Evaluating The Implementation of Nigeria’s National Language Policy (NLP) In Secondary Education: Curriculum Effectiveness and Teacher Readiness for 21st-Century Language Classrooms

Evaluating The Implementation of Nigeria’s National Language Policy (NLP) In Secondary Education: Curriculum Effectiveness and Teacher Readiness for 21st-Century Language Classrooms

Hakeem A. NAFIU¹, Adeyemi O. OLAITAN²

¹Educational Administration, Carolina University, North Carolina, USA

²Arts Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000230

Received: 04 July 2025; Accepted: 12 July 2025; Published: 04 September 2025

ABSTRACT  

This study evaluated the implementation of Nigeria’s National Language Policy (NLP) in secondary education, focusing on curriculum effectiveness and teacher readiness for 21st-century language classrooms across urban and rural contexts. A mixed-methods design integrated quantitative surveys from 150 teachers (75 urban from Lagos, 75 rural from Oyo), West African Examinations Council (WAEC) results (2022–2024) for 1,200 student records, semi-structured interviews with 12 stakeholders, and document analysis of the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) curriculum and NLP guidelines. Findings revealed moderate NLP integration in urban schools (x̄ = 3.10) but limited alignment in rural schools (x̄ = 2.70), with significant urban-rural disparities (t(148) = 3.02, p < .05). Urban students outperformed rural peers in English (76% vs. 60%) and Yoruba (52% vs. 35%) pass rates. The curriculum partially supported the 4Cs (communication, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity) in urban settings (x̄ = 3.20) but failed in rural settings (x̄ = 2.40). Teachers faced challenges, including Yoruba textbook shortages (88% rural vs. 70% urban) and inadequate training, with rural teachers less prepared for 4Cs integration (x̄ = 2.50 vs. 3.00 urban). Stakeholders proposed reforms, including standardized Yoruba materials and urban-rural partnerships. Document analysis confirmed English curriculum alignment but Yoruba’s neglect. The study highlighted resource inequities and policy gaps, as a result, recommended curriculum revisions and targeted training to enhance NLP implementation and equitable language education.

Keywords: National Language Policy (NLP), curriculum effectiveness, teacher readiness, 21st-century skills, urban-rural disparities, multilingual pedagogy, Yoruba instruction, 4Cs integration, secondary education, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION

Language education in Nigeria, a country with over 500 indigenous languages and English as the official medium of instruction, is a cornerstone for academic achievement, cultural preservation, and global communication among secondary school students. The National Language Policy (NLP), approved in 2022, mandates mother tongue instruction up to Primary 6, with English as the primary medium in secondary schools and indigenous languages, such as Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo, taught as subjects [9]. This policy aims to promote multilingualism, enhance learning outcomes by building on students’ linguistic foundations, and ensure proficiency in English for international participation. However, the implementation of the NLP in secondary education faces significant obstacles, including inconsistent curriculum integration, inadequate teaching resources, and limited teacher preparedness, particularly in urban and rural contexts [3]. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the secondary school curriculum in aligning with the NLP and assesses teachers’ readiness to deliver 21st-century language education in Lagos and Oyo states, emphasizing the integration of communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity, collectively known as the 4Cs framework.

Curriculum effectiveness refers to the extent to which the Nigerian secondary school curriculum supports the NLP’s objectives and fosters 21st-century skills. An effective curriculum provides clear guidelines for teaching English and indigenous languages, incorporates activities that promote the 4Cs, and ensures equitable access to resources across urban and rural schools [31]. The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council designs the national curriculum, which includes English as a compulsory subject and indigenous languages as electives [17]. However, challenges such as outdated content, insufficient materials for languages like Yoruba, and limited emphasis on digital literacy hinder the curriculum’s ability to meet modern educational demands [7]. Urban schools in Lagos benefit from better access to teaching aids and technology, enabling some integration of collaborative and creative activities, while rural schools in Oyo struggle with basic resources, often relying on traditional teaching methods [1], [15], [16]. This study examines how the curriculum aligns with the NLP and supports the development of 21st-century skills, identifying disparities between urban and rural contexts.

Teacher readiness, encompasses the knowledge, skills, and confidence of teachers to implement the NLP and foster 21st-century skills in language classrooms. Teachers require pedagogical content knowledge, as outlined by Shulman [23], to effectively teach English and indigenous languages while integrating student-centered methods that promote the 4Cs. In Nigeria, teacher preparedness is often undermined by inadequate pre-service training, limited professional development opportunities, and resource shortages, particularly in rural areas [19]. Urban teachers in Lagos may access workshops and digital tools, but they face challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, which limit their ability to deliver interactive lessons [1], [15], [16]. Rural teachers in Oyo frequently lack basic materials and training in multilingual pedagogy, leading to reliance on rote learning [7]. This study investigates teachers’ readiness to meet the NLP’s requirements and adapt to the demands of 21st-century language classrooms, comparing urban and rural experiences.

The significance of this study is such that it addresses critical gaps in Nigerian secondary education and inform policy, teacher education, and curriculum reform. The NLP’s implementation at the secondary level is under-researched, with most studies focusing on primary education [3]. Urban and rural disparities further complicate effective language education, as resource availability, teacher training, and parental expectations vary significantly [29]. By evaluating curriculum effectiveness and teacher readiness, this study provides evidence-based insights to strengthen the NLP’s implementation, enhance teacher training programs, and revise curricula to incorporate 21st-century skills. The focus on the 4Cs ensures alignment with global educational standards, preparing students for modern communication and problem-solving [31]. The findings will benefit policymakers, curriculum developers, and educators by promoting equitable language education that supports Nigeria’s educational goals of inclusive and quality education [9], [36].

This study is particularly timely given Nigeria’s commitment to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4, which emphasizes inclusive and equitable quality education [31]. The integration of 21st-century skills, such as the 4Cs, into language education ensures that students develop competencies for critical analysis, teamwork, and creative expression, essential for navigating global economies [12]. The emphasis on NLP awareness and multilingual pedagogy addresses the need for culturally relevant education, while the urban/rural scope highlights equity issues critical to Nigeria’s educational landscape [2]. By providing practical recommendations, this study contributes to the discourse on multilingual education, ensuring students are prepared for both local cultural contexts and global communication demands.

The study also responds to the need for evidence-based interventions in Nigerian education, where language policy implementation has been inconsistent [20]. By incorporating student performance data from the West African Examinations Council (2022–2024), the study links curriculum and teacher factors to tangible outcomes, offering a comprehensive perspective on NLP effectiveness. This approach ensures that recommendations are grounded in empirical data, addressing systemic barriers and promoting sustainable educational reforms that benefit urban and rural students alike [14]. Hence, the following questions are answered:

1. To what extent is Nigeria’s NLP integrated into the secondary school curriculum in urban and rural contexts, and how does this integration differ between these settings
2. How effective is the secondary school language curriculum in fostering the 4Cs among students in urban and rural contexts?
3. What are the challenges faced by teachers in urban and rural secondary schools when implementing language education in alignment with Nigeria’s NLP?
4. How prepared are secondary school teachers in urban and rural contexts to foster 21st-century skills (4Cs) in language classrooms?
5. What reforms in curriculum development and teacher education are needed to enhance the implementation of Nigeria’s NLP and the integration of the 4Cs in language education in urban and rural secondary schools?

Statement of the Problem

The implementation of the NLP in Nigerian secondary education faces significant challenges, undermining its objectives of promoting multilingualism, enhancing learning outcomes, and preserving cultural identities. Despite the policy’s directives for English as the medium of instruction and indigenous languages as subjects, secondary schools struggle with inconsistent curriculum integration, inadequate teaching materials, and unprepared teachers, particularly in urban and rural contexts [9], [7]. These challenges hinder students’ ability to develop the 4Cs, such as effective communication and critical thinking, essential for 21st-century language classrooms. Urban-rural disparities exacerbate the problem, with urban schools benefiting from better resources and rural schools facing shortages of textbooks and trained teachers [1], [15], [16]. The lack of comprehensive evaluations of the NLP’s implementation at the secondary level leaves policymakers and educators without clear guidance to address these issues [3].

Previous studies have explored aspects of language education in Nigeria but have not fully addressed the secondary school context or urban-rural dynamics. Ezepue et al. [7] conducted a study in Southeast Nigeria, finding that local language instruction improved student engagement but was limited by a lack of trained teachers and standardized materials. Tom-Lawyer [29] evaluated the English language curriculum in a college of education, identifying outdated content and poor alignment with practical teaching needs. Avaa et al. [3] examined the NLP’s implementation at primary levels, noting challenges such as policy awareness and resource shortages but omitting secondary education. These studies highlight persistent issues but do not comprehensively assess curriculum effectiveness or teacher readiness for 21st-century demands in secondary schools, particularly across urban and rural settings [19].

The gap in research is evident in the limited focus on the 4Cs framework and multilingual pedagogy in Nigerian secondary education. Global studies emphasize the importance of integrating communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity into language curricula to prepare students for modern challenges [31], [12]. In Nigeria, however, the secondary school curriculum and teacher practices often prioritize rote learning, especially in rural areas, neglecting these skills [7]. The lack of student performance data linking curriculum and teaching to outcomes further limits understanding of NLP effectiveness [33]. This study addresses these gaps by evaluating the NLP’s implementation, focusing on curriculum effectiveness, teacher readiness, NLP awareness, and 21st-century integration through the 4Cs, using a mixed-methods approach in Lagos and Oyo states.

LITERATURE REVIEW

National Language Policy in Nigeria

The NLP is a foundational element of Nigeria’s educational framework, designed to promote multilingual education by integrating indigenous languages with English. Revised in 2022, the policy mandates mother tongue instruction up to Primary 6, with English as the medium of instruction in secondary schools and indigenous languages taught as subjects [9]. This approach aims to enhance learning outcomes by leveraging students’ linguistic foundations while ensuring English proficiency for global communication. However, the policy’s implementation in secondary education faces challenges, including inconsistent adherence, lack of clear guidelines for indigenous language instruction, and weak monitoring mechanisms [3]. These barriers undermine the policy’s goal of fostering cultural identity and academic success in Nigeria’s linguistically diverse context.

In urban areas like Lagos, schools often prioritize English over indigenous languages due to parental preferences for English-medium education, perceived as a pathway to economic opportunities [1], [15], [16]. This focus sidelines the NLP’s multilingual objectives, reducing emphasis on languages like Yoruba. In rural areas, such as Oyo, schools face resource constraints, including a lack of Yoruba textbooks and trained teachers, limiting effective language instruction [7]. The WAEC [33] reports declining performance in indigenous language subjects, indicating weaknesses in curriculum delivery and teacher preparation. These urban-rural disparities highlight the need for context-specific strategies to ensure the NLP’s success in secondary education.

The policy’s effectiveness relies on robust support systems, which are currently inadequate. Avaa et al. [3] found that many educators lack awareness of the NLP’s specifics, leading to inconsistent implementation. This issue is compounded by insufficient funding for language programs, particularly for developing teaching materials and training teachers in multilingual pedagogy [19]. Weak monitoring by state education boards further hampers progress, as schools receive limited guidance on policy compliance [1], [15], [16]. The lack of standardized assessment tools for indigenous languages exacerbates these challenges, as student performance cannot be consistently evaluated [20]. This study evaluates the NLP’s integration into secondary curricula, addressing these systemic barriers.

Curriculum Effectiveness in Language Education

Curriculum effectiveness refers to the degree to which the secondary school curriculum supports the NLP’s objectives and fosters 21st-century skills. The NERDC curriculum outlines English as a compulsory subject and indigenous languages as electives, aiming to develop linguistic competence and cultural awareness [17]. However, the curriculum is criticized for outdated content, limited integration of the 4Cs, and inadequate resources for indigenous language instruction [29]. An effective curriculum should include activities that promote communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity, aligning with global educational standards [31]. In Nigeria, these activities are often absent, particularly in rural schools.

In urban schools, access to digital resources supports some 4Cs activities, such as online group projects for collaboration or digital storytelling for creativity [1], [15], [16]. However, overcrowded classrooms and inconsistent electricity limit their impact, preventing consistent student-centered learning [19]. Rural schools, lacking technology and standardized materials, rely on rote learning, which stifles creativity and critical thinking [7]. The lack of Yoruba teaching guides in rural Oyo state hinders consistent instruction, reducing curriculum effectiveness [20]. These disparities underscore the need for curriculum revisions that address urban and rural challenges.

Global studies offer insights into effective curriculum design. South Africa’s multilingual curriculum integrates local languages with activities that foster collaboration and critical thinking, supported by standardized materials [10]. India’s English curriculum incorporates multimedia projects to enhance creativity and communication, demonstrating the potential of 4Cs-focused curricula [12]. Nigeria could adopt similar strategies, developing digital resources for urban schools and low-cost materials for rural areas. The curriculum’s alignment with student performance outcomes, such as examination results, remains underexplored, necessitating further research [33]. This study examines the NERDC curriculum’s alignment with the NLP and 4Cs, identifying gaps in urban and rural contexts.

Teacher Readiness for Language Education

Teacher readiness encompasses the knowledge, skills, and resources needed to implement the NLP and deliver 21st-century language education. Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge framework emphasizes that teachers must understand language pedagogy and adapt it to their context [23]. In Nigeria, teacher readiness is often inadequate due to limited pre-service training, insufficient professional development, and resource shortages, particularly in rural areas [20]. Many educators lack training in multilingual pedagogy or 4Cs integration, affecting their ability to deliver engaging lessons [7].

Urban teachers in Lagos benefit from workshops and digital tools, enabling some 4Cs activities, such as group discussions for collaboration [1], [15], [16]. However, large class sizes and time constraints limit consistent implementation [19]. In rural Oyo, teachers face shortages of materials, such as Yoruba textbooks, and minimal exposure to modern methods, relying on rote learning [7]. The WAEC [33] highlights that poor teacher preparation contributes to low student performance in language subjects, underscoring the need for targeted training. The lack of policy-specific training further limits NLP awareness among teachers [3].

Professional development programs focusing on NLP awareness, 4Cs integration, and technology use could enhance teacher readiness. South Africa’s teacher training includes modules on multilingual education and digital literacy, improving classroom outcomes [10]. Ghana’s in-service programs emphasize student-centered methods, boosting teacher confidence [2]. Nigeria could develop similar programs, tailoring them to urban and rural contexts. The impact of teacher readiness on student performance, particularly in indigenous languages, requires further exploration [20]. This study investigates teachers’ readiness, proposing training strategies to support NLP implementation.

21st-Century Language Classroom and the 4Cs

The 21st-century language classroom emphasizes skills that prepare students for global and digital communication, defined by the 4Cs: communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity [31]. In language education, these skills involve activities like clear expression through writing and speaking, group discussions, text analysis, and creative writing or multimedia projects. Nigeria’s secondary schools must align language education with these competencies, but challenges such as outdated curricula and limited teacher training hinder progress [29]. The 4Cs framework provides a measurable approach to assess curriculum and teacher effectiveness, ensuring relevance to modern demands.

Urban classrooms in Lagos benefit from technology, enabling activities like digital storytelling and online forums [1], [15], [16]. However, inconsistent electricity and large classes reduce effectiveness, limiting student-centered learning [19]. Rural schools, constrained by resource shortages, focus on rote learning, neglecting critical thinking and collaboration [7]. Integrating the 4Cs requires curricula that support interactive methods and trained teachers, addressing both contexts [31]. The link between 4Cs integration and student performance outcomes remains underexplored in Nigeria [33].

Global research highlights the transformative potential of 4Cs-focused education. India’s English curriculum incorporates multimedia projects to enhance creativity and communication [12]. Kenya’s language curriculum includes oral storytelling and group debates, adaptable to low-resource settings [14]. Nigeria could adapt these approaches, using digital tools in urban areas and oral methods in rural schools. The 4Cs framework ensures that language education prepares students for global economies while preserving cultural identities [2]. This study evaluates how the NLP and curriculum enable 4Cs integration, identifying barriers in urban and rural settings.

Theoretical Framework

The study integrates three frameworks: Drake’s Integrated Curriculum Model, Shulman’s Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and the 4Cs Framework. Drake’s model [6] advocated for interdisciplinary curricula that connect subjects to real-world skills, guiding the assessment of language education alignment with the NLP and 21st-century demands. Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge framework [23] emphasized that teachers need content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and contextual understanding to deliver effective instruction, including the 4Cs. The 4Cs framework [31] defined 21st-century skills, providing a lens to evaluate curriculum and teacher readiness.

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework for Evaluating NLP Implementation

These frameworks are interconnected, as shown in Figure 1. The curriculum, informed by Drake’s model, provides the structure for language education, delivered by teachers using pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman’s framework) to foster student outcomes (4Cs). The NLP is the policy foundation, shaping curriculum and teacher preparation. This integrated framework ensures a holistic evaluation of NLP implementation, addressing curriculum effectiveness, teacher readiness, and 21st-century integration in urban and rural contexts. The frameworks’ synergy enables a comprehensive analysis of how policy, curriculum, and teaching practices interact to achieve educational goals.

METHODS

Research Design. The study utilized a mixed-methods design to evaluate the NLP’s implementation in Nigerian secondary education, integrating quantitative surveys and WAEC examination results with qualitative interviews and document analysis to ensure a comprehensive assessment of curriculum effectiveness and teacher readiness [5]. This approach captured broad trends in teacher perceptions and student performance while providing contextual insights into challenges and practices, enabling triangulation to enhance reliability and validity. By focusing on urban schools in Lagos and both urban and rural schools in Oyo, the design facilitated comparisons of urban-rural disparities, addressing the study’s objectives of evaluating NLP awareness, multilingual pedagogy, and 4Cs integration in Nigeria’s educational context [35].

Sample and Sampling Techniques. The study sampled 150 secondary school teachers (75 urban from Lagos, 75 rural from Oyo) and 12 stakeholders (six teachers, three administrators, three curriculum developers) from 10 purposively selected schools (five per state: three urban in Ikeja, Lagos State; two urban in Ibadan and three rural in Iseyin, Oyo State), ensuring representation of public and private institutions and English/Yoruba instructors [3]. Additionally, WAEC results (2022–2024) for 1,200 student records (600 per state, 300 urban, 300 rural) were analyzed. This sampling strategy captured diverse perspectives and performance data, reflecting urban-rural disparities and linking curriculum factors to student outcomes, supporting the study’s focus on equity and policy implementation.

Instrumentation. Four instruments were employed: a 25-item Likert-scale teacher survey (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85) assessing NLP awareness, curriculum alignment, and 4Cs integration; semi-structured interviews with 10 open-ended questions exploring challenges and teaching strategies; document analysis of the NERDC curriculum, NLP guidelines, Yoruba materials, and state education board reports; and WAEC results (2022–2024) for English pass rates. These instruments provided quantitative data on perceptions and performance, qualitative depth on contextual issues, and policy alignment insights, ensuring a robust evaluation of NLP implementation and teacher readiness for 21st-century language education [4].

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures. Data collection occurred from January to June 2024, with surveys administered in-person to teachers (95% response rate), interviews conducted face-to-face or via Zoom (30–40 minutes, audio-recorded with consent), documents sourced from NERDC and state education boards, and WAEC results (1,120 student records) obtained from examination boards [33]. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-tests in SPSS version 26 to compare urban/rural differences, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis to identify themes like “resource shortages” or “4Cs practices,” with document analysis triangulating findings for policy alignment [4].

Ethical Considerations. Ethical approval was secured from the university’s ethics committee and Lagos/Oyo state education boards, with participants providing written informed consent and assured anonymity through coded data stored on an encrypted drive [5]. Voluntary participation was emphasized, schools were informed of the study’s purpose, and findings were shared with participants, ensuring transparency and compliance with ethical standards while protecting privacy and contributing to educational improvement

RESULTS

Results are presented by research question, with a demographic data table, concise quantitative survey data, synthesized qualitative findings, streamlined document analysis, and examination data. The sample comprised 150 secondary school teachers (75 urban from Lagos, 75 rural from Oyo) and 12 stakeholders (six teachers, three administrators, three curriculum developers). Results are presented by research question, with a demographic data table, concise quantitative survey data, synthesized qualitative findings with excerpts, streamlined document analysis, and examination data.

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 1 details demographic characteristics, including gender, age, teaching experience, qualifications, school type, and subject taught. The teacher sample was balanced (54% female, 46% male, average age 37 years). Urban teachers had greater experience (x̄ = 12 years) than rural teachers (x̄ = 9 years), reflecting better retention in Lagos. Most held bachelor’s degrees (60%), but rural teachers had more diplomas (26.7% vs. 13.3%), indicating training disparities. Public schools predominated (56.7%), with rural Oyo having more (60%). Equal numbers taught English and Yoruba. Stakeholders included balanced urban/rural teachers, with administrators and curriculum developers mostly urban. The examination sample covered 1,200 student records (600 per state, 300 urban, 300 rural) for robust performance data.

Research Question One: To what extent is Nigeria’s NLP integrated into the secondary school curriculum in urban and rural contexts, and how does this integration differ between these settings

Table 2: Extent of Nigeria’s NLP Integration into the Secondary School Curriculum in Urban and Rural Contexts

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 2 shows urban teachers’ x̄ = 3.10 (SD = 0.76), indicating moderate integration, versus rural teachers’ x̄ = 2.70 (SD = 0.89), suggesting limited integration, t(148) = 3.02, p < 0.01. Notably, 72% of urban teachers agreed the curriculum provides clear English guidelines, compared to 52% rural, and only 40% of rural teachers agreed on Yoruba resource availability versus 64% urban, highlighting urban-rural disparities in policy implementation.

Table 3: West African Examinations Council Pass Rates (A1–C6) for English and Yoruba (2022–2024)

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 3 shows pass rates (A1–C6) for English and Yoruba (2022–2024, 1,200 student records). Urban students had higher x̄ pass rates (English: 76%, SD = 4.8; Yoruba: 52%, SD = 6.5) than rural students (English: 60%, SD = 6.2; Yoruba: 35%, SD = 7.8), t(1198) = 4.7 (English) and 4.0 (Yoruba), p < .05. Urban English pass rates rose from 74% (2022) to 78% (2024), while rural Yoruba rates stagnated (34–36%).

Qualitative Findings: Stakeholders revealed varied NLP integration, with urban schools moderately aligned but rural schools lagging due to resource and dissemination gaps. An urban English teacher stated,

“The English curriculum has clear objectives for reading and writing, but Yoruba lacks lesson plans for cultural engagement.”

A rural Yoruba teacher noted,

“We have no Yoruba textbooks; I use handwritten notes, which do not align with NLP goals.”

An urban administrator said,

“Lagos schools get policy updates, but Yoruba teaching aids are scarce, hindering balanced instruction.”

A rural administrator reported,

“NLP guidelines do not reach us; our Yoruba curriculum is outdated since 2018.”

A curriculum developer emphasized,

“Funding shortages prevent Yoruba material development, so English dominates, undermining multilingualism.”

These insights highlight moderate urban integration but severe rural deficiencies, driven by inequitable resource allocation.

Document Analysis: The NERDC curriculum [17] provides detailed English syllabi with objectives for comprehension and essay writing, aligning with the NLP’s English focus, but Yoruba syllabi are limited to basic grammar, lacking cultural or communicative tasks. The NLP document (2022) emphasizes multilingualism but omits secondary-level implementation strategies, such as lesson plans or assessment tools. Lagos state reports show English curriculum reviews incorporating teacher feedback, while Oyo reports note no Yoruba updates since 2018, confirming rural policy neglect.

Research Question Two: How effective is the secondary school language curriculum in fostering the 4Cs among students in urban and rural contexts?

Table 4: Effectiveness of Secondary School Language Curriculum in Fostering the 4Cs Among Students in Urban and Rural Contexts

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 4 shows urban teachers’ x̄ = 3.20 (SD = 0.71), indicating moderate effectiveness, versus rural teachers’ x̄ = 2.40 (SD = 0.94), suggesting minimal support, t(148) = 4.60, p < .05. For instance, 78% of urban teachers agreed the curriculum supports communication (e.g., debates), compared to 36% rural, and only 28% of rural teachers agreed on critical thinking support versus 72% urban, reflecting rural reliance on rote learning.

Qualitative Findings: Stakeholders highlighted limited 4Cs integration, with urban curricula offering some support but rural curricula failing due to outdated content. An urban English teacher noted,

“Debates in English lessons work for communication, but 50-student classes limit group projects.”

A rural Yoruba teacher stated,

“Yoruba lessons focus on memorizing grammar, with no activities for analyzing folktales or creative storytelling.”

An urban administrator said,

“English includes text analysis for critical thinking, but Yoruba lacks such tasks due to old syllabi.”

A rural teacher reported,

“No textbooks mean students copy notes, stifling creativity and collaboration.”

A curriculum developer emphasized,

“The curriculum has no 4Cs framework; English has some interactive tasks, but Yoruba is stuck in rote learning.”

These insights indicate moderate urban 4Cs support but negligible rural integration, undermining 21st-century skill development.

Document Analysis: The NERDC curriculum [17] includes English tasks like essay writing for creativity and comprehension for communication, but lacks group-based or analytical activities for collaboration and critical thinking. Yoruba syllabi focus solely on grammar, omitting 4Cs tasks like storytelling or peer reviews. Lagos state reports note digital tools aiding urban English debates, while Oyo reports show rural Yoruba lessons relying on outdated notes, limiting 21st-century skill integration.

Research Question Three: What are the challenges faced by teachers in urban and rural secondary schools when implementing language education in alignment with Nigeria’s NLP?

Table 5: Challenges Faced by Teachers in Urban and Rural Secondary Schools when Implementing Language Education in Alignment with Nigeria’s NLP.

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 5 shows rural teachers’ x̄ = 4.00 (SD = 0.50), indicating significant challenges, versus urban teachers’ x̄ = 3.10 (SD = 0.80), suggesting moderate issues, t(148) = 3.40, p < .05. Notably, 88% of rural teachers reported Yoruba textbook shortages versus 70% urban, and 92% of rural teachers noted lacking digital resources compared to 64% urban, highlighting severe rural barriers.

Qualitative Findings: Stakeholders identified systemic barriers, with rural teachers facing acute resource and training shortages. An urban English teacher stated,

“With 60 students, I cannot teach Yoruba interactively; parents prioritize English.”

A rural Yoruba teacher noted,

“No textbooks or training exist; my Yoruba lessons use old notes, misaligning with policy goals.”

An urban administrator said,

“Vague NLP guidelines and low Yoruba funding limit effective teaching.”

A rural teacher reported,

“No digital tools or workshops make Yoruba lessons dull and ineffective.”

A curriculum developer emphasized,

“Unclear policy directives and funding shortages block Yoruba material production.”

These insights highlight resource disparities and policy ambiguity as key challenges, particularly in rural areas.

Document Analysis: The NLP [9] lacks specific guidelines for resource allocation or teacher training, hindering implementation. Lagos state reports show funding for English teaching aids but not Yoruba, while Oyo reports confirm no rural training programs since 2020, exacerbating barriers to effective language instruction.

Research Question Four: How prepared are secondary school teachers in urban and rural contexts to foster 21st-century skills (4Cs) in language classrooms?

Table 6: Secondary School Teachers’ Readiness to Foster 4Cs in Urban and Rural Language Classrooms

Source: Field Survey, 2025

Table 6 shows urban teachers’ x̄ = 3.00 (SD = 0.79), indicating moderate readiness, versus rural teachers’ x̄ = 2.50 (SD = 0.92), suggesting limited preparedness, t(148) = 2.80, p < .05. For example, 70% of urban teachers felt confident teaching communication skills versus 42% rural, and only 34% of rural teachers reported critical thinking skills versus 66% urban, reflecting training gaps.

Qualitative Findings: Stakeholders highlighted training disparities, with urban teachers moderately prepared but rural teachers severely underprepared for 4Cs. An urban English teacher stated,

“Workshops teach 4Cs theory, but managing large classes limits practical group work.”

A rural Yoruba teacher noted,

“No 4Cs training exists; I lecture Yoruba texts, missing collaboration or creativity.”

An urban administrator said,

“Teachers need hands-on training for critical thinking tasks like text analysis.”

A rural teacher reported,

“Without workshops or visual aids, I cannot teach Yoruba creatively, like through drama.”

A curriculum developer emphasized,

“No teacher guides for 4Cs exist; Yoruba pedagogy lacks modern strategies.”

These insights show urban teachers’ limited readiness and rural teachers’ critical unpreparedness for 21st-century skills.

Document Analysis: The NERDC curriculum [17] lacks teacher guides for 4Cs, with English objectives partially supporting communication but not collaboration or critical thinking. Yoruba objectives omit 4Cs entirely. Lagos state reports note sporadic urban workshops, while Oyo reports confirm no rural training since 2020, limiting teacher preparedness.

Research Question Five: What reforms in curriculum development and teacher education are needed to enhance the implementation of Nigeria’s NLP and the integration of the 4Cs in language education in urban and rural secondary schools?

Qualitative Findings: Stakeholders proposed targeted reforms to strengthen NLP implementation and 4Cs integration. An urban English teacher suggested,

“Regular workshops on NLP and 4Cs would help us teach multilingual lessons with debates and projects.”

A rural Yoruba teacher stated,

“Standardized Yoruba textbooks with role-playing activities would boost creativity and align with policy goals.”

An urban administrator proposed,

“Urban-rural partnerships sharing digital modules would bridge resource gaps for 4Cs teaching.”

A rural administrator noted,

“Increased funding for rural schools’ Yoruba materials, like phonics charts, is essential.”

A curriculum developer emphasized,

“Revise the curriculum to include 4Cs tasks, like Yoruba group discussions, to meet policy and global standards.”

These recommendations address resource, training, and curriculum gaps for equitable language education.

Document Analysis: Lagos state proposals suggest urban-rural mentorships to share digital resources, while Oyo reports highlight unaddressed funding requests for rural training since 2020, supporting stakeholder calls for systemic reforms to enhance NLP and 4Cs integration.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The findings provide a comprehensive evaluation of the NLP’s implementation in Nigerian secondary education, focusing on curriculum effectiveness, teacher readiness, NLP awareness, multilingual pedagogy, 21st-century integration via the 4Cs, and urban/rural equity. The discussion is organized by research question, with three robust paragraphs per question, linking findings to literature and theoretical frameworks [6], [23], [31].

To answer Research Question One, the survey results indicated partial integration of the NLP into the secondary school curriculum, with urban schools (x̄ = 3.10) outperforming rural schools (x̄ = 2.70), supported by a significant difference (t(148) = 3.02, p < .05). Urban teachers reported clearer English guidelines (72% agreement), aligning with Adeyemi [1] and Nafiu and Olaitan [15], who noted better resource availability in Lagos. However, both contexts lack comprehensive Yoruba guidelines (64% urban, 40% rural), as confirmed by document analysis showing vague Yoruba objectives in the NERDC curriculum [17]. Stakeholder perspectives, such as the rural teacher’s lack of textbooks and the curriculum developer’s funding concerns, highlight limited NLP awareness among educators, consistent with Avaa et al. [3]. The urban-rural gap reflects equity issues, as urban schools receive more policy updates and resources, while rural schools in Oyo struggle with basic materials [7]. This partial integration undermines the NLP’s goal of promoting multilingualism, limiting students’ access to culturally relevant education.

WAEC results (2022–2024) further underscore the integration gap, with urban students achieving higher pass rates in English (76%) and Yoruba (52%) compared to rural students (60% and 35%, respectively). These disparities suggest that curriculum weaknesses, particularly in Yoruba instruction, contribute to poorer rural outcomes, aligning with the WAEC [33] reports on declining indigenous language performance. Drake’s curriculum model [6] emphasized alignment between policy and curriculum, yet the lack of standardized Yoruba materials reflects a disconnect, especially in rural areas [19]. Stakeholder reports, like the urban administrator’s note on policy updates, indicate urban schools’ advantage in NLP implementation. This gap hinders multilingual pedagogy, as teachers cannot deliver indigenous language instruction effectively without resources, reducing the policy’s impact on cultural preservation.

The urban-rural disparity in NLP integration calls for context-specific interventions to address equity. Urban schools’ moderate integration suggests potential for scaling multilingual pedagogy, as seen in South Africa’s curriculum with clear local language guidelines [10]. Rural schools require urgent resource allocation, as stakeholders emphasized funding shortages for Yoruba materials [3]. The study’s focus on NLP awareness highlights the need for policy dissemination campaigns to ensure educators understand multilingual objectives. State reports from Oyo, noting no curriculum updates since 2018, reinforce the need for systemic reforms. By addressing these gaps, Nigeria can enhance curriculum alignment with the NLP, fostering 21st-century language classrooms that prepare students for global and local contexts [31].

To answer Research Question Two, the curriculum’s effectiveness in supporting the 4Cs is moderate in urban areas (x̄ = 3.20) but low in rural areas (x̄ = 2.40), with a significant difference (t(148) = 4.60, p < .05). Urban teachers reported activities like debates (78% agreement) and group projects (74%), but large classes limited implementation, consistent with Adeyemi [1] and Nafiu and Olaitan [16]. Rural curricula, reliant on rote learning (28–36% agreement), neglected critical thinking and creativity, as confirmed by stakeholders and document analysis showing no 4Cs framework [7]. This finding aligns with the study’s focus on 21st-century integration, as the 4Cs are essential for modern language classrooms [31]. The urban-rural gap reflects equity issues, with urban schools accessing digital tools while rural schools lack resources [20]. The curriculum’s weaknesses limit students’ preparation for global communication, particularly in rural areas.

WAEC results show lower rural Yoruba pass rates (35%) compared to urban (52%), suggesting that rote-based curricula fail to develop critical thinking and creativity, impacting exam performance [33]. Drake’s curriculum model [6] necessitates the need for curricula to connect with real-world skills, yet rural curricula prioritize memorization, as noted by the rural teacher’s focus on copying notes [19]. The lack of 4Cs activities in Yoruba instruction, confirmed by document analysis, limits multilingual pedagogy, as students cannot engage creatively with indigenous languages [3]. Urban schools’ moderate effectiveness, supported by the urban administrator’s note on text analysis, indicates potential for 21st-century integration, but systemic barriers like overcrowding must be addressed.

Global comparisons offer solutions for enhancing 4Cs integration. India’s English curriculum uses multimedia projects to foster creativity and communication, adaptable to urban Nigeria [12]. Kenya’s low-resource strategies, like oral storytelling, could support rural schools [14]. The study’s focus on the 4Cs framework highlights the curriculum’s role in preparing students for 21st-century demands, yet current weaknesses, as noted by the curriculum developer, limit this potential. Lagos state reports on digital tools suggest urban potential, while Oyo’s lack of resources underscores rural gaps. Stakeholders’ call for 4Cs-focused revisions aligns with UNESCO’s [31] emphasis on modern skills, necessitating curriculum reforms to ensure equitable 21st-century language education.

To answer Research Question Three, rural teachers faced greater challenges (x̄ = 4.00) than urban teachers (x̄ = 3.10), with a significant difference (t(148) = 3.40, p < .05). Resource shortages were prominent, with 88% of rural teachers reporting a lack of Yoruba textbooks, compared to 70% urban, supporting Ezepue et al. [7]. Rural teachers cited insufficient training (82%), aligning with Ogunleye [20], while urban teachers noted large class sizes (78%) [1], [15], [16]. Stakeholder perspectives, like the rural teacher’s lack of resources and the curriculum developer’s funding concerns, reflect limited NLP awareness, consistent with Avaa et al. [3]. The urban-rural disparity underscores equity issues, as rural schools face systemic neglect, hindering multilingual pedagogy and NLP implementation.

The challenges impact student outcomes, as seen in lower rural pass rates (English: 60%, Yoruba: 35%) compared to urban (76%, 52%). This suggests that resource and training gaps limit effective teaching, aligning with the WAEC [33]. Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge framework [23] emphasizes the need for resources and training, yet rural teachers’ reliance on personal notes, as noted by stakeholders, reflects a lack of support [7]. Urban teachers’ challenges, like overcrowding, highlighted by the urban teacher, prevent student-centered methods, reducing 4Cs integration [19]. Document analysis, including Oyo’s lack of training since 2020, confirms systemic barriers. These findings address the study’s focus on urban/rural scope, highlighting the need for equitable solutions.

Stakeholders’ insights suggest systemic reforms, such as increased funding and training, aligning with Ghana’s resource-sharing programs [2]. The study’s emphasis on multilingual pedagogy underscores the need for NLP-specific training, as current challenges limit effective instruction. Rural teachers’ lack of digital resources, noted by the rural administrator, widens the equity gap, while urban teachers access tools for 4Cs activities [1], [15], [16]. Lagos state reports on funding disparities reinforce the need for rural investment. Addressing these challenges requires low-cost materials for rural schools and class size reduction in urban areas to support NLP goals and 21st-century language classrooms.

To answer Research Question Four, urban teachers reported moderate readiness for 4Cs teaching (x̄ = 3.00), while rural teachers were less prepared (x̄ = 2.50), with a significant difference (t(148) = 2.80, p < .05). Urban teachers’ confidence (70% agreement for communication) reflects access to workshops, but limited practical training reduces effectiveness, aligning with Ogunleye [20]. Rural teachers’ lack of training (36% agreement), as noted by the rural teacher, supports Ezepue et al. [7]. This finding addresses the study’s focus on 21st-century integration, as teacher readiness is critical for fostering 4Cs [31]. The urban-rural gap highlights equity issues, as rural teachers face systemic barriers to professional development, limiting NLP implementation.

Lower rural Yoruba pass rates (35%) compared to urban (52%) suggest that teacher unpreparedness impacts outcomes, consistent with the WAEC [33]. Shulman’s framework [23] underscores the need for pedagogical content knowledge, yet rural teachers’ reliance on rote methods, as noted by stakeholders, reflects training gaps [19]. Urban teachers’ moderate readiness, supported by the urban administrator’s call for hands-on training, indicates potential for 4Cs integration, but practical skills are needed [1], [15], [16]. The lack of NLP-specific training, confirmed by document analysis, limits multilingual pedagogy, as teachers cannot deliver indigenous language instruction effectively [3]. Lagos state reports on sporadic workshops highlight urban advantages, while Oyo’s lack of training underscores rural gaps.

Global models offer solutions for enhancing readiness. South Africa’s 4Cs training programs improve teacher confidence in multilingual education [10]. Nigeria could develop similar programs, tailoring them to urban (digital-focused) and rural (low-resource) contexts, as suggested by the curriculum developer. The study’s focus on the 4Cs framework emphasizes the need for training to prepare teachers for 21st-century demands. Stakeholders’ call for practical workshops aligns with Amuzu and Asare [2]. Oyo state reports, noting no training since 2020, reinforce the urgency of rural interventions. By addressing training gaps, Nigeria can enhance teacher readiness, supporting NLP and equitable 21st-century education.

To answer Research Question Five, stakeholders proposed reforms, including NLP workshops, standardized Yoruba materials, and urban-rural partnerships, addressing identified gaps [3]. These align with Drake’s model [6], advocating curriculum reform, and Shulman’s framework [23], emphasizing teacher preparation. The need for NLP awareness campaigns, as noted by the urban teacher, reflects teachers’ limited policy knowledge, consistent with Avaa et al. [3]. The study’s focus on urban/rural scope highlights the importance of equitable reforms, as rural schools require resource allocation to support multilingual pedagogy, as emphasized by the rural administrator [7]. These reforms would enhance curriculum alignment and teacher readiness, fostering 21st-century language classrooms.

The proposed reforms address equity issues, as urban-rural partnerships could share resources like digital tools, aligning with Ghana’s models [2]. Standardized Yoruba materials, suggested by the rural teacher, would support multilingual pedagogy, improving rural pass rates (35% Yoruba) to approach urban levels (52%), as seen in South Africa’s curricula [10]. The 4Cs framework [31] guides curriculum revisions, incorporating activities like debates and storytelling, adaptable to both contexts [14]. Stakeholders’ funding proposals, supported by document analysis, address resource shortages critical for rural schools [20]. Lagos state reports on digital resources suggest urban potential, while Oyo’s funding gaps underscore rural needs.

The recommendations are actionable, addressing systemic barriers and promoting equity. NLP workshops, as proposed by the curriculum developer, would enhance teacher readiness, while curriculum revisions would integrate 4Cs, ensuring 21st-century relevance [12]. Urban-rural partnerships could bridge resource gaps, as urban schools’ tools can support rural initiatives [1], [15], [16]. The focus on multilingual pedagogy ensures indigenous languages are prioritized, supporting cultural preservation and NLP goals [9]. Document analysis, including state reports, reinforces the need for funding and training. Implementing these reforms will strengthen Nigeria’s language education system, fostering inclusive and equitable learning environments.

CONCLUSION

The study reveals partial integration of the NLP in Nigerian secondary education, with urban schools showing moderate curriculum alignment and teacher readiness, while rural schools face significant gaps due to resource and training shortages. The curriculum supports some 4Cs in urban areas but neglects rural contexts, limiting students’ 21st-century skill development. Teachers face challenges, particularly in rural areas, with limited NLP awareness and multilingual pedagogy skills. WAEC results (2022–2024) highlighted the impact of these disparities on student outcomes, underscoring the need for equitable reforms. The findings emphasize the importance of context-specific interventions to strengthen NLP implementation, enhance teacher preparation, and promote 21st-century language classrooms.

The study contributes to Nigeria’s educational goals by providing evidence-based insights into curriculum alignment, teacher readiness, and urban-rural disparities, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 [31]. It addresses gaps in secondary education research, offering practical recommendations for policymakers, educators, and curriculum developers. The inclusion of examination data strengthens the study’s relevance, linking systemic factors to student performance. Future research should explore longitudinal impacts, private-sector partnerships, and student perspectives to enhance resource availability and ensure sustained progress in language education that prepares students for global communication and cultural preservation.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In light of the foregoing and based on the findings of the study, the study suggests the following recommendations:

1. Policymakers should allocate increased funding for NLP implementation, prioritizing resources and monitoring for rural schools to address equity gaps.
2. Curriculum developers should revise the NERDC curriculum to include clear Yoruba guidelines and 4Cs activities, such as debates, group projects, and creative writing, ensuring alignment with 21st-century demands.
3. Teacher educators and school management should develop professional development programs on multilingual pedagogy, 4Cs integration, and low-resource strategies for rural contexts to enhance teacher readiness.
4. School administrators should establish urban-rural partnerships to share resources, such as digital tools and training programs, promoting equitable access to quality education.
5. Future researchers could conduct longitudinal studies to assess the long-term impact of NLP reforms on student outcomes and explore student perspectives on language education. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To educators, administrators, researchers, policymakers, and curriculum developers dedicated to advancing 21st-century education through effective curriculum integration, enhanced 4Cs framework, and aligned instructional delivery, your tireless efforts inspire this work.

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