Effectiveness of Tertiary Education in Nigeria: The World of Work Perspectives

Effectiveness of Tertiary Education in Nigeria: The World of Work Perspectives

AKINOLA, Oluwatoyin B.* and ASHAFA Bisola Mariam

Department of Educational Management, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000288

Received: 06 August 2025; Accepted: 12 August 2025; Published: 08 September 2025

ABSTRACT

The relevance of tertiary education in Nigeria cannot be underestimated, especially as it is relevant to the world of work. This exploratory study investigated the relevance of tertiary education to the world of work recruitment process in Nigeria,employers and tertiary education graduates’ perspectives on the influence of course of study on possession of work readiness skills and the effectiveness of tertiary education in Nigeria. Data for the study were collected by means of semi-structured interviews held with six employers of tertiary education graduates in the secondary education, tertiary education and engineering sectors, and 24 tertiary education graduates from the same organisations. Analysis of data showed that possession of tertiary education qualification was vital for the world of work recruitment process, there were differing perspectives on the influence of course of study on possession of work readiness skills and the effectiveness of tertiary education in Nigeria. It was concluded that for tertiary education to be effective and considered so by all stakeholders, curriculum should be enhanced by increasing the content of practical exposures and experiences within it.

Keywords: Effectiveness, Tertiary education, World of work perspectives, work readiness skills

INTRODUCTION

Though the concept ‘work’ has been ascribed many definitions, this study adopted the traditional description of work as any activity that is functional and transactional, undertaken in a predetermined workspace for remuneration, also termed employment (Colbert et al, 2016; Pettinger, 2019, Kustini & Purwanto, 2020). The description of work as that activity which is undertaken within “institutional parameters, remuneration and workplace” (van der Laan et al., 2023, p. 256), implies that there are individual(s) determining the remuneration of the worker, and therefore, what work is to be done to justify such remuneration.  To get into the world of work therefore, individuals must be equipped.

Tertiary education in the United Kingdom has been described as post – compulsory education which provides learning activities in specialised fields of education. This class of education includes both academic/ professional education (Morris, 2024). In The Gambia, this level of education covers post-secondary institutions such as colleges, polytechnics, monotechnics, or skill centers that offer professional, vocational, and technical training programmes which award certification from certificate to diploma level, and are non degree awarding (Republic of The Gambia, 2021). In Nigeria, tertiary education is the training provided by all formal post – secondary education institutions including Universities, Colleges of Education, and Polytechnics.

To be adjudged as being effective, this category of institutions must attain the goals set for them by the Federal Government of Nigeria as stated in the National Policy of Education. The goals include, to: “contribute to national development through high level manpower training; and reduce skill shortages through production of skilled manpower relevant to the needs of the labour market” (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2014, p. 39). Going by the stated goals of tertiary education in Nigeria, effective tertiary education therefore implies that education provided in these spaces for higher education are assigned the responsibility of preparing graduates for the world of work. That is, this set of institutions are expected to ensure “work readiness” of their graduates by equipping them with work readiness skills which include subject-specific skills (Karlesses, 2022; Sanusi et al., 2024; Peersia et al., 2024, p.1830). Thereby, positioning such graduates for successful professionalization through the acquisition of hard and soft skills, necessary to meet the performance expectation level of employers, the demands of, and effectiveness in the world of work (Peersia et al., 2024; Randika, 2024). Effectiveness of tertiary education, therefore, is ultimately expected to contribute in no small measure to economic and societal development (Chankseliani et al., 2021). As a major determinant of national economic development, effectiveness of tertiary education is crucial.

 Over the years, higher education institutions in Nigeria have experienced a significant growth, with an increasing number of institutions established to accommodate the rising demands for tertiary education. However, concerns has been raised towards the effectiveness of tertiary education in adequately preparing graduates for the world of work (Bloom et al., 2014; Yakubu & Dasuki, 2019).

Research has shown that the rapid advancement and diffusion of technology and globalization has played a huge role in reshaping job market expectations such as expecting graduates to possess both soft and hard skills (Jimoh, 2022; Tella et al., 2023). The job market demands graduates with soft skills such as creativity, communication, adaptability, and teamwork, in addition to hard skills which include practical applications and real-life expertise (Lee et al., 2024). Contrary to this, studies have shown that quite a large number of tertiary institutions in Nigeria, emphasize theoretical knowledge over practical applications. This may result in a gap between the training received in the tertiary institutions and labour market demands, thus contributing to graduates not being work ready as a result of mismatch in skill set possessed and work environment requirements (Egielewa et al., 2022; Okwudili, 2024).

Some studies have indicated that the Nigerian labour market is characterized by high rate of employer dissatisfaction, skills mismatch, and  graduates incompetence in the place of work (Nwaikpo, 2025).  Others have found that many tertiary institution graduates struggle to secure employment as a result of deficiencies in problem solving, critical thinking, adaptability, affinity mapping skills, digital literacy skills and other job-relevant skills (Pitan, 2016; Ofor- Douglas, 2024).   These identified backdrops have incited debates towards the relevance of the education provided in tertiary institutions and alignment with the world of work (Iruonagbe et al., 2015; Ogunode & Musa, 2020). Thus indicating a query on the effectiveness of tertiary education provided in Nigeria.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Tertiary Education Effectiveness

Examining the viewpoint of stakeholders on work readiness of higher education graduates in the United Kingdom, Cheng et al. (2021) found that the Government of the United Kingdom considered work readiness of  graduates to be the responsibility of higher education institutions, thus an indicator of the effectiveness of tertiary institutions. In a similar study, Nugroho et al. (2024), discovered that in Indonesia, education at the tertiary level, which incorporated internships and soft skills training, enhanced graduates skills, thus arming them with requisite competences for the world of work. According to Akinwande (2021) Nigerian tertiary education institutions are saddled with the responsibility of providing solutions to national problems and thus, solving societal challenges.

Studies by Sahade and  Ngampo (2021), Hanif et al. (2023) investigated the relevance of courses studied in tertiary education institutions to the world of work, focusing on curriculum relevance with the World of Work. Results of the studies showed that course studied was relevant most of the time, to the type of employment sought and got by the tertiary education graduates, especially in cases of correlation between the course studied and the sector (world of work). Researchers also found that though tertiary education institutions in Nigeria, still faced challenges of  inadequate funding, brain drain, poor infrastructure, poor curriculum transformation among others, the sector still holds a significant potential for national development (Ogunode & Musa,2020).Thus addressing the challenges within the sector  is  vital for enhancing tertiary education institutions’ effectiveness and economic development of Nigeria and similar economies (Ekpoh et al., 2024).

Stakeholders’ Perspectives of Tertiary Education Effectiveness

Prikshat, et al. (2020) investigated the work readiness competencies of higher education and vocational education graduates in Australia, the study found that Stakeholders were of the opinion that the higher and vocational education sectors did not prepare graduates sufficiently in terms of work readiness skills. Graduates were alleged to be deficient in cognitive, communication (written and expression), creativity, self management, system thinking, team work, and innovation skills. Simlarly, Hoque et al.(2023) examined graduate work readiness skills expected by employers in Bangladesh, where millions of graduates were reported to be unemployed, and employers complained of unavailability of suitable graduates for employment. The researchers found that aside from individual personality and qualifications, to consider a graduate work ready, employers required such individuals to be: able to adapt to emerging situations, achievement oriented, hardworking, honest,  persons of integrity, willing to take on extra work, and, able to participate in teamwork. It was also expected that such graduates possess communication, computer literacy, and technical skills.

Targeting employers in the health and education sectors of South Africa, Obioha and Stshangane (2022) investigated employers perspectives of work readiness skills. The study revealed that employers expected that to be work ready, graduates must posses the following skills: reading and writing, listening and speaking, collaborative (team work), planning and organisation, ethical awareness, problem solving, presentation, research undertaking, computer literacy, creativity and innovation, leadership, and quantitative (arranged in sequence of level at which the skills possession were considered defective in graduates). In a study undertaken in all the six geo- political zones of Nigeria, Pitan and Adedeji (2012) compared the work readiness skills demand of graduates by the labour market, to level of skills supplied, it found a very high level of skills mismatch among tertiary education graduates. In another study undertaken in the South Eastern part of Nigeria, it was discovered that tertiary education equipped graduates with a moderate level of of work readiness skills (Ezechukwu et al., (2021).  In another study undertaken in the same geopolitical zone of Nigeria, Ofor- Douglas and Isaiah (2024) discovered disparity between skills possessed by tertiary education graduates and requirements of the job market. The researchers ascribed the discrepancy to the way tertiary education institutions over emphasized academic theory over practical expertise, culminating in a lack of synergy between tertiary education acquired work readiness skills and industry requirements. Thus leaving graduates ill – equipped for work place standards. In a related study carried out in the South Southern part of Nigeria, it was found that tertiary education graduates were well prepared for the work place, as the education provided by the institutions equipped graduates with a high level of work readiness skills (Oko & Ekpeye, 2024). Comparing the required with the work readiness skills possessed by tertiary education graduates from the perspectives of employers, a similar study undertaken in Lagos, Southwest, Nigeria, discovered that the level of skills possessed by tertiary education graduates was below the expectations of employers (Adebakin et al., 2015).

Review of literature in this study has shown varying perceptions of the effectiveness of tertiary education in terms of equipping graduates with work ready skills that are in tandem with work place requirements.

Theoretical Framework

This study is hinged on the human capital theory of Schultz (1959) and the effectiveness theory of Bullock (2006). The human capital theory posits that education and training are investments which will result in skills, knowledge, experience and qualifications. These are expected to lead to the production of human wealth and ultimately national wealth. That is, the deliberate actions of attending tertiary institutions (according to the effectiveness measurement theory) should lead to a desired end state of acquisition of knowledge, academic qualifications, experience, and skills, all culminating in work ready graduates, the human wealth of nations. The implication of this is that effectiveness of tertiary education means production of work ready graduates, who possesses sufficient work readiness skills that will enhance productivity of employing organisations. Possession and use of requisite skills, will culminate in effectiveness of tertiary education, thus economic growth of the individual, employing organisation and the nation.

Though stakeholders perspectives on effectiveness of tertiary education have been sought and determined in other climes, studies that have investigated these perspectives, including that of the graduates themselves is sparse. Hence this study was undertaken to fill the gap.

Objectives of the study

To fill the gap on the the world of work perspectives of effectiveness of tertiary education, particularly in Nigeria. This study :determined the relevance of possession of tertiary education qualification to the recruitment process of the world of work; investigated the employers and employees perspectives of the relevance of graduates’ course of study to possession of work readiness skills; and determined the effectiveness of tertiary education in Nigeria (in terms of sufficiency of skills for workplace effectiveness) from the perspectives of the employers and graduates.

These objectives led to the formulation of three research questions:

How relevant is the possession of tertiary education qualification to the world of work recruitment process?

What are the perspectives of employers and employees of the influence of graduates’ course of study to possession of work readiness skills?

How effective is tertiary education in Nigeria (in terms of sufficiency of skills for workplace effectiveness from the perspectives of employers and graduates?

METHODOLOGY

The research employed the qualitative descriptive research method. Participants in the study were six Employers of tertiary education graduates; two each from the Engineering, Secondary level of Education and Tertiary level of Education sectors. These sectors were chosen for exploratory purposes and for the fact that employee graduates of these sectors were accessible in sufficient numbers to the researchers. Convenient sampling technique was utilised to select employers of graduates (one from each organisation), making six employers  and employee/ graduates (four from each sector; some had attended both polytechnics and universities; Colleges of Education and Universities, making a total of 24) who graduated from Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of  Education working in one  public and private universities each, in a public and private secondary school and in two Engineering firms that were privately owned (as there was no functional government owned engineering organisation in the study area). Making a total  of 30 participants. Six employers or their representatives  and 24 tertiary education graduates.

The data for the study were collected using  semi structured interview guides. The interviews were conducted by the researchers in the workplace environment of the participants. The employers were interviewed first before the employees. After collecting some background information from the participants, in the case of Employers, they were asked three questions: 1.What is the relevance of possession of tertiary education qualification to your recruitment process? 2. How relevant do you consider the tertiary education (course of study) of your employees/ subordinates to the possession of skills required for effectiveness in your work place? 3. Is the education received by your graduate employees in tertiary education institutions sufficient to  equip them with skills needed to work effectively in your organisation?

Background information on age, institutions attended and highest level of education was sought from the graduates,  after which they were asked the following questions: 1. What is the relevance of your tertiary academic qualification to your recruitment in this organisation? 2. How relevant do you consider the tertiary education(course of study) you received to the possession of skills required for your effectiveness at the work place? 3.  Is the education you received at the tertiary institution sufficient to equip  you with the skills needed for your effectiveness at the workplace?

The researchers manually recorded the participants’ responses during the interview and also audio recorded the interviews after seeking and receiving permission to record from the interviewees. The manual and audio recordings were compared after concluding interviews at each work place, to resolve all differences that were noted. The final copy of the field records was subjected to emergent coding analysis ( Stemler, 2001). One of the researchers and a neutral person, categorised and coded the data collected independently, with reference to the research questions. After the preliminary coding and resolution of differences between both categories of data, a checklist containing all the independently coded data, was drawn up. The proportion of agreement between the raters data was 0.78, as calculated using Cohen’s Kappa statistic, indicating an excellent (beyond chance) level of agreement between  data of both  raters.

RESULTS

The results are arranged in themes as identified from the interview transcripts.

Research Question One: How relevant is the possession of tertiary education qualification  to the recruitment process of the world of work?

Theme One:  Tertiary education qualification is very important to the recruitment process

Tertiary education qualification is very important… qualification in all forms of  higher education. Skills are one of the major priorities in these organizations. The tertiary education and course the employee studied serve as the base line for employment consideration.

Tertiary education is very important to the recruitment process, especially as it lays the foundation to show that the individual should have the ability to engage emotionally, intellectually, and psychologically at work, applying both theoretical and practical knowledge to ensure work effectiveness….

…tertiary education is quite important to the recruitment process… I am not particular on any one type as my criterion for worker selection… In as much as the intending employee has the required knowledge to perform at work…

Tertiary education is very important to the recruitment process… education is a must. So while I employ university graduates, I also employ polytechnic graduates..… The essential thing for me is the possession of tertiary education.

….Tertiary education is important and of course forms the backbone for the recruitment process …with the backing of relevant qualifications and portrayal of skills needed, during interview, graduates are considered for employment.

The responses of the participants to the question of relevance of tertiary education qualification possession to the recruitment processes of work organisations showed that, qualifications of that level of education was considered as crucial for consideration of employment. All participants viewed it as enabling foundational qualification for an individual to be regarded as a likely candidate for employment.

Research Question Two: How relevant is the tertiary education qualifications (in terms of course of study) to possession of  work readiness skills required for effectiveness in the work place?

Theme Two: Staff employment is based on the relevance of the courses studied at the tertiary institution to the job.

In line with this theme, employer participants responded to the question as follows:

Yes… Members of staff are employed based on the course studied in the university to the job… to ensure that the best is recruited, employees are both university and polytechnic graduates. While the polytechnics graduates function accurately in engaging in electrical activities practically, the university graduates function more in the theoretical phase, ensuring a balance to effectiveness… when training is inclusive..

Yes,… that has been one of the bases of my selection as an employer… it helps to facilitate productivity and efficiency at work…

Yes,… …. basis of my selection as an employer… helps to facilitate productivity and efficiency at work…

I usually employ staff based on course relevance to … work…

While two participants had contrary opinions:

..I do not specifically employ staff based on the relevance of their tertiary education courses to their intended jobs, but prior experience is expected, and also training is mandatory, regardless of the experience or the course taken at the tertiary education institution, …… Consistent training and development is one of the keys to consistent improvement in my organization, ensuring that all employees are trained to my organizational standards, regardless of their educational institutions or qualifications…

I do not employ staff based on the relevance of the course studied and the world of work… instances of employees crossing from another discipline to banking without prior finance knowledge or having to study accounting…doing well… developing relevant skills… undergoing relevant training.. work effectiveness is in place here…

Of the six employer participants, four considered course of study at the tertiary level of education to be relevant building blocks for work readiness skills that would be needed to work effectively in the work place. Two participants on the other hand did not perceive course of study as being relevant to possession of skills. These individuals were of the opinion that as long as the intending employee was a  graduate of the tertiary level of education, such a person will be easily malleable and thus would be able to acquire the necessary skills through training at the work place.

Research Question Three: How effective is tertiary education in Nigeria (in terms of sufficiency of skills for work place effectiveness)?

Participants responded to this question in different ways:

The Engineering firm Owner (1) responded that:

I employ both university and polytechnic graduates…Technical and practical skills from University graduates…. scarce.. while polytechnics graduates possess the accurate knowledge needed for the world of work in terms of practical work …university graduates require additional training and development to be fully effective in the field, especially as they possess more theoretical knowledge when compared to practical applications in the world of work…… In terms of building on theoretical background, modelling, to explain developments and actions to pursue, the university graduates have better grounding of formulas, once the grasp the explanations, they gain more ground at work. They are also better at presentations. The university training prepares them better for presentations, particularly to clients.

So, for both categories, I don’t feel the tertiary education is sufficient for them to work effectively. Tertiary training just serves as the foundation. Once they are employed,they are trained during orientation, they also attend various professional workshops on the job. For me, the tertiary qualification is not sufficient, it just makes it easier to inculcate the necessary skills in the employees. They are easier to train up to required standards than people who have not undergone any tertiary level education.

Employer of Engineering Firm (2) had these to say:

Practical and technical skills, hands-on experience, and vocational training have been associated with polytechnics, especially in this engineering industry, playing a huge role in enhancing productivity and positive job performance at work…

University graduates are also significant in enhancing productivity and positive job performance at work, giving the fact that they are strong in strategy, innovation, systems thinking,… possessing different leadership experience.… , collaboration and team working skills. This means both categories of  employees have their areas of strength. The tertiary education they receive gives them skills to be built on….

Only university graduates can be employed to teach in the university. This implies that to be considered as having any skills for recruitment, qualification from the polytechnic can not be the highest qualification of such an intending employee. In fact, these days, according to the NUC directives (National Universities Commission), a first degree graduate cannot be considered for teaching employment. To be considered, such an individual most possess a post graduate degree, to be considered for employment as an assistant lecturer, which is a training position of someone who is not yet considered as a full university teacher.

 It is considered that the university graduate has the preliminary skills that will be developed to attain effectiveness in the work place.

Only University graduates can be employed due to work standards… and intellectual capacity.. relevant to productivity at work… . Some one who did not pass through the university is not likely to possess the skills it takes to teach in the university. I believe the university education received equips graduates with the foundational skills necessary to work effectively. These will develop with experience and further training on the job.

Private Secondary school Owner

I employ College of education and University graduates in my school. The College of Education of education graduates teach the lower classes, the university graduates teach the upper classes. The skills the graduates acquired from tertiary education usually suffice at entry level but as time goes on, all teachers need continued professional development to meet up with the changing times in educating the students they teach.

When probed on why the school owner felt skills acquired at tertiary institution suffice for entry level teaching effectiveness, he said:

The employees undergo micro teaching and teaching practice,in the tertiary institution.  These give them real life practical experiences of what they come to meet in the school as their work place. I still employ those who did not study education  at the tertiary level . I employ graduates of Accountancy who did not study education. This is because , sometimes there are needs and graduates that study education are not available to fill the gap.

Probed on the effectiveness of such none education graduates:

You will be surprised. They just need a little guidance, then you will not be able to differentiate them from education graduates. They even perform better, sometimes.

Public Secondary School Principal

Yes, the skills graduates gain from tertiary education aids their effectiveness in the work place up to a point, but I wouldn’t say nor agree that it enables their total effectiveness at the work place. The work place training/ development enhances the skills they posses and helps them to acquire the skills they still need to reach the level of effectiveness necessary for success in the workplace. They have undergone internships…in the form of teaching practice, at least twice, so, yes they have skills but the skills are not sufficient for total effectiveness at the work place.

The Government employs only education graduates from Colleges of Education to teach JS (Junior Secondary School Classes) One to three and University Education Graduates to teach the senior classes.

The results indicated the relevance of employees level of education in ensuring work effectiveness in an organization. It showed the emphasis on tertiary education as a vital yardstick for employment opportunities across industries. The findings showed that while some employers are particular about university graduates, some employ from the different categories of tertiary education. Also some employ specific related courses for some jobs while others feel that once the individual possesses the tertiary level of education, with some training in or through the work place, such individual will function effectively.

The results of the graduate employees are arranged in thematic tables because of the number of participants involved.

Question One: How relevant is the possession of tertiary education qualification to the recruitment process of the world of work?

All the participants were of the opinion that the tertiary education qualifications they possessed was the criterion that qualified them to be able to apply to the work place.

Question Two: What are the employees perspectives of graduates’ course of study to possession of work readiness skills?

Table One: Graduates’ perspectives of the course of study and possession of work readiness skills

All the participants, even those not performing jobs directly related to their courses of study at the tertiary institution were of the opinion that tertiary education equipped them with some level of work readiness skills.

Question Three: Did tertiary education equip you with sufficient work readiness skills for effective performance at the work place?

Table Two: Graduates’ perspectives of effectiveness of tertiary education ( in terms of sufficiency of skills for workplace effectiveness)

The responses given on the effectiveness of tertiary education showed that only  four participant graduates (16.67) considered tertiary education as being effective in terms of equipping them with sufficient work readiness skills to be able to undertake their jobs effectively in the work place. The remaining 20 (83.33%) participants considered tertiary education as being ineffective . This is because that level of education to them, did not prepare graduates fully for the work place by equipping them with the sufficient work readiness skills that will not need any further training or enhancements to perform effectively in the work place.

DISCUSSION

This study sought the employers of labour and tertiary education graduates’ perceptions of the relevance of possession of tertiary education qualification to the recruitment process of the world of work. Findings showed that both employers and graduates in the world of work considered tertiary education to be vital to the recruitment process as it served as the baseline for consideration of an individual for recruitment. This finding is similar to that of Cheng et al., (2021), and Nugroho et al.(2024) who found that possession of tertiary education qualifications was an indication that individuals were work ready, and armed with requisite competencies for the world of work in the United Kingdom and Indonesia.

Another finding of this study was that most employers and graduates considered the similarity of the course studied to work undertaken as being relevant for equipping graduates with work readiness skills. This finding is similar to that of studies undertaken by Sahade and Ngampo (2021) and Hanif et al. (2023), who found that course studied in tertiary institutions were relevant to kind of job undertaken in the world of work as the courses were considered to be the foundation on which effectiveness in the world of work would be achieved and sustained. This study also found that a few employers did not consider relevance of course of study to the type of work to be done. This is because such employers were of the opinion that with the basic tertiary education qualification, some experience and training at the place of work, graduates should be able to fit into most sectors of work.

This study revealed that though tertiary education qualification was considered as the baseline for recruitment into the world of work, it did not arm the graduates with the required skills to effectively transverse the world of work, indicating that tertiary education is not effective. It only served as a foundational level on which work readiness skills were built. To be effective in the world of work, graduates have to undergo supplementary training. This finding is in line with that of Prikshat et al. (2020)  Australian study which revealed that tertiary institutions did not prepare candidates sufficiently in terms of work readiness skills. The findings of this study also corroborate that of Hoque et al (2023), which found that personality and tertiary education qualifications were not enough to be effective in the work place. The researchers concluded that though so many work sectors needed people to work, the available graduates did not possess the requisite work readiness skills sought by employers in Bangladesh. The findings of this study further corroborates that of Pitan and Adedeji, 2012; Adebakin, et al, 2015; Ofor- Dougas and Isaiah, 2024, which found evidences of skills mismatch and disparities between skills possessed by tertiary education graduates and industry requirements. These were ascribed to lack of synergy between the tertiary education institutions and industry, resulting from the supposedly over emphasis on academic theory over practical expertise. The finding of the study on the other hand is contrary to that of Ezechukwu et al., (2021), and  Oko and Ekpeye (2024),   undertaken in the  South eastern and South southern parts of Nigeria respectively, which found that tertiary education equipped graduates with moderate and high level of work readiness skills.  The findings of these studies might have been influenced by variables not indicated in the current study.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The study concluded that with the need to undergo supplementary training post- graduation from tertiary education institutions for most graduates. It could be said that the level of tertiary education effectiveness in Nigeria is low. The only category of tertiary education graduates who did not need the extra training to be work ready and work effectively were graduates in the field of education, where the graduates are made to experience the wold of work as teachers during teaching practice and micro teaching phases of their training. The implication of this is that practical exposures and experiences should be increased during tertiary education studies such that graduates would not need to seek for further training in order to be work ready, even at the entry level of the world of work.

REFERENCES

1. Adebakin, A. B., Ajadi, O. T., & Subair, S. T. (205). Required and possessed university graduate employability skills: Perceptions of the Nigerian employers. World Journal of Education, 5(2), 115 -121. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/wje.v5n2p115
2. Akinwande, S. A. (2021). Solving societal problems through tertiary education curriculum. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 27(4), 30 -39.
3. Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., Chan, K., & Luca, D. L. (2014). Higher education and economic growth in Africa. International Journal of African Higher Education, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v1i1.5643
4. Bullock, R. K. (2006). Theory of effectiveness measurement.[Doctoral dissertation, Air Force Institute of Technology].Theses and Dissertations. 3299.https://scholar.afit.edu/etd/3299
5. Chankseliani, M., Qoraboyev, I., & Gimranova, D. (2021). Higher education contributing to local, national, and global development: new empirical and conceptual insights. Higher Education, 81(1), 109-127.
6. Cheng, M., Adekola, O., Albia, J., & Cai, S. (2021). Employability in higher education: A review of key stakeholders’ perspectives. Higher Education Evaluation and Development, 16(1),16-31. https://doi.org/10.1108/Heed-03-2021-0025
7. Colbert, , Yee, N., & George, G.(2016). The digital workforce and the workplace of the future.  Academy of Management, 59, 731-739.
8. Egielewa, P., Idogho, P.O., Iyalomhe, F.O. and Cirella, G.T., 2022. COVID-19 and digitized education: Analysis of online learning in Nigerian higher education. E-learning and Digital Media, 19(1), 19-35.
9. Ekpoh, U. I., Okpa, O. E., & Swem, T. (2024). Reimagining tertiary education: Issues, challenges and solutions. Global Journal of Educational Research, 23(2), 127 135. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjedr/v23i2.1
10. Ezechukwu, L. C., Okanazu, O. O., Babalulu, M. M., Arowolo, A. A., & Olelewe, C. J. (2021). Career readiness of graduating office technology and management students in Polytechnics in Southeast, Nigeria. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(2), 290 – 303.
11. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014). National policy on education. NERDC Press.
12. Hanif, M. M., Kurniawan, A. W., Haeruddin, M. I. M., Musa, C. I., & Musa, M. I. (2023). Analysis of level of relevance competence of Higher Education Graduates and supporting factors with employment. International Journal of Management and Economics Invention, 9(2), 2826 2831. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijmei/v9i2.01
13. Hoque, N., Uddin, M., Ahmad, A., Uddin, M. N., Chowdhury, R. A., & Noman Alam, A. H. M. (2023). The desired employability skills and work readiness of graduates: Evidence from the perspectives of established and well known employers of an emerging economy. Industry and Higher Education, 37(5), 716 -730. https://doi.org/10.1177/095042222211491850
14. Iruonagbe, C. T., Imhonopi, D., & Egharevba, M. E. (2015). Higher education in Nigeria and the emergence of private universities. International Journal of Education and Research, 3(2), 49 -64.
15. Jimoh, I. O. (2022). Institutional factors influencing employability skills aquisition of Business Education Students in Nigerian Universities [Doctoral dissertation, Kwara State University ].
16. Karlesses, A. (2022). Well, what are you going to do with that? Combating the corporatized university through transformative, holistic career education. [ Master thesis, West Chester University, 231]. https://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/all_theses/231
17. Kustini, ,& Purwanto, S. (2020). Remuneration policy to improve lecturer performances. Journal of Economics and Business, 3(4), 1529-1537.
18. Lee, C. L., Yam, S., Susilawati, C., & Blake, A. (2024). The future property workforce: challenges and opportunities for property professionals in the changing landscape. Buildings, 14(1), 224.
19. Morris, H. (2024). What is meant by the term tertiary education? Past developments and recent activity. Policy Reviews in Higher Education, 8(2), 122 – 145.
20. Nugroho, N. E., Irianto, J., & Suryanto, S. (2024). A systematic review of Indonesian Higher Education Students’ and Graduates’ work readiness. Urnal Ilmiah Ilmu, Terapan Universistas Jambi, 8(1), 350 – 363. https://doi.org/10.22437/jiituj.v8i1.33073
21. Obioha, E. E., & Sotshangane, Y. (2022). Perspectives on employers’ expectations on tertiary education graduates’ employability skills in Eastern Cape, South Africa. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 11(5), 27 – 248. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v.1i5.1832
22. Ofor-Douglas, S. (2024). Bridging the employment gap: Strategies for Nigeria’s university system to reduce graduate unemployment. Research Journal in Education 8, (2), 55 – 69.
23. Ofor- Douglas, S., & Isaiah, J. E. (2024). Employability skills required by education graduates of Rivers State universities for economic enhancement. International Journal of Research and Advancement in Education, 10(2), 26 -39.
24. Ogunode, N. J., & Musa, A. (2020). Higher education in Nigeria: Challenges and the ways forward. Electronic Research Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 3 (September), 84 -98.
25. Oko, F. B., & Ekpeye, N. A. (2024). Entrepreneurial skills for work readiness among students of Building Technology in tertiary institutions in Rivers State. Academia Networks Journal of Advanced Educational policy, 9(2), 93 – 100. https://doi.org/10.87384736-4724928
26. Okwudili, C. B. (2024). Skills mismatch in Nigeria’s Labour Market: Bridging the divide: A case study of Rivers State. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies, 4(3), 1533-1538.
27. Peersia, K., Rappa, N. A., & Perry, L. B. (2024). A new multidimensional graduate work readiness scale: An exploratory study of its factor structure and reliability. http://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4886175/v1
28. Pettinger, (2019). What’s wrong with work? Policy Press.
29. Pitan, O. S. (2016). Towards enhancing university graduate employability in Nigeria. Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 7(1), 1-11.
30. Pitan, O.S., & Adedeji, S. O. (2012). Skills mismatch among university graduates in the Nigeria labor Market. US-China Education Review, A(1), 90 -98.
31. Prikshat, V., Montague, A., Connell, J., & Burgess, J. (2020).Australian Graduates work readiness: Deficiencies, causes and potential solutions. Higher Education, Skills and Work Based Learning,10(3),69 -386. https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-02-2019-0025
32. Republic of The Gambia (2021). National accreditation and quality assurance: The Gambia national qualifications framework. https://naqaa.gm>uploads>2021/03>FINAL_DRAFT_GNF_DOCUMENT.pdf.
33. Sahade, S., & Ngampo, Y. A. (2021). Analysis of the relevance curriculum with the world of work needs and the world of business. Kontigensi: Scientific Journal of Management,            9(2), 522-530. https://doi.org/10.56457/jimk.v9i2.202
34. Sanusi, I. T., Agbo, F. J., Dada, O. A., Yunusa, A. A., Aruleba, K. D., Obaido, G., Olawumi, O., & Oyelere, S. S. (2024). Stakeholders’ insights on artificial intelligence education: Perspectives of teachers, students, and policymakers. Computers and Education Open, 7, Article 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100212
35. Schultz, T. W. (1959). Investment in man: An economists view. Social Service Review:33(2), 109 -177. https://doi.org/10.1086/640546
36. Stemler, S. C. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment Research and Evaluation, 7,17. http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?V=7&N=17
37. Tella, A., Bamidele, S. S., Olaniyi, O. T., & Ajani, Y. A. (2023). Industrial Revolution: A Nigerian perspective. Information services for a sustainable society: Current developments in an era of information disorder, 183, 342. https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-062023-0094
38. van der Laan, L., Ormsby, G., Fergusson, L., & McIiven, P. (2023). Is this work? Revisiting the definition of work in the 21^st Journal of Work Applied Management, 5(2), 252- 272. http://doi.org/10.1108/JWAM-04-2023-0035
39. Yakubu, M. N., & Dasuki, S. I. (2019). Factors affecting the adoption of e-learning technologies among higher education students in Nigeria: A structural equation modelling approach. Information Development, 35(3), 492-502.