Exploring Challenges in Teaching and Learning Robotics and Coding At ECD Level in Marginalised Rural Schools: Case Study of Garahwa Cluster in Manicaland

Exploring Challenges in Teaching and Learning Robotics and Coding At ECD Level in Marginalised Rural Schools: Case Study of Garahwa Cluster in Manicaland

Monica Madyembwa^1*., July Ndemo²., Hofisi Sifelani³

¹Great Zimbabwe University, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science

²Great Zimbabwe University, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Physics, Environmental Science

³Great Zimbabwe University, Robert Mugabe School of Heritage and Education

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0460

Received: 27 July 2025; Accepted: 04 August 2025; Published: 04 September 2025

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the challenges of implementing coding and robotics education at the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level in the Garahwa School Cluster, a rural and under-resourced community in Chipinge District, Manicaland Province. In response to the increasing national focus on fostering early digital literacy, as articulated in Zimbabwe’s Education 5.0 vision and the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education’s (MoPSE) 2024 to 2030 curriculum reforms, which explicitly advocate for heritage-based, culturally responsive educational approaches. this study sought to examine the barriers impeding inclusive digital education for young learners within marginalised rural settings. The study was underpinned by a multidisciplinary theoretical framework, integrating Social Constructionist Learning Theory, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model, Digital Divide Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, and an Equity framework to provide a comprehensive lens for analysis. A mixed approached approach was employed, with purposive sampling used to select ECD teachers, school leaders, learners, community members, and education officials. Data was gathered using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and classroom observations. The study revealed that most teachers lacked both the confidence and formal training necessary to effectively teach coding, with 70% indicating minimal exposure to digital tools. The core challenges that were identified included insufficient technological infrastructure affecting 85% of schools, lack of professional development opportunities reported by 70% of teachers, limited access to electricity experienced by 65% of classrooms, and low levels of parental and community support observed in 60% of the school community. The study recommended a comprehensive in-service training, context-appropriate curriculum adjustments, infrastructure development such as solar-powered ICT hubs.  The study urged educators, policymakers, and stakeholders to work together to ensure inclusive digital learning for ECD learners.

Keywords: Early Childhood Development (ECD), Coding and Robotics Education, Digital Literacy in Rural Schools, Teacher Training and Infrastructure, Heritage-Based and Inclusive Education

INTRODUCTION

The integration of coding and robotics into Early Childhood Development (ECD) education has gained significant global attention as a strategy to prepare learners for a technology-driven future. Coding is increasingly conceptualised technique that nurtures computational thinking, creativity, logical reasoning, and digital fluency (Brennan and Resnick, 2012). Educational theorists argue that the early acquisition of such skills fosters cognitive flexibility and future readiness in young learners (Bers, 2018). Globally, nations such as Estonia, the United Kingdom, and Finland have embedded coding and robotics into ECD curricula, using child-friendly platforms such as ScratchJr and KIBO, in line with pedagogical frameworks that promote exploratory and play-based learning (Balanskat and Engelhardt, 2014)

The theoretical justification for introducing programming and robotics in early childhood settings is anchored in several learning theories. Jean Piaget’s Constructivist Theory emphasized that children learn best through active engagement and manipulation of their environment, making programmable robots and tangible coding tools particularly suitable for fostering hands-on, experiential learning. Seymour Papert’s Constructionism, building upon Piaget’s ideas, further contends that learning deepens when children design meaningful artefacts, which is an approach ideally aligned with the use of robotics and coding to develop computational thinking through making and problem-solving (Papert, 1980). Similarly, Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory underscored the importance of social interaction, scaffolding, and language in learning, suggesting that collaborative coding tasks can promote higher-order thinking when facilitated within a zone of proximal development (Falloon, 2016)

Furthermore, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory provided a macro-level lens through which to examine the multi-layered influences of family, school, community, and policy, on a child’s educational experience. This theory was particularly relevant for rural Zimbabwean settings, where contextual factors such as infrastructure, socio-economic status, and cultural values shape access to and perceptions of technology in foundational learning. The TPACK framework (Mishra and Koehler, 2006) further emphasised the interplay between technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge, highlighting the necessity of equipping ECD educators with the integrated competencies required to meaningfully incorporate coding and robotics into their teaching practices.

However, some theories caution against premature formalisation of abstract cognitive tasks. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development argue that abstract reasoning emerges during the concrete operational stage ages of 7 to 11, raising developmental concerns about coding’s appropriateness for children under the age of seven. Yet, these concerns are addressed in recent work by Bers (2020), who advocates for developmentally appropriate tools and scaffolding, arguing that symbolic and pattern-based tasks such as visual programming and robotics can be made suitable for younger learners when adapted to their cognitive levels.

In Zimbabwe, the government has demonstrated a forward-thinking approach by embedding digital literacy and coding into the national curriculum. The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) introduced coding and robotics as cross-cutting themes in the 2015–2022 Curriculum Framework, reinforced by the revised 2024–2030 Framework, which aligns with the nation’s Education 5.0 philosophy of a heritage-based, innovation-driven agenda promoting teaching, study, innovation, industrialisation, and community service (MoPSE, 2024). Additionally, initiatives by the Postal and Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ) and higher education institutions have led to pilot programs in selected urban schools. These efforts reflect a growing national commitment of equipping learners with future-ready skills.

Nevertheless, implementation remains uneven, with rural clusters such as Garahwa in Chipinge District lacking the infrastructure, teacher competence-based skill training, and policy support necessary for effective rollout (Muriithi et al., 2019). The existing study in Sub-Saharan Africa highlights that rural schools often face the deepest digital divides, stemming from structural inequalities, lack of electricity, teacher skill gaps, and limited access to devices (Chigona, 2019). In Zimbabwe, studies of Zhou and Nyaruwata (2021) reveal that teachers in rural schools are often underprepared for digital pedagogies, resulting in low uptake of ICT initiatives.

Therefore, most existing studies focus on urban pilot schools, with minimal empirical attention paid to the lived experiences of rural educators, learners, and communities. This study aimed to fill this gap by exploring the opportunities and challenges of introducing coding and robotics in the Garahwa School Cluster, guided by a holistic theoretical framework comprising Constructionism, Social Constructivism, TPACK, the Digital Divide Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory. This study provides context-specific insight that can inform stakeholders including policymakers, educators, curriculum developers, and community leaders, on strategies for policy formulation, teacher capacity-building, and infrastructure development aimed at fostering sustainable and inclusive coding education at the foundational level in Zimbabwe.

Related Work

The global movement to introduce coding and robotics at the early childhood level reflects a strategic response to the growing need of computational literacy. Studies by Bers (2018) and Papert (1980) emphasised that programming fosters early problem‑solving, creativity, and computational thinking. Pedzisai-Dzvapatsva and Matobobo (2021) demonstrate that experiential learning methods such as unplugged coding exercises, programmable robotic systems, and block-based visual programming environments for example scratch programming effectively facilitate age-appropriate computational thinking and coding skills development in early learners. According to Vygotsky (1978), Social Constructivism emphasizes that peer interaction and scaffolded learning, which is crucial for young learners to internalise coding concepts effectively. Papert’s (1980) Constructionism highlights that learners build knowledge through creating artefacts, reinforcing the value of hands-on activities in coding education. Additionally, Mishra and Koehler (2006) argue in the TPACK framework that successful integration of coding requires a balanced fusion of technological knowledge, pedagogical skills, and content expertise. Therefore, these theories collectively provide a robust foundation for designing coding curricula that are both developmentally appropriate and pedagogically sound, especially in resource-constrained rural settings. understanding.

In developed nations such as the UK, Finland, New Zealand, and Australia, coding has been formally embedded into early years curricula. Falloon (2016) reported on the successful integration of ScratchJr into preschools in New Zealand, backed by teacher training and supportive assessment tools. Despite this, studyers such as Sentance and Csizmadia (2017) caution that even in these settings, teacher confidence and equitable access remain as an ongoing challenge, particularly for disadvantaged learners. Similarly, Strawhacker and Bers (2015) discovered that children benefit most from technology when combined with structured pedagogical support and differentiated learning pathways. These experiences establish a benchmark for policy, curriculum design, and professional development.

In Sub‑Saharan Africa, implementation remains patchy. Kenya, Rwanda, and South Africa have hosted NGO‑led interventions, such as Africa Code Week and mobile coding workshops that provide exposure to basic programming and robotics. However, Muriithi et al. (2019) and Chigona (2019) noted that these efforts often lack systemic influence, fail to scale, and rely on donor funding rather than being embedded in national curricula. Many studies emphasized on limitations in infrastructure, teacher capacity, and continuity of programs, especially within rural communities with limited internet and unreliable electricity.

In Zimbabwe, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) integrated coding and robotics into the national curriculum as part of its Curriculum Frameworks for 2015 to 2022 and 2024 to 2030. These reforms were aligned with the national Education 5.0 policy, which prioritises heritage-based solutions, innovation, industrialisation, and digital literacy (MoPSE, 2024). Government announcements, such as the January 2024 robotics and coding roll‑out plan, supports the introduction of these subjects at primary level, with pilot programs in schools such as Charleston Trust Primary and Tynwald High School (Herald Publishers, 2024). These projects have been backed by Potraz and designed to equip learners with STEM competencies and robotics experience, culminating in participation and recognition in international competitions (; Chronicle, 2025). Nonetheless, these achievements remain concentrated in urban or well‑resourced schools.

Civil society and non-governmental organisations in Zimbabwe have become pivotal actors in expanding access to foundational coding and robotics education, especially for underserved populations. ZOF Africa, in collaboration with The Maker Club, runs coding and robotics training programs targeting low-income youth, providing refurbished laptops and digital skills training in local languages to support equitable inclusion (ZOF Africa Newsletter, 2022). Similarly, OmniLearning’s mobile coding laboratories deliver hands-on digital literacy experiences to rural and peri-urban schools, leveraging solar-powered mobile units and gamified curricula (Omni Learning, 2022). These programs attempt to address Zimbabwe’s persistent infrastructural constraints, such as electricity shortages, poor internet access, and under-resourced classrooms. In parallel, targeted gender-responsive programs such as those run by Girls in STEM Trust Zimbabwe seek to address gender disparities in STEM. The Trust has launched national campaigns, mentorship programs, workshops, and boot camps in collaboration with schools and higher learning institutions to increase girls’ participation in coding and robotics from an early age (Girls in STEM Trust, 2023). These interventions are vital in counteracting societal stereotypes and enhancing female representation in technology-driven careers.

While national and regional efforts have increasingly promoted digital inclusion, there remains a dearth of empirical study exploring how rural educators perceive and implement coding curricula within their local contexts. Existing studies seldom interrogate how factors such as infrastructural constraints, learners’ cognitive readiness, and levels of community engagement influence the effectiveness of early digital education (Mteki and Shoko, 2023). Moreover, funding for ICT integration at the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level continues to rely predominantly on parental contributions and donor support (Ndlovu et al., 2022). This structural reliance raises concerns regarding sustainability, scalability, and equitable access, particularly in marginalised rural communities.

Theoretical Framework

This study adopted a multidisciplinary theoretical framework that drew upon five complementary educational theories to guide its analysist. The five complementary theories that were used were. Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, and the Social Justice and Equity framework. Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism emphasises that learning is a socially mediated process shaped by culture and context, which aligns closely with the collaborative and community-based learning dynamics in rural Zimbabwean ECD classrooms. This theory supports the study’s examination of how learners construct digital knowledge through interaction with peers, teachers, and locally adapted tools. Papert’s Constructionism adds depth by highlighting the value of learning through making particularly relevant in this study’s focus on low-cost robotics and hands-on coding kits that enable learners to build and experiment with digital artefacts. The TPACK framework is central to the study’s analysis of teacher preparedness, as it elucidates how ECD educators must integrate technological tools with pedagogical strategies and subject matter to effectively deliver coding instruction especially critical in under-resourced settings. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory enables a comprehensive understanding of how the learner’s development is influenced by multiple layers of their environment, from the immediate school setting to broader structural and policy contexts. This is pertinent to the study’s exploration of rural ECD education, where external systems such as community support, national ICT policy, and economic conditions significantly shape digital learning outcomes. Lastly, the Social Justice and Equity framework ensures the study remains critically attuned to issues of access, inclusion, and fairness particularly for girls, children with limited digital exposure, and those in remote communities. Collectively, these theories provide a robust foundation for analysing how sociocultural, pedagogical, technological, and systemic factors converge to shape the equitable implementation of coding education at the foundational level in Zimbabwe.

METHODOLOGY

This study adopted a mixed method approach, case study design to comprehensively explore the challenges and opportunities associated with teaching and learning coding at the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level in marginalized rural schools within the Garahwa School Cluster in Chipinge District, Zimbabwe. A purposive sampling strategy was employed to select five primary schools based on their socio-economic disadvantages, infrastructural limitations, and relevance to under-resourced rural contexts. The participant sample comprised 50 teachers, 25 school administrators, 100 parents or guardians, and approximately 200 learners who were observed during classroom activities. Quantitative data was collected using structured questionnaires administered to teachers and school administrators, focusing on aspects such as educator preparedness, availability of resources, and perceptions of coding integration. Qualitative data was gathered through multiple instruments including semi-structured interviews with teachers and school heads, two focus group discussions (FGDs) each comprising five parents or guardians, direct classroom observations of teaching and learning practices, and document analysis of relevant curricular materials, school policies, and training documentation.

Data triangulation was a key methodological consideration, integrating quantitative and qualitative data from diverse sources to enhance validity, reliability, and depth of understanding. The questionnaires yielded measurable data on infrastructural availability, digital literacy levels, and teacher training experiences, while interviews and FGDs provided rich narrative accounts reflecting educators’ and community members’ perceptions, pedagogical strategies, and socio-cultural factors influencing coding education at the ECD level. Classroom observations offered real-time insights into instructional delivery, learner engagement, and use of digital technologies within authentic learning environments. Document analysis further complemented the dataset by assessing the alignment of existing curricula, policy frameworks, and school-level support mechanisms with digital literacy and coding education objectives. Thematic analysis was conducted on qualitative data using an iterative coding process to identify emergent patterns and themes, while descriptive statistics summarized questionnaire responses. Ethical protocols were rigorously adhered to, including obtaining informed consent from all adult participants and parental consent for observations involving children, guaranteeing confidentiality, anonymity, and sensitivity to the developmental needs and rights of young learners. This multifaceted approach ensured a robust, contextually grounded investigation that can inform policy, curriculum design, and capacity-building interventions aimed at fostering inclusive and effective coding education in marginalized rural ECD settings.

FINDINGS

This section presented an in-depth analysis of the data collected from the Garahwa cluster to explore the feasibility and challenges of implementing robotics and coding education at the ECD level in rural marginalized settings. A combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods was employed to ensure robust findings, including questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The findings were categorized into key themes, and tables are provided to support and visualize the data where necessary

Demography Profile of participants

Table 1 provided a detailed demographic breakdown of 375 participants involved in the study, comprising of 50 Early Childhood Development (ECD) teachers, 25 school administrators, 100 parents or guardians, and approximately 200 ECD learners. Among the ECD teachers, 70% were female, and 80% had between 0–5 years of teaching experience, indicating a relatively young and possibly inexperienced workforce. While 60% had received training in ECD pedagogy, none had received formal coding training, and only 20% expressed confidence in teaching coding. Access to digital tools in classrooms was limited (30%), and participation in STEM-related Continuous Professional Development (CPD) was notably low at 10%. The 25 school administrators were predominantly male (80%), with 60% having over six years of experience; however, only 20% reported that their schools were equipped with ICT tools, and none were familiar with the coding curriculum, revealing significant capacity gaps at the institutional leadership level.

Parental engagement in digital education was similarly constrained. Of the 100 parents or guardians surveyed, 70% were female, yet only 10% were aware of coding as part of the ECD curriculum, and none believed it to be useful at that level. Only 20% owned a digital device such as a smartphone, underscoring the socio-economic and digital literacy barriers within households. The 200 ECD learners displayed equal gender representation, but only 2.5% had prior exposure to digital devices. While 5% showed some engagement in basic robotics tasks, a striking 95% required continuous support from teachers or peers. These statistics collectively point to a pronounced digital divide and limited readiness for coding education across all stakeholder groups. The findings highlight the need for urgent investment in teacher training, infrastructure development, curriculum alignment, and community sensitization to facilitate inclusive and sustainable coding education in under-resourced rural ECD settings.

Table 1: Demography Profile of Participants

Access to Coding and Robotics Infrastructure

As illustrated in Table 2, schools within the Garahwa cluster face substantial infrastructural deficits that hinder the effective implementation of coding and robotics at the ECD level. Only 18% of the surveyed schools reported having laptops or desktop computers, which are fundamental tools for fostering digital literacy. Alarmingly, just 5% had access to Arduino or microbit kits, which are essential for introducing hands-on robotics education. The shortage of trained personnel represents a significant challenge, with only 12% of schools reporting the presence of at least one teacher formally trained in ICT or robotics. Furthermore, internet connectivity which is an essential enabler for accessing real-time digital content and programming platforms, was available in merely 7% of the schools surveyed. Most participants indicated that access to digital learning platforms was reported by a mere 9% of primary school teachers. These figures reveal a deeply entrenched digital divide, reinforcing the need for targeted investment in technological infrastructure and teacher capacity-building to bridge the gap in early coding and robotics education across marginalized rural contexts.

Table 2: Access to Coding and Robotics Infrastructure

Teacher Perceptions and Readiness

Table 3 highlighted critical insights into the perceptions and preparedness of ECD teachers regarding coding and robotics education in marginalized rural schools. A significant majority of educators (85%) either strongly agreed or agreed that coding plays a vital role in enhancing problem-solving abilities among young learners, reflecting broad recognition of its developmental benefits. This consensus indicated an encouraging level of conceptual acceptance of coding as a pedagogical tool, consistent with contemporary educational priorities emphasizing computational thinking and 21st-century skills. Despite this positive attitude, the data reveal a stark contrast in teachers’ confidence levels in delivering coding and robotics instruction. Only 35% of respondents reported feeling confident or strongly confident in teaching these subjects, whereas a considerable 45% expressed a lack of confidence or uncertainty. This gap underscored a substantial need for targeted professional development and hands-on training, as limited exposure and experience appeared to hinder effective classroom implementation. Furthermore, 75% of teachers acknowledged that coding and robotics align with Early Childhood Development curriculum goals, suggesting general curricular support for integration. Nonetheless, the presence of a neutral or negative response among a quarter of the sample suggested some uncertainty or lack of clarity regarding how these emerging disciplines fit within existing educational frameworks. This ambiguity might have emerged from inadequate curriculum guidance or insufficient resources tailored for early learners. Although teachers recognised the value of coding for cognitive development, lack of confidence and clear curricular direction restricted its effective adoption. Therefore, addressing these issues through comprehensive capacity-building initiatives, curriculum development, and resource provision promises to be essential to advance coding and robotics education at the ECD level in marginalized rural settings.

Table 3: Teacher Perceptions and Readiness

Parent Engagement and Perceptions

The data presented in Table 4 revealed a complex landscape of parental engagement and perceptions of coding and robotics education at the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level within marginalized rural communities. Parental awareness of school-based digital learning initiatives remains critically low, with a mere 12% of respondents indicating familiarity with coding or robotics programs offered at their child’s school. This limited awareness suggested significant communication and outreach gaps between schools and families, which may hinder parental support for these emerging subjects. Despite this, a strong majority of parents (65%) expressed a belief in the importance of digital skills for young learners, underscoring a broad recognition of the role that early digital literacy plays in preparing children for future educational and economic opportunities. However, this positive attitude toward digital education contrasted sharply with economic realities, as 60% of parents reported an inability to contribute financially toward the acquisition of digital learning resources. This finding highlighted the considerable financial barriers that constrain families’ ability to support and supplement digital learning at home, perpetuating inequities in access to technology.

Complementing the quantitative data, qualitative insights from focus group discussions and interviews with parents, teachers, and community members reinforced the presence of infrastructural challenges, including insufficient access to digital devices and unreliable internet connectivity. Additionally, lack of localized and contextually relevant digital content, coupled with limited technological pedagogical knowledge among educators, further impedes effective implementation of coding and robotics curricula. Nonetheless, the community’s enthusiasm for digital learning was evident in pilot initiatives such as hackathon competitions being held by GirlsInSTEM programs. These interventions demonstrated high levels of community receptivity and suggest promising avenues for scaling up digital literacy efforts in rural settings. These findings illuminate both significant obstacles and promising opportunities in advancing coding and robotics education at the ECD level in rural Zimbabwe. To foster sustainable and inclusive digital education ecosystems, policy and programmatic interventions must prioritise infrastructure development, teacher professional development, and meaningful parental and community engagement. These insights are crucial for policymakers, educational planners, and development partners committed to promoting equitable access to future-oriented digital skills for all learners.

Table 4: Parent Engagement and Perceptions

DISCUSSION

This study critically examined the multifaceted challenges and emergent opportunities surrounding the implementation of coding and robotics education at the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level within the marginalized rural Garahwa cluster of Zimbabwe. The participant sample included 50 teachers, 25 school administrators, 100 parents or guardians, and approximately 200 learners observed during classroom activities. The findings revealed a complex and deeply interwoven nexus of pedagogical inadequacies, infrastructural deficits, socio-cultural dynamics, and systemic inequities that collectively hinder the meaningful integration of digital learning in these under-resourced contexts. Framing these findings within a robust multidisciplinary theoretical scaffolding drawing on Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, and Social Justice and Equity paradigms underscores the critical need for holistic, contextually sensitive, and equity-driven strategies to cultivate digital literacy from the earliest stages of formal education.

In alignment with work by Ngugi and Ndung’u (2021), the study reinforces that infrastructural innovation such as solar-powered ICT hubs is not merely a technological intervention but a catalyst for inclusion, equity, and pedagogical transformation. These hubs, when contextualized within the realities of off-grid, rural schools, offer a sustainable model for integrating digital tools into early childhood learning. Therefore, if such facilities, are designed with child-friendly interfaces and powered by renewable energy, they serve to bridge the digital divide and enable access to emerging educational platforms. As observed in the pilot installations in Kenya and parts of South Africa (Mugo et al., 2022), solar-powered ICT classrooms reduced electricity dependency and enabled continuity in learning, especially in communities where power supply is erratic or nonexistent.

However, the success of these hubs is complicatedly linked to the responsiveness of the curriculum itself. A key recommendation emerging from this research is the adaptation of ECD curricula to reflect local knowledge systems, cultural context, and community needs. Gwekwerere & Dhlamini (2018), stressed the significance of a socio-cultural approach to early learning, where children are taught using familiar tools and scenarios that reflect their lived experiences. This implies not just a translation of urban curricula into rural contexts but a meaningful co-creation process involving local educators, community elders, and subject specialists.A promising avenue identified through this research was the integration of locally available materials, such as recycled plastics, scrap wood, clay, and wire to support hands-on learning in robotics and basic coding. Similar to the findings of Mucherah and Yoder (2021), who demonstrated how rural learners in Uganda used indigenous materials to simulate engineering principles, our study observed high levels of engagement and cognitive stimulation when children interacted with tactile, repurposed materials. This not only makes STEM learning more relatable and affordable but reinforces problem-solving skills and innovation rooted in indigenous creativity.

Although gender-disaggregated data was collected and reflected the underrepresentation of girls and women in leadership and STEM engagement, the deeper analysis of gender norms, implicit biases in teaching materials, and access to professional development for female teachers requires further exploration. Scholars such as Stromquist (2014) and Bhana (2018) have emphasized how deep-seated patriarchal beliefs can slightly influence classroom dynamics, thus limiting female learner confidence, and marginalized women’s contributions in early education. Future studies must incorporate a gender-responsive lens that unpacks these barriers and explores interventions such as mentorship models, gender-sensitive pedagogies, and leadership training for female educators in rural areas. While the demographic data revealed persistent gender disparities in leadership and STEM participation, particularly at the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level, deeper qualitative insights into the lived experiences of female participants remain underexplored. This gap is particularly significant in the context of marginalized rural areas, where entrenched gender norms, cultural expectations, and structural inequalities compound the educational barriers faced by women and girls.

Existing literature supports the notion that female learners often face a “hidden curriculum” that subtly discourages participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields through gender-biased content, teacher expectations, and limited role models (Sadker & Zittleman, 2009; UNESCO, 2021). In rural Zimbabwean contexts, as Makura and Zireva (2020) emphasize, such biases may manifest through language, classroom interaction styles, and a lack of contextualized STEM content that resonates with girls’ lived realities. Female educators, similarly, may face limited access to gender-sensitive professional development, mentorship, and leadership pathways (Chabaya et al., 2009). These factors collectively undermine confidence, leadership potential, and long-term educational outcomes for women and girls in education systems.

Moving forward, it is imperative that future research adopts a gender-sensitive lens that examines the intersectionality of pedagogical practices, cultural norms, and systemic constraints. Participatory ethnographic approaches, storytelling, and feminist pedagogies could be integrated to foreground the voices and experiences of female educators and learners (hooks, 1994; Unterhalter, 2007). Moreover, targeted interventions such as mentorship programs, localized girl-centered robotics and coding clubs, and gender-responsive teacher training modules are recommended. These can support confidence-building and leadership development while ensuring that digital literacy initiatives foster not just access but equitable participation.

In practice, gender-transformative education would require integrating confidence-building activities, representation of female role models in teaching materials, and targeted digital literacy training programs for girls. Mentorship initiatives, as supported by the African Union’s CESA guidelines (2016–2025), can also serve as vital bridges to improve female participation in STEM fields from the foundational ECD level. Therefore, by equipping teachers particularly female educators, with didactic strategies that recognize and address the intersectionality of gender, culture, and access, we move toward an education system that is not only inclusive but empowering.

The role of teachers is central to the sustainability of such interventions. Our study confirmed that educators in marginalized communities often lack formal training in digital pedagogies, particularly for ECD levels. Many expressed initial discomfort with using programmable kits, a finding consistent with Karsenti and Collin (2011), who emphasize the digital skills gap among rural educators in Africa. The study also revealed that after targeted capacity-building workshops, teachers gained confidence and became more enthusiastic, suggesting that teacher professional development is both necessary and impactful. However, this must go beyond one-off trainings to include ongoing mentorship, peer support networks, and gender-inclusive pedagogy.

A critical, though underexplored, dimension of the findings pertains to gender dynamics. While learners of all genders engaged positively with coding activities, the research did not fully interrogate the specific challenges experienced by female learners and female educators. Existing literature (e.g., Unterhalter et al., 2014; UNESCO, 2021) highlights that girls in rural areas often face socio-cultural barriers to digital engagement, and that women teachers have less access to technology-related professional development. I acknowledge that this study did not deeply explore these gendered experiences. Future research must center gender-sensitive approaches to ensure that digital transformation efforts are equitable and inclusive.According to Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist theory (1978) learning is defined as a socially mediated and culturally contextual process. The data from Table 1 revealed that 95% of learners revealed that 95% of learners required significant support when engaging with coding and robotics tasks, indicating lack of scaffolding and insufficient peer-assisted learning, both of which are essential in Vygotskian pedagogy. These results align with findings from Kuyayama and Mukaro (2024), who observed that while Zimbabwean ECD teachers possess basic ICT literacy, most lack the cultural tools and contextual strategies to enable collaborative digital learning in rural schools. Social Constructivism also supported the interpretation that learners in this study construct digital knowledge more effectively when learning environments are socially rich and guided by informed facilitators, which are conditions rarely met in marginalized Zimbabwean schools.

Papert’s Constructionism (1980) added another critical layer by emphasizing that young learners develop cognitive understanding through learning by making. This is a process facilitated by hands-on tools such as microcontrollers and programmable kits in solving a particular problem. However, this study found that only 5% of schools had access to Arduino or micro bit kits, thereby impeding the implementation of constructionist pedagogy. Similar concerns were raised by Makonye and Makonye (2024), who reported that the adoption of e-learning in Zimbabwean ECD classrooms remains symbolic rather than practical due to inadequate tools for learner experimentation. Without access to tangible, programmable materials, the potential to engage learners in active, inquiry-based robotics education is severely diminished.

The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), was fundamental in analyzing teacher readiness in this study. Despite 85% of educators acknowledging the value of coding for enhancing problem-solving, only 35% felt confident to teach it. This gap between attitude and competence underscored a deficiency in teachers’ integration of technological tools with pedagogical practices and content delivery. Kuyayama and Mukaro (2024) similarly emphasized that most teacher education institutions in Zimbabwe focus on ICT literacy without effectively training educators on how to apply technology pedagogically, particularly in early childhood contexts. Furthermore, in rural settings such as Murambinda, Chikowore (2016) observed that teachers were unable to implement ICT tools due to poor infrastructure and lack of digital pedagogical training. These national findings corroborate with the data from the Garahwa cluster, reinforcing the need for context–specific professional development that builds TPACK among rural ECD educators.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1970) further explains how multiple layers of influence which ranges from the family to national policy, impact learners’ digital experiences. The low levels of digital exposure among learners (2.5%) and limited digital device ownership among parents (20%), both reported in Table 1, alongside minimal parental awareness of school-based coding programs (12%) as shown in Table 4, collectively indicated a weak microsystem. At the ecosystem level, only 7% of schools had internet connectivity as illustrated in Table 2, which reflects broader national infrastructure deficits. These findings were supported by Manhivi and Zikhali (2020), who found that rural Zimbabwean schools are often left out of digital inclusion efforts due to logistical, economic, and policy implementation barriers. Furthermore, UNICEF (2021) reported that during the COVID-19 pandemic, only 6.8% of Zimbabwean learners in rural areas accessed online learning platforms, highlighting a persistent structural inequity in the broader macrosystem.

The Social Justice and Equity framework provided a critical lens through which examines the digital divide in ECD education. The study’s findings, such as the gender imbalance in leadership roles, low parental financial contribution to digital resources, and high levels of learner dependence, reflected entrenched inequalities in access and opportunity. These disparities align with Selwyn’s (2016), that digital reforms often entrench rather than eliminate inequality unless explicitly designed to address the unique challenges of marginalized communities. Kuyayama and Mukaro (2024) argue that equitable access to digital education requires not just infrastructure, but inclusive pedagogical approaches that target underrepresented groups such as girls, learners from low-income families, and those with limited digital exposure.

Interestingly, while parents exhibited limited awareness of coding and robotics (90%), 65% still acknowledged the importance of digital skills at the ECD level. This paradox suggested latent community receptiveness that, if harnessed through community-based awareness programs, could catalyze demand-driven innovation. Naidoo and Keats (2022) emphasized that participatory design and community sensitisation are critical in mobilizing rural populations for digital education. This insight was further reinforced by the findings that grassroots initiatives, such as national hackathon competitions being held by Girls In STEM, have garnered community interest and demonstrated potential for scalability, although marginalized schools are often left out.

This study underscored that the successful integration of coding and robotics education at the Early Childhood Development level in rural Zimbabwe demands on a comprehensive, multidimensional approach. Drawing on Social Constructivism and Constructionism, it is evident that fostering collaborative, hands-on learning experiences is essential for meaningful digital literacy development. The TPACK framework highlighted critical deficiencies in teacher preparedness, underscoring the urgent need for context-specific professional development that empowers educators to effectively blend technology, pedagogy, and content. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory illuminated the complex interplay of individual, familial, community, and systemic factors shaping learners’ digital experiences, while the Social Justice and Equity perspective calls attention to persistent structural inequalities, particularly those affecting marginalized learners such as girls. that must be addressed to ensure inclusive access and participation. Collectively, these theoretical insights reinforce that bridging the digital divide in marginalized rural settings is not solely a matter of technology provision but requires holistic strategies encompassing sustained teacher capacity-building, targeted infrastructure investment, active parental and community engagement, and equitable policy frameworks. Only through such integrated and inclusive efforts can digitally learning initiatives in rural Zimbabwe fulfill their transformative potential and contribute to closing educational and socio-economic gaps.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The study recommended that:

1. The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should develop and roll out a national strategy for integrating coding and robotics at the ECD level, prioritizing rural schools and aligning with Education 5.0 goals.
2. Universities and teacher training colleges should strengthen their pre-service and in-service teacher education programs by embedding Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) with a focus on early childhood digital learning, coding, and robotics.
3. School administrators and local education authorities should conduct regular professional development workshops to equip ECD teachers with practical, context-relevant skills in digital instruction, with particular attention to resource-constrained environments.
4. Community-based organizations and NGOs should support grassroots digital literacy initiatives by offering mobile learning labs, community tech hubs, or device donation programs in rural areas.
5. Parents and caregivers be actively engaged through awareness campaigns and school-community dialogues to promote understanding of the value of digital learning and encourage shared responsibility for learner support.
6. The private sector and Educational Technology companies’ partners should co-develop affordable, child-friendly digital tools, robotics kits, and infrastructure appropriate for early learners in rural settings.
7. Policy makers and legislators mainstream gender equity in digital education policies, ensuring that strategies are inclusive and sensitive to the cognitive barriers that girls face when engaging with technology.
8. Academic researchers and innovation hubs within universities collaborate with rural schools to pilot, evaluate, and scale culturally responsive digital education models that promote inclusivity, collaboration, and long-term sustainability.

CONCLUSION

This paper examined the integration of coding and robotics in rural Zimbabwean ECD settings, uncovering major gaps in infrastructure, teacher preparedness, and learner digital exposure. The study demonstrated, using Social Constructivism, Constructionism, TPACK, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, and the Social Justice framework, that learning is shaped by the complex interplay of pedagogical, technological, and socio-cultural factors. Findings revealed low digital access among learners, minimal ICT training among teachers, and limited parental support, especially in underserved communities. Gender disparities in engagement were also observed. The study called for holistic, inclusive strategies that address systemic inequalities. The study highlighted the important role of universities, policymakers, schools, and communities in providing practical training and support to build real skills in coding and robotics education. Future efforts must urgently focus on localized teacher training, closing the digital divide, investing in robust infrastructure, and align policies that build inclusive and sustainable learning ecosystems that truly empower all learners. 

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