Exploring Gender-Based Psychological Profiles in Malaysian Sub-Elite Athletes

Exploring Gender-Based Psychological Profiles in Malaysian Sub-Elite Athletes

Muhammad Noor Hizami Hamidi^1,2, Shamsulariffin Samsudin², Hairul Anuar Hashim³, Mohd Rozilee Wazir Norjali Wazir⁴, Soh Kim Geok², Roxana Dev Omar Dev²

¹Department of Physical and Health Education, Faculty of Education Universiti Teknologi MARA

²Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Education Universiti Putra Malaysia

³Sports and Recreation Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia

⁴Faculty of Psychology and Education, Universiti Malaysia Sabah

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.914MG00103

Received: 02 June 2025; Accepted: 06 June 2025; Published: 08 July 2025

ABSTRACT

This research investigated gender differences in the psychological profiles of Malaysian sub-elite athletes, concentrating on emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood states, and sports anxiety. A total of 228 student-athletes (146 men and 82 females) from the Malaysian National Sports School engaged in the study via a cross-sectional survey methodology. Standardized tools were employed to evaluate the specified psychological characteristics, and independent sample t-tests were performed to ascertain gender differences. The results indicated that male athletes exhibited markedly elevated levels of dedication, confidence, and focus, but female athletes had heightened levels of anxiety and concentration disturbance. No notable discrepancies were detected in the aspects of emotional intelligence or in mood states, including wrath and perplexity. The findings underscore gender-specific psychological strengths and weaknesses influenced by cultural expectations, social upbringing, and sports contexts. These observations underscore the necessity for culturally attuned and gender-specific psychological treatments in sports environments to improve athlete performance and mental health. Future study should utilize longitudinal and mixed methods approaches to investigate the developmental trajectories of psychological attributes in varied sports groups.

Keywords: emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood state, sports anxiety, sub-elite athletes, gender differences, sports psychology

INTRODUCTION

The psychological features of athletes are essential for talent identification, since these attributes profoundly affect performance and prospective success in sports [8]. Psychological elements, including emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood state, and sports-related anxiety, are essential drivers of athletic performance, especially in high-pressure competitive contexts [1]. Comprehending these characteristics and their differences between male and female athletes might offer significant insights for coaches, trainers, and sports psychologists in customizing training programs and therapies to enhance individual athlete development [11]. Research into the relationship between psychological resilience and athletic performance has uncovered significant trends, indicating that a substantial proportion of athletes experience heightened levels of distress, highlighting the necessity for robust mental health support systems in elite sports settings [5][6][9]. Analyzing the disparities in these psychological attributes between genders might uncover distinct problems and capabilities inherent to each group, therefore guiding the formulation of more effective and fair talent development methods. Identifying the psychological strengths and limitations of athletes allows for the implementation of targeted treatments to increase mental abilities, foster resilience, and improve overall performance [12].

The evaluation of emotional intelligence in athletes entails assessing their capacity to notice, comprehend, regulate, and successfully employ emotions, which is essential for sustaining calm under pressure and cultivating strong connections with teammates and coaches. Research on anxiety has been examined via several theoretical frameworks, including psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and more contemporary theories that emphasize the significance of affective, cognitive, and emotional processes [13]. Mental toughness denotes an athlete’s ability to surmount hurdles, endure hardship, and sustain concentration amid adversities, hence enhancing their capability for consistent high-level performance [13]. The mood state, which includes temporary emotions like stress, despair, rage, vigor, exhaustion, and disorientation, can profoundly affect athletic performance, underscoring the necessity for athletes to establish tactics for regulating their mood state throughout training and competition. Sports anxiety, defined by heightened concern and trepidation over athletic performance, might impede an athlete’s capacity to perform tasks proficiently and attain their maximum potential [16]. Chronic stress may severely detriment an athlete’s health and performance; hence, including stress management techniques into training regimens is crucial [7]. Moreover, an athlete’s sports attitude may significantly impact on their mental well-being, highlighting the interrelation of psychological aspects in the sports domain [2]. Moreover, as sub-elite athletes, the pressure to excel both academically and athletically can become excessive, leading to heightened anxiety, sleep disturbances, diminished energy, and insufficient time for rest and recovery, all of which will ultimately adverse the effect on performance and perpetuate the cycle [3].

Examining these psychological features among Malaysian sub-elite athletes provides a distinct chance to comprehend the psychological demands and obstacles encountered by athletes in this area. Considering the numerous mental health issues faced by student-athletes, it is essential to examine the student-related factors that may lead to stress and other mood states that might adversely influence both academic and athletic performance [4]. This is especially pertinent in Malaysia, where cultural and societal influences may affect the expression and regulation of emotions, along with the perceived shame surrounding the pursuit of mental health assistance. Furthermore, analyzing these characteristics across male and female athletes may uncover possible gender-specific disparities in psychological strengths and weaknesses, guiding the creation of customized therapies that cater to the distinct requirements of each group. Consequently, the existence of psychological issues may either initiate or intensify pre-existing mental health disorders in student-athletes. By analyzing the psychological profiles of Malaysian sub-elite athletes, coaches and sports psychologists can execute focused interventions to improve mental skills, foster resilience, and maximize performance, thereby contributing to the comprehensive advancement of a robust sporting culture in the nation [14] [4][10].

Comprehending the distinctions in psychological qualities between male and female sub-elite athletes in Malaysia is crucial for formulating tailored treatments and support systems aimed at optimizing their athletic potential and fostering their general well-being [15]. Examining the psychological disparities between male and female sub-elite athletes in Malaysia requires a thorough approach that takes into account the socio-cultural milieu, training methods, and competitive settings in which these athletes function. Research on gender disparities in sports indicates that males and females may vary in emotional responses, coping mechanisms, and motivational orientations [14].  Cultural norms and expectations likely affect how male and female athletes experience and express emotions, manage stress, and approach competition. Traditional gender norms may compel males to repress emotions and display stoicism, whilst females may be conditioned to articulate their feelings and want social support. Consequently, it is imperative to account for the cultural context while analyzing psychological disparities between male and female athletes in Malaysia.

Furthermore, disparities in training approaches and competition contexts may also lead to psychological inequalities between male and female athletes. Chronic stress may profoundly impact on the health and performance of athletes, underscoring the necessity of effective stress management measures.  Male and female athletes may encounter distinct pressures, confront varied degrees of competition, and get disparate coaching and support. The frequency of weekly training sessions significantly impacted motivation, suggesting that training routines affect players’ motivation levels. These variables can affect their emotional reactions, anxiety levels, and psychological resilience. The effect of coaches is significant, as they may struggle to determine when mental skills training is their responsibility and when players should seek the assistance of a sports psychologist [12]. Consequently, it is essential to analyze the training and competition experiences of male and female athletes in Malaysia to comprehend how these elements influence their psychological profiles.

The complex interaction of emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood state, and sports anxiety in influencing athletic achievement necessitates a comprehensive examination. Sports psychologists frequently employ subjective self-report questionnaires to ascertain the origins of stress and identify early adverse trends [16]. This research aims to elucidate the psychological aspects of athletic performance and well-being by analyzing these variables within the framework of sub-elite athletes in Malaysia. An internal component to examine is the nature of the thoughts or beliefs that a student-athlete entertains, which may result in perceived stress.

This project aims to guide the creation of culturally sensitive and gender-specific treatments that increase the psychological well-being and physical potential of sub-elite athletes in Malaysia. Interventions may encompass mental skills training programs, stress management strategies, and counselling services customized to the specific demands and issues encountered by male and female athletes. In professional sports, the enhancement and incorporation of psychological abilities is frequently regarded as a rational progression of physical training [17]. This research enhances the comprehension of athletic growth and performance by examining the psychological differences between male and female athletes, impacting athletes, coaches, sports organizations, and policymakers in Malaysia and beyond.

METHODOLOGY

A cross-sectional approach employing an exploratory design, utilizing physical questionnaires to ensure the validity and reliability of the collected data. This study aimed to evaluate the differences between male and female sub-elite athletes in Malaysia regarding emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood states, and sports anxiety. The participants were Malaysian sub-elite athletes attending the Malaysian National Sports School. Malaysia possesses six national sports academies. A randomized fishbowl sampling technique was utilized, selecting the Malaysia National Sports School of Pahang. Only athletes currently competing in national and international tournaments were selected. The study had 228 participants (146 males and 82 females). Evaluation of emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood states, and sport-related anxiety in connection with performance among amateur athletes. The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale and Alen Heary Mental Toughness Questionnaire examined emotional intelligence and mental toughness, respectively, while the Brunel Mood Scale and Sport Anxiety Scale-2 assessed mood state and features of sports anxiety in the individuals. A pilot study was conducted to evaluate the internal consistency of the instrument among Malaysian sub-elite athletes. The reliability, evaluated via Cronbach’s alpha, was considered satisfactory for all scales: Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale at 0.87, Alen Heary Mental Toughness Questionnaire at 0.96, Brunel Mood Scale at 0.887, and Sport Anxiety Scale-2 at 0.94. All participants received an explanation of the research aims and permission. Participants were told of the study’s purpose and provided written informed consent. The questionnaires were offered in English and Bahasa to facilitate comprehension. Ethical permission was obtained, ensuring both privacy and voluntary participation. Descriptive statistics were utilized to delineate the demographic data of the participants, succeeded by inferential statistics (independent sample t-test) to investigate the differences in psychological characteristics (emotional intelligence, mental toughness, mood state, and sports anxiety traits) between male and female Malaysian sub-elite athletes.

RESULT

Table I Analyses Of the data distribution

The data distribution’s normality for this study was assessed through the examination of skewness and kurtosis. The distribution of the data was normal, indicated by skewness and kurtosis values for each variable falling within the range of -1 to 1 for both metrics. Values of skewness and kurtosis ranging from 1 to -1 are deemed excellent for most psychometric applications; however, values between 2 and -2 can also be considered acceptable in numerous instances, particularly when dealing with large samples [37].

Table II Analyses of Respondents’ General Characteristics

Table III  Independent sample t-test

An independent samples t-test was performed to investigate gender disparities in multiple psychological assessments. The results revealed no significant differences between males and females in the management of others’ emotions, t (226) = -1.27, p = .103; management of their own emotions, t (226) = 0.77, p = .222; or perception of emotion, t (226) = 1.47, p = .072. Nonetheless, males exhibited significantly superior scores compared to females in commitment and motivation, t (226) = 4.06, p < .001, confidence, t (226) = 4.62, p < .001, and concentration, t (226) = 2.67, p = .008, with modest effect sizes (Cohen’s d = 0.56, 0.64, and 0.37, respectively). Conversely, females had markedly elevated scores in worry, t (226) = -3.52, p < .001, and concentration disruption, t (226) = -2.07, p = .040, but the effect sizes were small to moderate (Cohen’s d = -0.49 and -0.29, respectively). No notable differences were observed in mood states, including anger, t (226) = -1.74, p = .083, and perplexity, t (226) = -1.23, p = .219, or in somatic anxiety, t (226) = -1.51, p = .132. Overall, males had superior confidence-related traits, while females showed increased anxiety and concentration disruption, indicating possible gender-specific variations in psychological and emotional control.

DISCUSSION

The results indicate a significant gender disparity in the psychological characteristics of Malaysian sub-elite athletes. Males indicated more commitment, determination, self-confidence, and concentration, whereas females exhibited heightened anxiety and impaired attention. Numerous studies corroborate the observed gender disparities in mental attributes of athletes. [18] indicated that male athletes exhibit more self-confidence and motivation compared to female athletes. This divergence was ascribed to variations in socialization and supportive circumstances that often cultivate the development of assertiveness and competitive traits in males from an early age. Evidence indicates that male athletes exhibit more self-confidence, as seen in the increased prevalence of gender comparison studies within competitive sports contexts. The research revealed that it is more challenging to undermine males’ confidence compared to females, since females’ self-confidence diminishes more rapidly or sooner in response to negative feedback [19][20].

Nonetheless, several studies do not corroborate significant gender disparities in psychological characteristics among athletes. No substantial differences were seen in mental toughness and emotional regulation between male and female athletes [21][22] [23][24]. The authors propose that exposure to parallel training and competitive settings may reduce conventional gender role disparities in psychological characteristics. A study by [25] recently emphasized the significance of individualized coaching over a gender-based approach, demonstrating that psychological skills and performance are more strongly correlated with personalized coaching than with the differences between male and female athletes.

Research indicates that, contrary to common perception, women appear to be more impacted by the psychological burdens of worry and diminished concentration. [26] reported elevated anxiety levels in female athletes, which may negatively impact concentration and performance. This heightened anxiety in women may stem from cultural expectations, the necessity to juggle various responsibilities, and a greater incidence of adverse life events.

Prior studies demonstrate elevated anxiety levels among female athletes overall. [26] discovered that female athletes had elevated pre-competitive anxiety and performance outcome worries, perhaps leading to increased attentional disruption. Recent studies indicate that societal limitations and self-imposed norms exacerbate anxiety in female athletes [9] [28].

Cultural norms may favor performance perfectionism in females, resulting in increased self-doubt and anxiety around failure. Numerous papers indicate that male athletes exhibit greater desire and commitment levels. Research indicated that males exhibited more intrinsic motivation and were more inclined to participate in sports for personal gratification rather than external benefits [9][28]. They demonstrated enhanced training capacity and goal setting with increased perseverance. Research has investigated motivation in high-achieving athletes, specifically among Malaysian high performers, revealing that male athletes exhibited greater commitment to psychological skills training, ostensibly to enhance their motivation and overall performance dedication [21] [22][23][24]. Moreover, contemporary male sportsmen exhibit increased self-confidence. Consistent with other studies, [26] discovered that male athletes exhibit elevated levels of self-confidence and mental toughness, which provide them with enhanced resources for managing performance-related stress. This may result from excessive exposure to a competitive environment and heightened societal reinforcement of confidence-related behaviors in males.

Nevertheless, certain research reveals no substantial variations in commitment and drive between males and females. [22] indicated that men athletes exhibited greater motivation than their female counterparts, attributable in part to their dedication being linked to diverse sources. Males exhibited more internal drive, but females were frequently influenced by stronger extrinsic incentives, such as external rewards or team dynamics.

The self-confidence of male athletes is profoundly influenced by their upbringing, shaped by the disparities in behavioral expectations, as boys are typically encouraged to be more assertive and restrained from an early age. Consequently, over time, boys cultivate a stronger belief in their ability to accomplish their goals [21][22]. This finding is corroborated by prior research that associates enhanced focus in males with superior attentional control and cognitive complementary strength. [29] stated that male Malaysian athletes trained in high-performance centers had superior focus-related skills.

Consequently, the observation substantiates that males possess superior selective attention capabilities and are more adept at mitigating distractions compared to females, which serves as an effective strategy for enhancing attention [25]. Conversely, several studies suggest little or absent gender disparities in confidence. [22] revealed that self-confidence correlated more with the type of sport and competitive level than with gender. In team sports, the confidence of female athletes matched that of their male counterparts, attributable to robust team support structures and team efficacy. Another factor to examine is the notion of ‘mental toughness’. Moreover, diminished self-confidence may not accurately reflect the genuine abilities of females, but rather their more self-critical disposition [25]. This indicates that female competitors may internalize self-doubt to a greater extent than their male counterparts at an equivalent level.

This study revealed no notable gender disparities in anger, perplexity, or physical anxiety. This outcome is corroborated by research indicating that emotional moods and bodily anxiety are predominantly impacted by personality traits and the characteristics of the sport, rather than by gender. [26] discovered that pre-competitive anxiety levels are comparable amongst top male and female athletes, but leisure athletes exhibit higher levels than high-level competitors.

Furthermore, several research indicate no disparity in attention between men and women. [22] discovered that attention levels were influenced more by training and experience than by gender. It was determined that male and female athletes with equivalent degrees of competitive experience had comparable attentional skills. An alternate theory is that the attentional pattern of female athletes, rather than a decrease in concentration, is the focus [26]. This more limited attentional focus in males may also indicate a broader inclination for men to absorb information in a verbal manner, as seen by their greater performance on tasks involving verbal information compared to women.

Research indicates that definitive findings on gender disparities in sports anxiety are unwarranted. [25] revealed that the type of sport predominantly influenced anxiety levels, rather than gender. Females participating in high-contact sports (martial arts and rugby) had anxiety levels comparable to males and might be affected by significant exposure to high-pressure circumstances. Research indicates that self-reported anxiety does not consistently correlate with real declines in performance. [22] discovered that although female athletes had heightened anxiety, their physical performance remained unaffected, indicating that such worry may not disrupt focus as commonly presumed.

The discrepancies in study findings on psychological gender-based variables in sub-elite athletes can be attributed to various significant factors, including cultural context and sample characteristics. All of these elements significantly alter the manifestation of psychological qualities in male and female athletes, hence influencing research outcomes. Culture significantly influences the development, expression, and experience of mental characteristics. As a Southeast Asian nation, Malaysia possesses certain cultural ideas that may influence the gender disparity among athletes in sports psychology more significantly than in Western contexts. The features of the analyzed samples, including athletic background, sport type, and competitive level, are significant drivers of psychological profiles. Discrepancies in these qualities between research studies may lead to conflicting results about sex differences.

Conventional gender standards continue to have an influence on actions and expectations in Malaysia. Males are urged to demonstrate rivalry, independence, and authority, whereas women are often expected to exhibit collaboration, submission, and emotional openness [31]. Consequently, male athletes may cultivate more self-confidence and dedication, which manifests in elevated societal prestige associated with competitiveness and accomplishment. Conversely, female athletes may exhibit more susceptibility to anxiety and concentration-related challenges, since societal norms often allow women to display sensitivity, whilst males are often expected to repress such feelings [30][32].

Western nations exhibit heightened gender equality in sports participation, accompanied by robust lobbying for amplifying women’s voices in athletics. Male competitors in Malaysia may receive superior financing, equipment, and media exposure, which might enhance their motivation and dedication [33]. Female athletes may encounter more challenges in obtaining elite coaching and competition chances, perhaps leading to increased anxiety and diminished self-confidence relative to male athletes.

The concept of mental toughness is frequently seen variably among cultures. In Western contexts, mental toughness is associated with resilience, elevated self-confidence, and emotional management [34]. In Malaysia, a correlation may exist between mental toughness and adherence to coaches’ decisions, discipline, and emotional management, thereby elucidating why certain female athletes experience anxiety despite demonstrating proficiency in motor skills. Malay male athletes may depend on external support structures, such as coaches and teammates, to enhance confidence and boost motivation [36]. The use of self-reflective or emotion-focused coping techniques among female athletes may correlate with heightened state anxiety and worse attentional performance in high-pressure situations.

Sub-elite players (international/national level athletes) benefit from superior psychological skills training and coping strategies, which may alleviate gender disparities in mental toughness, confidence, and anxiety. The heightened exposure of both male and female athletes to demanding training situations throughout their formative years may contribute to the psychological resilience they demonstrate. Female athletes possessing extensive competitive sports experience may exhibit self-confidence levels comparable to those of male athletes [25].

Moreover, individual female athletes facing insufficient team support, characterized by elevated disunity, may encounter heightened stress and anxiety [26]. In solo sports, males may experience elevated self-expectations, resulting in enhanced confidence and focus [35]. Moreover, female athletes in team sports frequently exhibit elevated levels of confidence and motivation, attributable to collaboration and mutual emotional support. Men involved in team sports exhibit more engagement and motivation compared to those engaging in solitary sports; however, the gender disparity may be diminishing due to a comparable team dynamic experienced by both males and females. While not absolute, participation in sports competitions for both male and female athletes fosters resilience and mental fortitude, hence contributing to the reduction of gender stereotypes.

The identified gender disparities in the psychological characteristics of Malaysian sub-elite athletes are shaped by a complex interaction of biological, cultural, and environmental variables. Males often exhibit elevated levels of commitment, determination, confidence, and attention, whereas females tend to report increased anxiety and concentration disturbance, maybe linked to societal expectations and varying defense mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

The study reveals gender-based differences in the psychological profiles of Malaysian sub-elite athletes, revealing significant differences in mental toughness, mood states, and sports anxiety. Male athletes showed higher commitment, confidence, and concentration, while female athletes reported higher worry and concentration disruption. These differences may be influenced by biological, social, and cultural influences. However, no significant gender differences were found in emotional intelligence dimensions or mood states. The study suggests the need for culturally sensitive and gender-specific interventions in athletic settings to improve performance and well-being. Future research should consider longitudinal designs, a broader range of sports disciplines, and deeper exploration of socio-cultural variables.

RECOMMENDATION

The study suggests a longitudinal design to explore the temporal evolution of psychological qualities, such as emotional intelligence, mental toughness, and anxiety, in relation to athletic training and competition, for future studies. It also suggests broadening the participant pool to include athletes from various sports disciplines and competitive levels for a better understanding of the developmental pathways of these attributes. Cross-cultural comparative research and qualitative approaches could also reveal gender-specific experiences and coping mechanisms.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The study explores psychological differences based on gender among Malaysian sub-elite athletes but has limitations. Cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causality or identify developmental trends in psychological traits. Factors like training, experience, and stressors influence psychological traits over time. The study’s focus on athletes from the national sports school may limit its applicability to a wider population. Additionally, it overlooked variables like coaching style, sport nature, and socio-economic background. Future research should use longitudinal study designs, a broader sample, quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews, and cross-cultural comparative studies to understand gender-specific psychological experiences and coping mechanisms better. This could lead to more effective psychological interventions in sports contexts.

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