Auricularia polytricha             

Edibility: Edible. 

Plate 13: Cantharellus cibarius Fr.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Cantharellales

Family: Cantharellaceae

Genus: Cantharellus

Species: Cantharellus cibarius

Edibility: Edible

Plate 14: Boletus barrowsii Thiers & A.H. Smith

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Boletales

Family: Boletaceae

Genus: Boletus

Species: Boletus barrowsii     

Edibility: Edible 

Plate 15: Xylaria poitei (Lepr.) Fr

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Ascomycota

Class: Sordariomycetes

Order: Xylariales

Family: Xylariaceae

Genus: Xylaria

Species: Xylaria poitei

Edibility: Edible

Plate 16: Tyromyces chioneus (Fr.) P. Karst.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Meruliaceae

Genus: Tyromyces

Species: Tyromyces chioneus

Edibility: Inedible       

Plate 17: Hypomyces macrosporus Rogerson & Simms

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Ascomycota

Class: Sordariomycetes

Order: Hypocreales

Family: Hypocreaceae

Genus: Hypomyces

Species: Hypomyces macrosporus 

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 18: Coprinus fimetarius (L.) Fr.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Psathyrellaceae

 Genus: Coprinus

Species: Coprinus fimetarius

Edibility: Inedible.

Plate 19: Coprinus disseminatus (Pers.) J.E. Lange

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Psathyrellaceae

 Genus: Coprinus

Species: Coprinus disseminatus 

Edibility: Inedible

Plate 20: Lentinus squarrosulos Mont.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Polyporacea

Genus: Lentinus

Species: Lentinus squarrosulus

Edibility: Inedible                 

\

Plate 21: Hydnum-repandum L.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Cantharellales

Family: Hydnaceae

Genus: Hydnum

Species: Hydnum repandum

Edibility: Edible

 Plate 22: Termitomyces globulus (Van der Byl) R. Heim

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Lyophyllaceae

Genus: Termitomyces

Species: Termitomyces globulus       

Edibility: Edible                       

Plate 24: Coprinopsis radiata (Bolton) Redhead, Vilgalys & Moncalvo

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Auriculariales

Family: Auriculariaceae

Genus: Auricularia

Species: Auricularia angiospermarum 

Edibility: Edible

Plate 23: Auricularia angiospermarum (Pat.) Leelav.     

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Psathyrellaceae

Family: Lyophyllaceae

Genus: Coprinopsis 

Species: Coprinopsis radiata

Edibility: Inedible

Table 1: Number of collected fungal ,species, Locations  of collection and Population

Table 2:  Collected Higher fungi from University of Ibadan Campus

Total=14298

Table 3:  Site of collection, habitat, spore print and Edibility

Key: BG=Botanical Gardens,Uwba dam=UD,Botany Nursery+BN,Heritage Park,HP, Teaching & Research Farm=TRF, Ijeoma Road=IJ. Benue Road=BR, Sankore Road=SR, Vet. Medicine=VM, Niger Road=NR, Crowder Lane=CL, Sokoto Crescents=SC,Staff School=SS,Abadina=AD=,OR=Oduduwa Road.Liad .Road=,LR,Jaja Avenue=JA,Imo Street=IS

Table 4:  Macroscopic and microscopic descriptions of collected higher fungi

Table 5:  Medicinal importance of the collected macro-fungi from University of Ibadan campus

DISCUSSION

Antrodia serialis (Plate 1) and Chlorophyllum molybdites (Plate 2) are both fungi with distinct characteristics and ecological roles. Antrodia serialis is a wood-decaying polypore with a pale, thin, and resupinate to bracket-like fruiting body, typically found on coniferous wood, where it contributes to brown rot decomposition. Chlorophyllum molybdites, commonly known as the green-spored parasol, has a large, white to brownish cap with scales and is notorious for causing gastrointestinal poisoning if consumed. It is often found in lawns and open areas rather than decaying wood.

Apioperdon pyriforme (Plate 3) and Fomes fomentarius (Plate 4) are both wood-associated fungi with distinct roles in decomposition. Apioperdon pyriforme, commonly known as the pear-shaped puffball, grows in clusters on decaying wood and releases spores through a central pore when mature, aiding in nutrient recycling. Fomes fomentarius, also called the tinder fungus, forms large, hoof-shaped, hard fruiting bodies on tree trunks, contributing to white rot decay and historically used as tinder for fire-starting. Both species play crucial roles in breaking down organic matter in forest ecosystems.

Omphalotus nidiformis (Plate5)and Trametes cubensis (Plate6)are both wood-associated fungi with unique characteristics. Omphalotus nidiformis, known as the ghost fungus, is a bioluminescent species with a funnel-shaped, cream to orange-brown cap that grows on decaying wood, primarily in Australia and surrounding regions. It is toxic if consumed. Trametes cubensis is a polypore fungus with a fan-shaped, velvety cap that varies in color from white to brownish and is found on decaying hardwoods, where it aids in lignin breakdown. Both species contribute to wood decomposition in their ecosystems.

Fomitopsis pinicola (Plate 7)and Daldinia concentrica (Plate 8)are both wood-decaying fungi with important ecological roles. Fomitopsis pinicola, known as the red-belted conk, is a perennial polypore with a hard, hoof-shaped fruiting body featuring a reddish margin, commonly found on coniferous and deciduous trees, where it causes brown rot. Daldinia concentrica, or King Alfred’s cake, forms round, black fruiting bodies with concentric internal layers and typically grows on dead or dying hardwoods, particularly ash, aiding in wood decomposition. Both fungi contribute to nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems.

Amanita muscaria (Plate 9)and Ganoderma lucidum (Plate 10)are both well-known fungi with distinct characteristics. Amanita muscaria, commonly called the fly agaric, is a toxic and hallucinogenic mushroom with a bright red cap covered in white warts, often found in symbiotic association with trees in forests. Ganoderma lucidum, known as the reishi or lingzhi polypore, has a glossy, reddish-brown, kidney-shaped cap and grows on decaying hardwoods, valued for its medicinal properties.  Amanita muscaria is infamous for its psychoactive effects, Ganoderma lucidum is widely used in traditional medicine for its various potential health benefits (Jonathan and Awotona,2010).

Calvatia gigantea (Plate 11)and Auricularia polytricha (Plate 12)are both fungi with unique appearances and ecological roles. Calvatia gigantea, known as the giant puffball, produces large, round, white fruiting bodies that release spores when mature and typically grow in grassy areas, contributing to organic matter decomposition. Auricularia polytricha, commonly called the hairy wood ear, has a dark brown, gelatinous, ear-shaped fruiting body and grows on decaying wood, aiding in lignin breakdown. While Calvatia gigantea is edible when young, Auricularia polytricha is widely consumed in Asian cuisine for its texture and medicinal properties

Cantharellus cibarius (Plate 13)and Boletus barrowsii (Plate 14)are both edible and highly prized mushrooms. Cantharellus cibarius, known as the golden chanterelle, has a bright yellow to orange, funnel-shaped cap with ridged, decurrent gills and is found in forests, forming mycorrhizal associations with trees. Boletus barrowsii, sometimes called the white king bolete, resembles Boletus edulis but has a pale cap and thick, white to tan stipe, growing in coniferous and mixed forests. Both species are sought after for their culinary value and play essential ecological roles in nutrient cycling and tree symbiosis

Xylaria poitei (Plate 15)and Tyromyces chioneus (Plate 16)are both wood-decaying fungi. Xylaria poitei, also known as the white-tipped fungus, has a distinctive black, club-shaped fruiting body with white tips and typically grows on decaying wood in tropical and subtropical forests, contributing to the breakdown of organic matter. Tyromyces chioneus, a member of the polypore family, features white to pale caps and often grows on dead hardwoods, playing a significant role in the decomposition of wood and nutrient recycling in forest ecosystems. Both species help maintain ecological balance by breaking down lignin and cellulose.

Hypomyces macrosporus (Plate 17)and Coprinus fimetarius (Plate 18)are both fungi with distinct ecological roles. Hypomyces macrosporus is a parasitic fungus that typically affects mushrooms in the Boletaceae family, turning them into a yellow, rubbery mass as it grows on them. It plays a role in the natural regulation of other fungal populations. Coprinus fimetarius, commonly known as the dung-loving inkcap, grows in manure or nutrient-rich soil, producing small, bell-shaped caps that dissolve into black ink-like liquid as they mature, contributing to the decomposition of organic matter. Both fungi are important in nutrient cycling within their ecosystems

Coprinus disseminatus (Plate 19)and Lentinus squarrosulus (Plate 20)are both wood-decomposing fungi with distinct characteristics. Coprinus disseminatus, known as the widespread inkcap, has small, white to pale brown, bell-shaped caps that dissolve into black ink as they mature and typically grows on decaying wood and plant material, aiding in decomposition. Lentinus squarrosulus, or the scaly-lobed mushroom, features a tan to brown, scaly cap with a central stalk and is found on dead wood, particularly hardwoods, playing a role in breaking down lignin and cellulose. Both fungi contribute to nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems.

Hydnum repandum (Plate 21)and Termitomyces globulus (Plate 22)are both distinctive fungi with ecological significance. Hydnum repandum, known as the hedgehog mushroom, has a pale to orange-brown cap with spiny, tooth-like structures underneath instead of gills. It typically grows in forests, forming ectomycorrhizal associations with trees and contributing to nutrient cycling. Termitomyces globulus, often called the termite mushroom, is a symbiotic fungus cultivated by termites in their mounds. It features a large, white, umbrella-like cap and plays a crucial role in breaking down plant material in termite nests. Both species are important for their roles in decomposing organic matter and symbiotic relationships

Auricularia angiospermarum (Plate 23)and Coprinopsis radiata (Plate 24)are both fungi with notable ecological roles. Auricularia angiospermarum, commonly known as the wood ear, has a gelatinous, ear-shaped fruiting body that grows on decaying hardwoods, contributing to the breakdown of organic matter and playing a role in nutrient cycling. A. angiospermarum is known for its antioxidant,anticancer and Immune boosting abilities   Coprinopsis radiata, also known as the clustered ink cap, features small, umbrella-shaped caps that mature into black, ink-like liquid and typically grows on decaying wood, contributing to the decomposition of plant material. Coprinopsis radiata have been employed for myco-remediation, antimicrobial,anti-oxidant activities Somdee et al.,(2021). Both species are important in forest ecosystems for their decomposition abilities (Jonathan ,2019).

Ibadan University Botanical Gardens recorded the highest number of macro-fungal  collections(14,298 )while Urbam dam and Botany Nursery has the second and third highest collections of 10,122 and 8,936 respectively. The high populations of higher fungi in these 3 locations may be linked to the reduced human activities which enhanced recycling process in the tropical rain forests (Jonathan et al,2025a).There are  many decomposed plant  debris and richly soils which  are supportive to luxuriant growth of varieties of micro and macro-fungi. This finding is similar to the observations of Clark et al,(2005)which suggested that different layers of tree canopies in the tropical forests especially the fallen leaves, decaying wood and plant debris  are  highly supportive to the growth of different living organisms including microorganisms. The highest layers of canopy usually receive abundant sunlight and water, creating a rich environment for various organisms, including fungi. This top layer of the forest is a key site for biodiversity and plays a significant role in nutrient cycling (Clark et al,2005).Abadina has the lowest fungal population of 1,789 because of the increased human activities

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