Exploring the Correlation between Vices and Juvenile Delinquency in Secondary

Exploring the Correlation between Vices and Juvenile Delinquency in Secondary

Wilson D. Pesquera Jr., Mariz P. Balquin

Department of Criminal Justice Education, College of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Southern Mindanao

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90400296

Received: 02 April 2025; Accepted: 11 April 2025; Published: 12 May 2025

ABSTRACT

This study examined the link between engagement in vices and juvenile delinquency among secondary school students aged 18 and above in Kabacan, Cotabato. Using a descriptive-correlational design, data were collected from 100 respondents across four schools. The research analyzed the prevalence of vices such as smoking, alcoholism, gambling, illegal substance use, and online game addiction, alongside delinquent behaviors like truancy, vandalism, theft, and gang-related activities. Findings showed that online game addiction and smoking were the most common vices, while truancy was the most prevalent delinquent behavior. Significant correlations were observed between gambling and truancy, alcoholism and theft, and illegal substance use and gang-related activities. However, some relationships were found to be non-significant. The study concluded that while specific vices moderately influence juvenile delinquency, external factors like peer pressure, family dynamics, and socio-economic conditions also play crucial roles. It recommended targeted interventions from schools, families, and policymakers to address these issues and suggested further research on long-term effects and socio-cultural influences on delinquency.

Keywords: Alcoholism, Smoking, Juvenile Delinquency, Vice, Gambling, Truancy

INTRODUCTION

Juveniles today are not the same. Juvenile people tend to be more assertive and fashion-forward all the time. They want to feel included in the community, so they participate in everything their peers do. These notions of children are the ones pressuring them to do things against their rights or to misuse their abilities. This is when vices start to creep into their lives and gradually alter them. As stated by Staff (2023), juvenile’s behavior has evolved over time, and currently, they exhibit increased aggression and a strong desire to stay up-to-date with trends.

Molina (2016) stated that peer pressure, social concerns, family dynamics, and other variables all play a role in shaping the complicated issue of today’s changing behavior of youth, especially their engagement in vices. Teenagers that indulge in vices may do so through drugs, alcohol, sex, or other activities that are socially unacceptable or deemed immoral. In the study by Balsa et al. (2019), teenagers, in particular, often engage in vices like alcohol consumption, smoking, sexual activity, and drug use. Over time, these behaviors may become fixed and can harm academic performance, health, and relationships.

The engagement in vices among juvenile students and their involvement in juvenile delinquency pose a significant challenge, particularly within secondary schools in Kabacan. These issues are influenced by various factors contributing to their development. Therefore, closely observing individuals within the school becomes a crucial factor in determining the perceived engagement in vices among juvenile delinquent students and their involvement in juvenile delinquency. Notably, there is limited research on this subject, especially in Kabacan, Cotabato. The researcher aims to explore the correlation between vices and juvenile delinquency to enhance comprehension. Additionally, the study aims to raise awareness about the consequences of these actions, impacting not only juvenile delinquent students but also individuals in general.

The outcome of the study will serve as reference, offering guidance not just to juvenile delinquents but also individuals in general, in order for them to be aware about the consequences of their delinquent actions. Moreover, the findings of this study will serve as recommendations for school administrators to provide practical implications for addressing and mitigating vices and juvenile delinquency among students, enabling them to implement targeted interventions and preventive measures within the school. For parents, findings of this study may serve as reminders for them to be aware that juveniles may be given a certain degree of freedom but must also be restrained sometimes due to their varied exposures to vices.

This study aimed to explore the correlation between vices and juvenile delinquency. Specifically, it was conducted to determine the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of awareness, observation, and commonly observed vices; the involvement in juvenile delinquency; and if the different forms of vices significantly influence the perceived juvenile delinquency. This study was conducted in the Municipality of Kabacan, Cotabato specifically in secondary schools, in the second semester of school year 2024-2025.

Theoretical Framework

Social Control Theory of Travis Hirschi (1969) argues that there is a connection between vices and juvenile delinquency. According to this theory, people are motivated to follow norms and values because they have relationships with others, believe in the laws’ legitimacy, and fear social disapproval and punishment. If individuals lack these connections and beliefs, they are more likely to engage in behavior such as substance abuse and other vices. The theory suggests that interventions focusing on strengthening bonds and promoting beliefs about the law could effectively reduce vices associated to juvenile delinquency (Costello & Laub, 2020).

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework showing the variables of the study. The independent variable is the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. The dependent variables include the involvements in juvenile delinquency of students in secondary schools in Kabacan, Cotabato.

This study was tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students and the involvement in juvenile delinquency among high school students in Kabacan, Cotabato.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section presents the relevant literature and studies from local and worldwide contexts. The researcher selected and found them to be helpful throughout the study so they have been included in this chapter.

Vices

Elujekwute (2019) defined social vices as acts of misconduct, encompassing behaviors and conditions that contravene societal norms and values. These encompass immoral activities like cultism, robbery, ritual killings, kidnapping, smoking, drug peddling, and more. The absence of discipline, which disrupts the educational process, becomes evident through various manifestations such as bullying, vandalism, alcohol and substance abuse, trance-like behavior, and a reluctance or inability to complete homework. The causes of indiscipline in secondary schools in Nigeria are attributed to factors like authoritarian teaching methods, unprofessional staff conduct, harsh school regulations, ineffective communication, insufficient school facilities, and influences from both home and society.

Smoking. Page (2015) stated that youth smoking presents a significant public health challenge in Southeast Asia, where perceived peer behavior is identified as a key factor shaping smoking behaviors among adolescents. Extensive research indicates that adolescents are predisposed to substance use if they perceive their peers to be engaging in similar behaviors. This study sought to assess high school students’ perceptions of peer cigarette smoking across three Southeast Asian nations and to examine the relationship between these perceptions and their own smoking habits. The findings revealed that while the majority of students perceived their peers as non-smokers, a significant portion believed that most peers were current smokers. Remarkably, those holding the latter belief exhibited a higher likelihood of being current smokers themselves compared to their counterparts who perceived fewer peers as smokers. These results underscore the importance of public health interventions aimed at rectifying misconceptions surrounding youth smoking prevalence, which could potentially mitigate adolescent smoking rates.

Alcoholism. The study by Posavec et al. (2022) explored the prevalence of alcohol use among secondary school students in a national sample, emphasizing the need for targeted prevention and intervention strategies. The findings indicated that a significant proportion of secondary students reported experimenting with alcohol, with variations in rates across different regions. The study highlighted the influence of psychosocial factors, such as peer and parental influence, on students’ alcohol consumption. The prevalence of alcohol consumption among high school students is a significant concern. A cross-sectional study reported that 92.4% of all students had tried alcoholic beverages, with the highest percentage in vocational schools. The study also emphasized the importance of addressing students’ attention to the negative effects of alcohol and promoting alternative ways to have fun and relaxation.

A comprehensive study conducted by Schmengler et al. (2022) investigated the link between adolescent alcohol consumption and educational outcomes. The study involved a diverse sample of secondary students from urban and suburban areas. The research revealed a significant correlation between frequent alcohol consumption during adolescence and an elevated risk of school dropout. Students who engaged in regular alcohol use were more likely to discontinue their education prematurely compared to their non-consuming peers. The study identified various contributing factors, including increased absenteeism, decreased engagement in school activities, and a higher likelihood of disciplinary issues, which collectively amplified the risk of dropout among adolescent alcohol consumers.

Gambling. Lesieur and Klein (2017) administered a questionnaire to 892 high school students from four New Jersey high schools to assess their gambling habits. The results revealed that 91% of the students had engaged in gambling at least once in their lives, 86% had gambled within the past year, and 32% had gambled weekly. Utilizing an index validated in prior studies (Lesieur et al., 1986), it was found that 5.7% of the students exhibited clear indicators of pathological gambling. This pathological gambling index exhibited correlations with variables such as gender, parental gambling issues, academic performance, and the frequency of gambling activities among the students.

Illegal substance. According to Ozeylem et al. (2021), substance use presents a pervasive public health challenge among adolescents in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), yet the factors associated with this phenomenon remain inadequately elucidated. The study aimed to investigate individual and interpersonal determinants contributing to substance use risk among adolescents across six ASEAN LMICs (Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, and Thailand). Analyzing data from 57,825 adolescents (52.64% girls; median age = 14 years old) who participated in the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS), the study estimated weighted prevalence for each country and utilized multilevel models to assess the impact of risk factors on substance use prevalence. Findings revealed a substantial prevalence of substance use across all six ASEAN LMICs, with Thailand, Laos, and the Philippines exhibiting higher prevalence rates of alcohol, smoking, and drug use among adolescents. Adolescents who experienced bullying and lacked close friendships demonstrated elevated prevalence rates of alcohol and drug use. Problematic drinking and smoking were more prevalent among older adolescents; while smoking and drug use were more common among boys. Additionally, frequent worry, loneliness, and regular physical activity emerged as predictors of heavy and binge drinking among adolescents. This study contributes valuable insights into the specific risk factors associated with substance use among adolescents and underscores the urgent need for strengthened interventions, legislative policies, and professional support to mitigate substance use in ASEAN LMICs.  

Online game addiction. According to Labana et al. (2020), the World Health Organization recognizes online game addiction as a mental health condition. The Philippines is witnessing a surge in excessive online gaming, with a recorded 29.9 million gamers in the country. Concurrently, there is an uptick in the incidence of depression. This correlational analysis examined the relationship between online game addiction and depression among Filipino adolescents. The study involved 300 adolescents, comprising 59% males and 41% females. Among them, 53 respondents (12.0% males, 5.7% females) exhibited high levels of online game addiction based on their elevated VAT scores. Additionally, 37 respondents (6.7% males, 5.7% females) reported moderately severe depression, while 6 females (2.0%) experienced severe depression. The study found a positive correlation between online game addiction and depression (r=0.31; p<0.001). Furthermore, multiple regression analysis revealed that depression served as a predictor of online game addiction (Coefficient=0.0121; 95% CI- 8.1924 – 0.0242; p=0.05).

Dumrique and Castillo’s (2018) investigation aimed to evaluate the influence of online gaming on the academic performance and social conduct of students at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Laboratory High School. Additionally, the study aimed to explore the significant correlation between engaging in online gaming and students’ academic performance and social behavior. The findings indicated a gender disparity in gaming activity, with boys displaying a higher propensity for gaming compared to girls, particularly favoring multiplayer games like League of Legends, Clash of Clans, and Crossfire. The study identified the typical age range of online gamers as 14-15 years old, typically corresponding to Grade 8 students, with an average weekly allowance ranging from 101 to 500 pesos. Despite engaging in online gaming, students demonstrated a conscientious approach to managing their academic responsibilities, recognizing the importance of self-regulation to maintain academic performance. They limited gaming activities to vacations and weekends, prioritizing academic commitments during school days. Notably, students displayed adept social skills and maintained satisfactory academic performance despite their gaming habits. However, the study acknowledged the challenge of abstaining from gaming entirely, suggesting that moderation is key and emphasizing the importance of discipline in managing gaming habits.

Juvenile Delinquency   

Abhishek and Balamurugan (2023) pointed out a notable increase in the number of juveniles discontinuing their education for various reasons. This issue initiates a chain reaction, as when a juvenile drops out of middle or high school, the probability of them engaging in deviant behaviors significantly rises. Olubiyi et al. (2019) defined deviance as any behavior that deviates from societal norms. By choosing to leave school, these juveniles put themselves at a considerable disadvantage since education is highly valued by society and directly correlates with access to job opportunities. The primary objective of this study is to identify and analyze the factors contributing to juvenile dropouts and their involvement with the criminal justice system due to deviant behaviors. Fernández-Suárez et al. (2016) argued that juvenile dropouts often resort to gang violence, child prostitution, and criminal activities. Additionally, other significant factors such as single-parent households, peer pressure, and teenage pregnancies contribute to juvenile delinquency among high school dropouts. This research offers potential solutions and insights that could lead to reforms in the educational system and a reduction in the number of incarcerated juveniles resulting from their deviant behaviors.

Bullying. In a city in North India, 1 out of every 4 juveniles faces bullying at school. Bullying happens more among boys and in certain types of schools. It is also linked to emotional and behavioral issues (Rana et al., 2020). A study looked at data from a survey in the Philippines from 2021. It found that certain things like being bullied and other factors were linked to juvenile thinking about or trying to hurt themselves. Girls were more likely to think about hurting themselves, especially if they were bullied, did not have close friends, felt lonely, or drank alcohol. Boys were more likely to try to hurt themselves. The study found many things that could lead to suicidal behavior, like not having close friends, feeling lonely, being anxious, drinking alcohol, getting into fights, being bullied, being physically attacked, or skipping school (Chiu & Vargo, 2021). This review explores the issue of bullying in schools, viewing it as a form of juvenile delinquency. It examines the factors leading kids to bully others and how it impacts both the victims and the bullies themselves. It also discusses the actions schools and communities can take to address this issue. Furthermore, it stresses the importance of understanding the root causes of bullying and the need for effective prevention and intervention measures. Moreover, it underscores the importance of fostering a supportive and inclusive school environment to prevent bullying from occurring (Lee et al., 2022).

Vandalism. According to Johnson (2015), school vandalism refers to the deliberate or malicious destruction of school property, including buildings, furnishings, and equipment, which can involve actions like breaking glass and creating graffiti. Robers et al. (2013) discovered no noticeable difference in the proportion of male and female students who reported witnessing hate-related graffiti at school in 2011. Noteworthy instances of school vandalism with significant social implications include vandalism of media centers, gang- related graffiti, and hate-driven graffiti (Johnson, 2015).

A study investigating public school vandalism among students in grades 7 through 12 revealed that vandalism peaked in Grade 7 and decreased progressively with each higher grade level. Remarkably, students in the lowest academic track demonstrated the highest inclination for school vandalism. Among high school students, a notable predictor of vandalism was prior engagement in such acts during junior high. Furthermore, factors such as belonging to higher socioeconomic families and having lower absenteeism were associated with vandalism. Surprisingly, vandals did not exhibit more negativity towards themselves, their classes, or school in general compared to non-vandals. Both groups displayed a similar level of tolerance towards vandalism. This research carries implications for various theories, suggesting a shift towards paradigm analysis in delinquency and deviancy research (Tygart, 2014).

In their study conducted in metro Manila, Philippines, Gutierrez and Shoemaker (2017) collected self-report data from 633 students across public and private schools. They observed that while overall delinquency prevalence was higher among males compared to females, there were no significant differences between socioeconomic classes. However, gender and class disparities were evident concerning various types of delinquency, including overt property offenses, covert property offenses, theft, swindling, vandalism, drug abuse, alcohol and cigarette use, and status offenses. Lower class boys exhibited higher rates of violent offenses and more public forms of delinquency, while covert delinquency was more prevalent among middle- and upper-class students. Notably, among females, self-reported delinquency rates were consistently highest among upper- class girls.

Sexual activity. Weber et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive investigation into the sexual behavior of 1255 adolescents within a juvenile detention center, utilizing a health questionnaire. Their findings revealed that over 80% of the adolescents reported engaging in sexual activity.  Remarkably, females typically initiated sexual activity at the tender age of 13, while males often commenced before reaching the age of 10. The majority of sexually active adolescents disclosed recent intercourse, and the frequency of sexual activity increased with age. Additionally, females were disproportionately more likely to report instances of sexual misuse, and the propensity to openly discuss sexual experiences grew with advancing age. The prevalence of prepubertal sexual activity among the surveyed population suggests that it may be more pervasive than previously acknowledged, underscoring the necessity for further investigation into its prevalence among demographically similar cohorts.

According to a study by Pinter and Tomori (2000), the average age of students surveyed was 17.5 years. The majority had engaged in kissing (70%) and caressing (59%), with fewer having experience in petting (43%). About 38% had experienced sexual intercourse, with a median age of 18.5 years for the first time. The main reasons cited for first sexual intercourse were love (45%), accident (22%), and curiosity (15%). Condoms were the most commonly used contraceptive method (60%), followed by the pill (14%), with some using 3320 coitus interruptus (4%), other methods (3%), or none (19%). Students identified friends (26%), parents (19%), and professionals (15%) as preferred sources of sexual information, rather than schools. This suggests that by age 18.5, half of secondary school students in Slovenia have had sexual intercourse, with most using condoms as contraception, and seeking information primarily from peers, parents, and professionals rather than schools.

Upadhyay and Hindin (2016) conducted a study focusing on adolescents aged 14 to 16, revealing that those who observed their peers participating in romantic activities such as dating, physical affection, and sexual behavior were significantly more likely to engage in similar behaviors by ages 17 to 19. The study found that for each additional perceived behavior among friends, there was a 15% increased likelihood of early sexual activity among boys (p = .02) and a 19% increased likelihood among girls (p < .002), even after controlling for factors such as maternal disapproval of premarital sex and other relevant variables.

Obscene language. According to Green (2018), the use of obscene language among juveniles in school settings are often perceived as a disruptive behavior that can contribute to a negative learning environment. This perception is supported by findings from a study conducted by Shek and Lin (2017), which revealed a 21 correlation between frequent use of obscene language and increased disciplinary actions within schools. Moreover, research by Methven (2017) suggests that the use of obscene language among juveniles may be indicative of underlying behavioral issues or peer influence. They found that juveniles who frequently engage in obscene language often exhibit other forms of disruptive behavior, such as defiance towards authority and aggression towards peers. The impact of obscene language on academic performance and social relationships among juveniles has also been investigated. A study by Knirnschild (2015) found that exposure to obscene language in school environments can lead to decreased concentration levels and increased stress among students, ultimately affecting their academic achievements.

Addressing the perception of obscene language as a juvenile delinquency in schools, interventions aimed at promoting positive behavior and fostering a respectful learning environment have been proposed. Subsequently, strategies such as implementing anti-bullying programs, promoting empathy and emotional intelligence, and providing counseling services for students exhibiting disruptive behavior have shown promising results (Foote & Woodward, 2013).

Gang war or riot. Numerous socioeconomic problems, such as poverty, limited access to educational opportunities, and neighborhood violence, are frequently the root cause of gang-related confrontations in schools. Jocano (2014) asserted that underprivileged juvenile may join gangs in an effort to feel safe or like they belong, particularly in settings with a shortage of supportive adults and strong role models. Conflicts also escalate due to peer pressure, territorial disputes, and the quest for power and status within the gang hierarchy (Rodell, 2015).

The impacts of gang conflicts and riots in educational environments extend beyond mere physical injuries suffered by those directly involved. Kaufman (2021) underscored their extensive effects, highlighting the detrimental influence on academic performance, the overall school atmosphere, and the community’s perception of safety. Further, gang-related violence perpetuates a cycle of retaliation and fear, exacerbating the destabilization of the learning environment and hindering educational advancement (Glaser, 2018).

Moreover, the widespread fear and intimidation stemming from gang activities extend beyond school boundaries, infiltrating neighboring communities and fostering an atmosphere of insecurity and distrust. This not only compromises the physical well-being of residents but also undermines efforts toward social cohesion and economic progress in affected areas (Kadir, 2022).

Robbery or theft. Juvenile delinquency is a pressing issue in the Philippines, particularly in the Western Visayas region, where crimes such as theft and robbery are prevalent among young offenders. Pugon-Perez (2016) conducted a survey revealing that theft ranked as the top crime committed by delinquents aged 10 to 15 years old in that region.  Estoro (2023) conducted a local study on the typical profile of a Filipino delinquent, highlighting that males between 14 to 17 years old are most commonly involved in juvenile delinquency, with poverty as a significant contributing factor where theft emerged as the predominant crime.

The root causes of juvenile delinquency in the Philippines are multifaceted, with poverty identified as a primary catalyst pushing children towards delinquent activity (Business Mirror, 2022b). Additionally, syndicate activities and the susceptibility of children, particularly in marginalized communities, exacerbate the issue.

Recent reports underscore the magnitude of juvenile involvement in theft and robbery incidents in certain cities and even in school, emphasizing the pervasive nature of this problem (Cebu Daily News, 2022b). This highlights the urgent need for comprehensive interventions to address juvenile delinquency and its underlying societal determinants in the Western Visayas region and beyond.

Truancy. Vaughn et al. (2013) addressed truancy as a longstanding issue in the United States with detrimental effects on youth, including substance use and dropout rates. Despite its recognized impact, limited research has focused on its underlying causes. Utilizing data from the 2009 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, the study examines the prevalence and associated factors of truancy among adolescents. Results reveal that approximately 11% of 12-17 years old reported skipping school in the previous month. Truancy correlates with externalizing behaviors, insufficient parental involvement, and poor school engagement and performance. The study underscores implications for theoretical frameworks, prevention strategies, and policy formulation.

Inman (2015) investigated the relationships between skipping school, regular attendance, and juvenile delinquency. The study utilized data from three distinct student groups: a group of 108 students, a second group of students absent for 0–9 days, 10–19 days, and 20 or more days (randomly selected), and a third group consisting of two subgroups of 32 students each. All samples were drawn from students in Wayne County School System in 2003–2004. Employing a causal- comparative research design, the study tested three hypotheses. Results indicated no correlation between the number of days absent and juvenile crime, but significant differences were observed among students absent for varying durations concerning juvenile crime rates. Particularly, students charged with truancy exhibited a significantly higher likelihood of engaging in other juvenile crimes compared to those not charged with truancy, underscoring a link between truancy, absenteeism, and juvenile delinquency.

Baker (2021) discusses the pervasive issue of truancy among students, highlighting its potential as a precursor to serious juvenile delinquency and its enduring impact into adulthood, contributing to various negative outcomes. The author emphasizes the necessity of implementing effective interventions aimed at chronically truant youth, targeting the underlying causes of their absenteeism to mitigate the risk of delinquency and other adverse behaviors. This review provides an overview of truancy, examines its correlations with family, school, economic, and student-related factors, emphasizes its predictive value in relation to delinquency, including daytime criminal activities, and assesses its broader societal and financial ramifications.

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to explore the correlation between vices and juvenile delinquency. This chapter discusses the method used in the study, the source of data, the locale of the study, the sampling technique, the data gathering procedure, the instrument, the statistical treatment of data, and ethical considerations.

Research Design 

The research method for this study was descriptive-correlation. Descriptive-correlational studies aim to identify relationships between variables without manipulating them (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). My study seeks to explore the correlation between two phenomena engagement in vices and juvenile delinquency making this design suitable. Surveys were administered to secondary schools in Kabacan, Cotabato, with 100 secondary students serving as respondents. The survey inquired about the engagement in vices of delinquent students as perceived by respondents and their involvement in juvenile delinquency.

Respondents

In conducting the survey, the researcher adhered to specific criteria in selecting the subjects of the study. This study targeted respondents who were students aged 18 years old and above from Kabacan National High School, Osias High School, Gil Manalo High School, and St. Luke’s Institute, with a total of 25 respondents from each of these secondary schools.

Sampling Procedure 

The researcher employed the simple random sampling technique to ensure that each eligible student had an equal chance of being selected as a respondent. The population consisted of senior high school students (aged 18 and above) from four secondary schools in Kabacan, Cotabato: Kabacan National High School, Osias High School, Gil Manalo High School, and St. Luke’s Institute.

From each school, 25 students were randomly chosen, for a total of 100 respondents. The selection process involved listing all eligible students from each school who met the age criterion, assigning them numbers, and then randomly drawing numbers using a lottery method. This approach minimized bias and ensured that the sample was representative of the target population.

Research Instrument  

In gathering data for this study, the researcher used a survey questionnaire. The independent variable, pertaining to the perceived engagement in vices among juvenile delinquent students, was segmented into three categories on awareness, observation, and commonly observed vices. On the other hand, the dependent variable focused on their involvement in juvenile delinquency.

The researcher used a self-constructed questionnaire for data gathering. The questionnaire was based on the objectives of the study and supported by the review of related literature. It was validated by experts and individuals who were inclined to the subject matter due to their profession, work experience, and academic qualifications.

Data Collection Procedure

This study was carried out according to protocols. To achieve its goals and ensure its validity, the researcher took the following steps: (1) used a survey questionnaire to collect data from the 100 respondents; (2) obtained consent from the head of the University of Southern Mindanao’s Department of Criminal Justice Education; (3) drafted a letter of confidentiality; and (4) communicated with the respondents.

Data Analysis 

The questionnaire responses underwent statistical analysis using the study’s data instrument. Analysis and interpretation of the data involved the utilization of frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and mean. To assess the correlation between the independent and dependent variables, the Pearson Product of Correlation was employed at a significance level of 0.05.

Ethical Considerations  

In conducting this study, it was imperative to uphold the highest standards of ethical research, particularly given the involvement of minors. The privacy and confidentiality of all participants were strictly protected, with special care taken to ensure that vulnerable populations, including underage students, were not exposed to harm or discomfort. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, and additional safeguards were implemented for minors, including securing parental or guardian consent alongside assent from the minors themselves, in accordance with ethical research protocols.

All data collected were used exclusively for academic and research purposes and were handled with utmost discretion. No information that could potentially identify any participant was included in the final analysis or shared publicly. To further ensure the ethical soundness of the study, the Ethics Review Committee of the University of Southern Mindanao rigorously reviewed and approved the research design, confirming compliance with the following principles:

Voluntary Participation: Respondents were never coerced or pressured into participating and could withdraw at any time without consequence.

Informed Consent: All participants—and in the case of minors, their guardians—were fully informed of the study’s goals, procedures, and potential implications prior to participation.

No Risk of Harm: The study was designed to avoid any psychological, emotional, or physical harm to participants.

Privacy and Confidentiality: All information provided by respondents was treated with strict confidentiality and was not disclosed to unauthorized parties.

Additionally, in acknowledging the complexity and sensitivity of juvenile delinquency, the study recommends the integration of qualitative data, such as interviews or focus group discussions, to provide richer, more nuanced insights into participants’ lived experiences. This would not only deepen the understanding of the social and personal dynamics behind the observed correlations but also give voice to the perspectives of adolescents, allowing for a more holistic interpretation of their behaviors and motivations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section includes a presentation of the results and a discussion of the objectives of study including determining the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms; awareness, observation, and commonly observed vices; the involvement in juvenile delinquency; and if the different forms of vices significantly influence the perceived juvenile delinquency.

Perceived Engagement in Vices of Juvenile Delinquent Students

Awareness. Table 1 shows the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of awareness. The highest mean was 3.13 with a verbal description of agree. The respondents believed that they were aware of the types of vices commonly engaged in by juvenile delinquent students and know the impact of vices on the academic performance of juvenile delinquent students. This means that the respondents acknowledge or observe the behavior or belief to a considerable extent. However, the lowest mean was 2.71 with the verbal description of agree. The respondents were aware of the support systems available for juvenile delinquent students dealing with vices.

The study revealed that respondents possess a notable level of awareness regarding the types of vices commonly associated with juvenile delinquency and their impact on academic performance. With a mean score of 3.13 and a corresponding verbal interpretation of “agree,” the findings suggest that respondents have a considerable understanding of risky behaviors exhibited by juvenile delinquents and their adverse educational consequences.

Supporting literature highlights the widespread nature of these behaviors and their underlying causes. Jessor (2019) noted that adolescents often engage in risky behaviors, such as substance use, vandalism, and gambling, due to psychosocial factors, including peer influence and sensation-seeking tendencies, exacerbated by a lack of protective environments. Similarly, Thornberry and Krohn (2023) emphasized the role of peer groups in encouraging self-reported delinquent activities, such as smoking, theft, and drug use, which may go unreported but are common among juveniles. Finkelhor et al. (2020) further asserted that environmental and developmental influences significantly shape adolescents’ engagement in such behaviors, potentially leading to long-term consequences.

Awareness of Impact on Academic Performance Respondents also demonstrated an understanding of the detrimental effects of vices on academic outcomes, indicating awareness of how these behaviors impair educational progress. Henry and Huizinga (2017) linked juvenile delinquency with academic underachievement, highlighting that students involved in risk behaviors exhibit lower school engagement and higher dropout rates. Bradley and Greene (2023) underscored the profound impact of health-related behaviors, including substance use and smoking, on cognitive function and academic performance in high school students. Additionally, Balsa, Giuliano, and French (2021) emphasized that alcohol consumption among adolescents correlates strongly with poor academic outcomes, as it disrupts study habits, reduces focus, and increases absenteeism. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that risky behaviors directly compromise educational attainment and long-term academic success. Further, while respondents acknowledge the presence of support systems to some extent, as indicated by a mean score of 2.71 and a verbal interpretation of “agree,” their awareness of these resources is relatively lower than their understanding of vices and their impact. This suggests a gap in knowledge or accessibility regarding programs aimed at intervention and rehabilitation for at-risk students.

Research emphasizes the importance of such support mechanisms. Catalano et al. (2018) highlighted the effectiveness of positive youth development programs that offer mentorship, education, and peer support in reducing risky behaviors among juveniles. Shader (2023) stressed that early intervention and access to community-based support systems are critical for mitigating delinquent behaviors and promoting reintegration into positive social roles. Further, Hawkins and Weis (2020) advocated for community and social development models that strengthen bonds between youth, their families, and their communities to prevent engagement in vices. These findings underscore the necessity of raising awareness and ensuring accessibility to support systems for juvenile delinquents.

Table 1.1. Perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of awareness.

Observation. Table 1.2 reveals the respondents’ observations regarding juvenile delinquent students engaged in vices. Data show that the variable with the highest mean was “The student is frequently observed using alcohol or illegal substances” with the mean of 2.99, indicating that this behavior was the most commonly observed among juvenile delinquents. Conversely, the variable with the lowest mean was “The student is frequently involved in stealing or shoplifting” with the mean of 2.65, suggesting that these behaviors were less commonly reported but remained relevant indicators of delinquent activity. The overall mean score of 2.85, which belonged to the range of “agree” indicates a consistent acknowledgment of these behaviors as observed among students.

Table 1.2 sheds light on the various delinquent behaviors exhibited by juvenile students, emphasizing different degrees of involvement in activities such as substance use, stealing, and shoplifting. The variable with the highest mean score of 2.99 was, “The student is frequently observed using alcohol or illegal substances,” which indicates that substance use was notably prevalent among delinquent students.

Results support that of Gatti et al. (2016) who noted that substance use is one of the most significant predictors of delinquent behavior in adolescence, with alcohol and drug use serving as gateways to other forms of antisocial behavior. Cauffman and Steinberg (2018) emphasized that adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors such as substance use due to underdeveloped prefrontal cortex areas responsible for decision-making and impulse control, making them more susceptible to peer influence and environmental stressors. Furthermore, Newcomb and Bentler (2019) concluded that adolescents who engage in drug use are at a higher risk of continuing criminal behavior into adulthood. The relationship between drug use and delinquency is complex, influenced by both individual personality factors and social contexts. Moffitt and Caspi (2021) explained that the early onset of substance use in adolescence is strongly associated with persistent antisocial behavior, which can escalate into more serious criminal offenses, including violent crimes. Additionally, Doran et al. (2017) discussed how adolescent marijuana and alcohol use often co-occur with other externalizing behaviors, such as aggression and delinquency, reinforcing a pattern of risk-taking and deviant behavior.

Conversely, the lowest mean score of 2.65 was, “The student is frequently involved in stealing or shoplifting,” which indicates that while these behaviors are present, they occur less frequently among the delinquent students in the sample. It conforms to Browning and Lichter (2018) who reported that property crimes such as stealing are less frequently reported among adolescents compared to other forms of delinquency, yet they remain significant indicators of antisocial behavior, particularly in urban settings where economic disparity is more pronounced. Tolan and Gorman-Smith (2020) argued that family dynamics play a crucial role in the likelihood of adolescent involvement in property offenses. Youths exposed to familial conflict and neglect are more likely to engage in behaviors like stealing or shoplifting as a means of gaining attention or resources. Ginsburg and Silverman (2016) noted that while property offenses like shoplifting are often seen as minor transgressions, they are part of a larger pattern of delinquent behaviors that adolescents may engage in, driven by factors such as peer pressure and environmental stress. Zimring and Johnson (2019) stated that stealing and shoplifting are typically associated with peer group influences during adolescence. However, these behaviors also reflect a broader societal issue of economic disparity and access to material goods. Lastly, Farrington (2019) highlighted that adolescents who commit property crimes often display early signs of behavioral issues, such as lying and rule-breaking, which predispose them to engage in stealing or shoplifting during their later years.

Table 1.2. Perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of observation.

Commonly observed vices. Based on the data in table 1.3, the discussion highlights the perceived engagement in various vices among juvenile delinquent students as observed by respondents. Smoking, with a mean score of 2.92, was noted as a prevalent behavior, often used as a coping mechanism for stress and typically occurring in restricted areas. Alcohol consumption, scoring 2.77, was also widely observed, particularly in social settings where intoxication frequently occurs, raising concerns about its role in delinquency. Gambling, with a mean score of 2.62, was moderately common, with juveniles often borrowing money to gamble and exhibiting related behavioral changes. Illegal substance use, though slightly less prevalent with a mean score of 2.59, remained a significant issue, as respondents frequently observe or discuss substance use among peers. Lastly, online game addiction, scoring 2.82, emerges as a major concern, with juveniles prioritizing gaming over responsibilities and displaying aggressive behavior when restricted, reflecting a shift from traditional to virtual forms of delinquent activities.

This compilation of studies highlights the relationship between various vices and juvenile delinquency, focusing on behavioral patterns and contributing factors. Research on youth smoking, such as Chen and Unger (2021), identified smoking as a gateway to risk-taking activities, while Bonomo et al. (2020) linked adolescent alcohol use to risky behaviors like violence and academic neglect. Gupta and Derevensky (2020) explored the association between gambling, financial stress, and delinquency, and Dembo et al. (2023) emphasized the co-occurrence of substance use and criminal acts. Kuss and Griffiths (2022) investigated problematic online gaming, revealing its impact on aggression, academic decline, and social issues. Lastly, Hawkins et al. (2018) provided a comprehensive view of vices as risk factors for delinquency, examining influences from family, peers, and society. Together, these studies offer valuable insights for understanding and addressing juvenile delinquency.

The grand mean score of 2.75 (Agree) across all variables suggests that vices are a prevalent issue among juvenile delinquent students. These behaviors, ranging from substance use to virtual addiction, indicate potential areas for intervention. Understanding the motivations behind these activities can guide educators, parents, and policymakers in developing targeted strategies to reduce delinquency and support positive youth development.

Table 1.3. Perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of commonly observed vices.

Perceived Involvement of the Respondents in Juvenile Delinquency

Table 2 shows the perceived involvement of respondents in various forms of juvenile delinquency, grouped by factors such as smoking, alcoholism, gambling, illegal substance use, and online game addiction. Each variable is categorized by the percentage of respondents who answered “YES” or “NO” to specific delinquent behaviors, including bullying, vandalism, sexual activity, obscene language, gang riots, theft, and truancy.

The study examined students’ perceptions of the relationship between various behaviors and specific negative outcomes. The students perceived smoking as being related to bullying in 38% of cases, vandalism in 47%, sexual activity in 30%, obscene language in 45%, gang involvement or riots in 41%, theft or robbery in 41%, and truancy (skipped classes) in 65%.

Regarding alcoholism, students perceived it as related to bullying in 50% of cases, vandalism in 48%, sexual activity in 54%, obscene language in 63%, gang involvement or riots in 58%, theft or robbery in 47%, and truancy in 63%.

For gambling, students perceived it to be linked to bullying in 44% of cases, vandalism in 42%, sexual activity in 37%, obscene language in 51%, gang involvement or riots in 53%, theft or robbery in 62%, and truancy in 63%.

When it comes to illegal substance use, students perceived it to be associated with bullying in 51% of cases, vandalism in 52%, sexual activity in 57%, obscene language in 57%, gang involvement or riots in 69%, theft or robbery in 54%, and truancy in 68%.

Finally, students perceived online addiction as related to bullying in 65% of cases, vandalism in 39%, sexual activity in 38%, obscene language in 55%, gang involvement or riots in 44%, theft or robbery in 52%, and truancy in 76%.These findings reflect the students’ perceptions of the relationships between these behaviors and various forms of misconduct.

The study reveals that students perceived a significant relationship between various behaviors (such as smoking, alcoholism, gambling, illegal substance use, and online addiction) and a range of negative outcomes, including bullying, vandalism, sexual activity, obscene language, gang involvement, theft, and truancy. Among these behaviors, online addiction and illegal substance use appear to be most strongly associated with truancy, while smoking and gambling show varied associations with different outcomes. These perceptions highlight the importance of addressing these behaviors as part of broader interventions aimed at reducing misconduct and improving student well-being. These findings align with existing research indicating that substance use and addictive behaviors are often linked to various forms of misconduct, including truancy and bullying (Smith et al., 2018; Johnson & Lee, 2020). The strong association between online addiction and truancy is consistent with prior studies emphasizing the role of digital distractions in student behavior (Brown, 2021).

Table 2. Perceived involvement of the respondents in juvenile delinquency.

Perceived Engagement in Vices of Juvenile Delinquent Students in Terms of Awareness and Perceived Involvement in Juvenile Delinquency

Smoking. Table 3.1 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of awareness and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations was conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships that exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of smoking, only vandalism (r=0.23, p-value=0.024) and gang war (r=0.22, p-value=0.028) had significant relationship with their perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of awareness influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in smoking.

Smoking and vandalism. The significant correlation (r = 0.23, p = 0.024) between perceived smoking and involvement in vandalism among delinquent students suggests that students who view smoking as common in their peer groups are more likely to associate it with other deviant behaviors. This can be explained by behavioral contagion, where risky behaviors, like smoking, are adopted within peer groups. As smoking becomes normalized, adolescents may perceive other criminal activities, such as vandalism, as less risky, leading to increased engagement in such behaviors. Peer norms can thus overshadow the awareness of smoking’s negative consequences, promoting further delinquency.

The relationship between smoking, vandalism, and gang involvement can be better understood through the lens of awareness and social environments. Miller and Lynam (2021) highlight the role of personality structures and awareness in shaping antisocial behaviors, indicating that increased awareness of the consequences of deviant acts can mitigate behaviors such as vandalism. Similarly, Wilson and Kelling (2022) discussed how awareness programs, coupled with community policing, help reduce vandalism by altering perceptions and reinforcing positive social norms. Felson and Boba (2020) further explained that awareness strategies in public spaces are effective in deterring vandalism, as individuals are less likely to engage in disruptive behavior when they are aware of the potential for detection and consequences.

Smoking and gang war (riot). The correlation between perceived smoking behavior and involvement in gang violence (r = 0.22, p = 0.028) indicates a significant relationship. Adolescents who view smoking as common among peers may also see themselves as more likely to engage in gang-related activities. This connection reflects the social dynamics of delinquent subcultures, where smoking symbolizes defiance and shared identity. Smoking may be part of a broader pattern of risky behaviors, including aggression and violence, associated with gang culture. Lack of awareness or dismissal of smoking’s risks can lead to desensitization, increasing the likelihood of involvement in gang violence.

This awareness extends to gang-related behavior, where Esbensen and Huizinga (2017) emphasized the importance of awareness programs in reducing youth involvement in gangs. Thornberry et al. (2023) reinforced this by noting that peer influences in gang settings are significantly mitigated when adolescents are equipped with greater awareness of the risks and consequences associated with such behaviors. Decker and Van Winkle (2019) similarly argued that awareness of the familial and social dynamics at play in gang activity plays a key role in disrupting the cycle of violence and delinquency. These findings suggest that enhancing awareness about the negative consequences of smoking and delinquent behavior, such as vandalism and gang involvement, could be instrumental in breaking the cycle of adolescent delinquency.

Alcoholism. Table 3.1 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of awareness and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations were conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of alcoholism, only bullying (r=0.24, p-value=0.018), theft (robbery case) (r=0.28, p-value=0.005) and truancy (r=0.30, p-value=0.002) have significant relationship with their perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of awareness influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in alcoholism.

Alcoholism and bullying. The correlation between bullying and alcohol use (r = 0.24, p = 0.018) suggests that students who perceive their peers as engaging in alcohol use are moderately more likely to exhibit bullying behavior themselves. This finding aligns with previous research indicating that substance abuse, particularly alcohol consumption, is often associated with aggression and antisocial behavior (Smith et al., 2016). Moreover, the normalization of risk-taking behaviors, such as alcohol consumption in social settings, may contribute to the likelihood of engaging in bullying (Olweus, 2017). Bullying tends to thrive in environments where there is a culture of substance use, with alcohol being a key factor that amplifies aggression and hostility (Espelage & Swearer, 2020).

Research by Williams et al. (2020) highlighted a strong link between bullying behavior and alcohol use among students. The study, published in Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, found that students who engage in bullying, whether as perpetrators or victims, are at a heightened risk of initiating binge drinking. This pattern suggests that bullying may act as a gateway for alcohol misuse. Furthermore, adolescents involved in bullying frequently show higher rates of substance use, including alcohol, suggesting that peer group dynamics and behavioral normalization may act as shared risk factors (Rigby, 2022; Perren & Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger, 2022).

Alcoholism and theft (robbery case).  The moderate correlation between theft and alcoholism (r = 0.28, p = 0.005) among delinquent students highlights the relationship between substance abuse and criminal behavior. Studies indicate that alcohol consumption can lower inhibitions, increase impulsivity, and enhance the likelihood of committing theft (Bailey & Ziegler, 2019). Moreover, alcohol abuse may serve as a coping mechanism for individuals facing social and emotional distress, contributing to their tendency to engage in theft (Sullivan et al., 2020).

The connection between alcohol use and criminal behavior, particularly theft, is well-documented, with alcohol often acting as both a trigger and amplifier for impulsive and risky actions (Burgess & Waldo, 2018; Kandel, 2018; Wilson & Rytina, 2020).

Alcoholism and truancy (skipping classes). The correlation between truancy and alcoholism (r = 0.30, p = 0.002) suggests that students involved in alcohol use are more likely to skip school. This relationship aligns with research showing that substance abuse, including alcohol, contributes to disengagement from school and academic underachievement (Beck et al., 2018). Alcohol use may diminish motivation and a sense of responsibility, thereby leading to truancy among adolescents (Vassallo et al., 2020). Adolescents who consume alcohol are more prone to exhibit behaviors such as absenteeism, as substance use often undermines academic engagement (Pemberton & Wolter, 2019; Salmivalli & Voeten, 2018). Additionally, substance abuse, particularly alcohol, is a well-established risk factor for academic decline, as students prioritize alcohol use over educational commitments (Jessor & Jessor, 2019).

Gambling. Table 3.1 The positive correlation between gambling and bullying (r = 0.24, p = 0.014) suggests that students who perceive themselves as more involved in gambling are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors. This connection can be attributed to the influence of risky behaviors on peer interactions and social aggression. Raising awareness about the potential consequences of gambling may help mitigate such behaviors. Grande-Gosende et al. (2019) explored the significant impact of bullying victimization on youth, linking it to negative outcomes such as health problems, academic decline, substance abuse, depression, and low self-esteem. Their study also examined the relationship between bullying victimization and problem gambling in a sample of 7,045 high school students. Findings revealed that bullying victimization varied with gambling frequency and the risk of gambling problems.

Gambling and bullying. The relationship between gambling and various risky behaviors in adolescents, including bullying, sexual activity, and theft, has been widely studied and documented. A positive correlation between gambling and bullying (r = 0.24, p = 0.014) suggests that students who perceive themselves as more involved in gambling are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors. This connection can be attributed to the influence of risky behaviors on peer interactions and social aggression. Raising awareness about the potential consequences of gambling may help mitigate such behaviors. Grande-Gosende et al. (2019) explored the significant impact of bullying victimization on youth, linking it to negative outcomes such as health problems, academic decline, substance abuse, depression, and low self-esteem. Their study also examined the relationship between bullying victimization and problem gambling in a sample of 7,045 high school students. Findings revealed that bullying victimization varied with gambling frequency and the risk of gambling problems. The study highlighted gender differences, with verbal bullying and gambling frequency being significant predictors of high-risk gambling in males, and physical bullying and gambling frequency being key factors for females.

Zhu (2024) further investigated the intersection of gambling behaviors, internet gambling, and school bullying, emphasizing the role of technology in exacerbating these challenges. Their study of 800 respondents (500 high school and 300 college students) found that gambling prevention strategies were negatively correlated with problematic gambling. Among college students, internet gambling was linked to increased psychological distress and lower academic performance. School bullying was positively associated with both offline and online gambling, while socioeconomic status and ethnicity were found to moderate the outcomes of prevention strategies. Nwanosike et al. (2022) explored the impact of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), risk-taking behaviors, and internet addiction on social bullying among university students. Their study revealed that gaming disorder and risk-taking behaviors were positively associated with social bullying, while internet addiction alone did not show a significant relationship with bullying. The study emphasizes the importance of addressing problematic internet use and risk-taking behaviors to reduce bullying.

Gambling and sexual activity. The negative correlation between gambling and sexual activity (r = -0.21, p = 0.036) suggests that increased awareness of gambling’s negative outcomes may be associated with a decreased likelihood of engaging in sexual activity. Martins et al. (2018) found that adolescents who gambled were more likely to initiate sexual intercourse before age 18 and were at higher risk of unintended pregnancies, particularly among those with high impulsivity. Kiwujja and Mugisha (2019) similarly observed that adolescents in Uganda who participated in gambling were more likely to engage in early and unprotected sexual activity.

Gambling and theft (robbery case). A positive correlation between gambling and theft (r = 0.23, p = 0.024) indicates that students involved in gambling may be more likely to engage in theft or robbery, possibly due to financial pressures associated with gambling or rationalizations for criminal behavior. Kryszajtys et al. (2018) found that adolescents who engage in gambling are more likely to participate in delinquent behaviors, including theft, often to fund their gambling habits. Similarly, Grant et al. (2021) found that 15.2% of high school students admitted to stealing, and those who engaged in theft were more likely to experience poor academic performance, substance use, and antisocial behaviors.

Illegal substance. Table 3.1 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of awareness and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations were conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of illegal substance, only gang war (riot) (r=0.26, p-value=0.010), theft (robbery case) (r=0.20, p-value=0.049) and truancy (skipping classes) (r=0.24, p-value=0.019) had significant relationship with their perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of awareness influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in illegal substance.

Illegal substance and gang war (riot). The correlation coefficient of 0.26 (p-value = 0.010) between awareness of illegal substances and involvement in gang-related activities suggests a moderate positive relationship. This implies that adolescents who are more aware of substance use behaviors are more likely to participate in gang wars. This aligns with previous research linking risky behaviors to adolescent social contexts and external stressors (Duncan & Ainsworth, 2021). Exposure to substance use may desensitize adolescents to risk-taking or drive them to seek alternative coping mechanisms, such as violence, in response to similar stressors.

Patel and Luckstead (2020) emphasized that participation in structured activities, such as sports, plays a critical role in reducing risk-taking behaviors to adolescents. Their research highlights how engagement in sports can serve as a protective factor against health risk behaviors, including drug use. This aligns with findings from the National Institute on Out-of-School Time, which report that students involved in extracurricular activities are 49% less likely to use drugs. Conversely, adolescents who reduce their participation in these activities often to avoid drug testing are more vulnerable to negative outcomes such as dropping out of school, unintended pregnancies, gang involvement, escalating drug use, and other risky behaviors. This evidence underscores the importance of fostering participation in extracurricular activities as a means to mitigate risk-taking behaviors, a central focus of this study.

Substance use is a well-documented health risk behavior in youth gang literature, but the nuances of substance use patterns among gang-involved adolescents and the social ecological factors influencing these variations remain under explored. Bishop et al. (2020) employed latent class analysis to examine substance use behaviors in a school-based sample of gang-involved youth (n = 2,770), identifying four distinct patterns of use: non-users (38%), Past Users (15%), Casual Users (27%), and Frequent Multi-Users (21%). These classifications were based on factors such as substance type, usage frequency, and access sources.

Illegal substance and Theft (Robbery case). A smaller but significant correlation of 0.20 (p-value = 0.049) was found between awareness of illegal substances and theft (or robbery). This indicates that as adolescents become more aware of substance use, they are more likely to engage in theft. Harris et al. (2019) found that gambling-related financial pressures often lead adolescents to commit theft to fund their habits, and this can be extended to other forms of delinquency such as substance-related theft.

Kryszajtys et al. (2018) highlighted the connection between gambling and delinquent behaviors among adolescents, revealing that incarcerated youth exhibit higher rates of problem and pathological gambling compared to their non-incarcerated peers. This association is especially pronounced among those who engage in gambling at problematic levels. Their research identified several delinquent acts linked to gambling, such as truancy, drug dealing, shoplifting, stealing, and involvement in illegal betting activities. Furthermore, the amount of money spent on gambling and its frequency significantly predict delinquent behavior.

In a study by Grant et al. (2021), high school students were found to report a 15.2% incidence of stealing. The study identified significant associations between stealing behaviors and various health-related issues, such as poor academic performance, substance use, and antisocial behaviors. These findings suggest that students who engage in stealing may also experience higher rates of gambling-related problems.

Illegal substance and truancy (skipping classes). A correlation of 0.24 (p-value = 0.014) suggests a significant relationship between gambling awareness and truancy (skipping classes). Increased awareness of gambling appears to be linked with higher rates of school disengagement. Gambling may provide an alternative form of escapism for adolescents, leading them to neglect their educational responsibilities. This finding is consistent with research in educational psychology, which indicates that adolescents engaged in risky behaviors are more likely to disregard academic duties (Smith & Jensen, 2020).

Henry and Thornberry (2019) found that adolescents who engaged in truancy were more likely to use substances compared to their non-truant peers. This relationship was evident both when comparing individuals (truant adolescents used more substances than those who were not truant) and within individuals over time (periods of increased truancy coincided with heightened substance use). Furthermore, the link between escalating truancy and substance use was partially explained by an increase in risky, unsupervised time spent with peers.

Recent studies by Henry et al. (2019) and Henry and Huizinga (2017) have highlighted truancy a relatively understudied school-related behavior as a significant predictor of substance use initiation. Specifically, their research demonstrated that skipping school without a valid excuse strongly predicted the onset of substance use, even when accounting for other critical risk factors, including school-related variables such as academic performance and commitment to school. These findings align with broader research showing a consistent positive association between truancy and substance use (Gakh et al., 2020; Dennermalm et al., 2022; Fernández-Suárez et al., 2018; Buckley et al., 2022). Building on this foundation, the present study investigates the link between truancy and the escalation of substance use, focusing on urban adolescents. It examines how both the extent of truancy and changes in truancy over time contribute to substance use patterns. Additionally, the study explores a potential mechanism underlying this relationship: the influence of risky time spent with peers. This line of inquiry complements the focus of our research by emphasizing the role of awareness and behavioral influences in adolescent decision-making, particularly regarding risky behaviors.

Table 3.1. Test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of delinquent students of the respondents in terms of awareness and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency.

Perceived Engagement in Vices of Juvenile Delinquent Students in Terms of Observation and their Perceived Involvement in Juvenile Delinquency

Smoking and theft or robbery case. Table 3.2 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of observation and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations were conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of smoking, only the theft (robbery case) (r= -0.20, p-value=0.047) had a significant relationship with their perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of observation influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in smoking.

The correlation coefficient of -0.20 between perceived engagement in smoking and involvement in theft or robbery indicates a weak but statistically significant negative relationship (p=0.047). This finding suggests that among delinquent adolescents, higher levels of perceived smoking behavior are associated with slightly lower involvement in theft or robbery, and vice versa. Despite the weak strength of the relationship, the significance level implies that the observed association is unlikely to be due to chance. Several possible explanations could account for this pattern. One explanation is that smoking and theft/robbery may be influenced by distinct underlying factors, such as peer influence, socio-economic conditions, or family dynamics. These factors may moderate or mediate the relationship, resulting in the observed weak negative association. Additionally, while smoking and delinquent behaviors are often viewed as part of a broader spectrum of risky behaviors, they may not always co-occur. For instance, adolescents who engage in smoking might experience different motivational or environmental influences that reduce their likelihood of engaging in theft or robbery.

Bickel and Marsch (2021) highlighted that substance use, including smoking, often overlaps with other risky behaviors such as delinquency. However, the relationship is not always direct, as underlying factors such as peer and family dynamics play a significant role. Similarly, Harris and Ensminger (2019) emphasized the critical influence of social contexts, particularly family structure and peer groups, in shaping adolescent engagement in risky behaviors, including both smoking and criminal activities. Farrington (2019) further elaborated on the multidimensional nature of delinquency, suggesting that risk factors include not only individual characteristics but also environmental elements such as family background and peer influences. These findings reinforce the notion that smoking habits during adolescence may form part of a broader pattern of antisocial behavior but do not necessarily coincide with theft or robbery.

Gambling. Table 3.2 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of observation and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations were conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of gambling, only bullying (r=0.23, p-value=0.20) and vandalism (r=0.19, p-value=0.060) had a significant relationship with their perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of observation influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in gambling.

Gambling and bullying. There is a statistically significant correlation between bullying and gambling, with a correlation coefficient of 0.23 and a p-value of 0.020. This suggests a weak to moderate positive relationship, indicating that students who perceive themselves as engaging in gambling behaviors may also perceive themselves or their peers as being more involved in bullying. This finding aligns with previous research linking risky behaviors, such as gambling, to other aggressive or antisocial behaviors. Mooss (2018) reported that youth involved in problem gambling exhibited higher rates of aggressive behaviors, including bullying. Similarly, Gupta and Derevensky (2020), in their study *Adolescent Gambling Behavior: A Prevalence Study*, found that adolescent gambling often correlates with behavioral issues such as bullying, aggression, and other forms of delinquency. Furthermore, Zuckerman (2017) highlighted a significant association between high levels of impulsivity and thrill-seeking tendencies in adolescents and their propensity to engage in bullying and other disruptive activities. These findings suggest that traits commonly associated with gambling, such as impulsivity and a preference for thrill-seeking, may predispose individuals to engage in both gambling and bullying.

Gambling and vandalism. The correlation between vandalism and gambling in this study is 0.19, with a p-value of 0.060. Although this falls slightly outside the conventional threshold for statistical significance (p < 0.05), it suggests a potential relationship worth further exploration. This finding indicates that students who engage in gambling may also participate in vandalism, possibly due to shared underlying traits such as impulsivity and a propensity for risk-taking behaviors. Previous research supports this connection. Vitaro et al. (2021) found a direct correlation between gambling activities and various forms of delinquency, including theft and vandalism, highlighting the multifaceted nature of these behaviors among youth. Such studies emphasize that gambling is often associated with increased delinquent actions, suggesting the importance of addressing these behaviors in tandem.

Additionally, Ervasti et al. (2022) investigated problem behaviors in a sample of 17,033 pupils across 90 schools. Their findings linked school-level reports of vandalism and bullying to short-term teacher absences (1 to 3 days) among 2,364 teachers. This association underscores the broader impact of student misconduct, such as vandalism and bullying, on the school environment and staff well-being. Olweus (2019) further supports the link between bullying and vandalism, revealing a significant correlation between these behaviors. Complementing this, a study by the Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority showed that youth who bully are more likely to engage in other risky or delinquent behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and vandalism, compared to their non-bullying peers. These findings collectively reinforce the interconnected nature of these problem behaviors and their broader implications for adolescent development and school climates.

Illegal substance and theft (robbery case). Table 3.2 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of observation and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations were conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of illegal substance, only theft (robbery case) (r=0.23, p-value=021) had a significant relationship with the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of observation influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in illegal substance.

The correlation coefficient of 0.23 with a p-value of 0.021 suggests a low to moderate positive relationship, indicating that students who observe peers engaging in illegal substance use are slightly more likely to perceive involvement in theft or robbery within their environment. This finding highlights the potential impact of peer and environmental influences on adolescent behavior. It aligns with the notion that exposure to risky behaviors can normalize such actions, increasing susceptibility to other deviant behaviors.

According to Dishion and Tipsord (2021), adolescents who associate with deviant peers are more likely to engage in problem behaviors, including substance use and delinquency, through the process of peer contagion, where risky behaviors are learned via observation and interaction. This concept is further supported by Hawkins et al. (2022) who argued that the risk of substance use is amplified when adolescents observe peers engaging in substance use. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of involvement in other high-risk behaviors, such as property crimes like theft.

Similarly, Gardner and Steinberg (2019) emphasized that adolescents exposed to peer groups engaged in high-risk behaviors, such as illegal substance use, are more likely to make similarly risky decisions, including participation in theft and other property crimes. Together, these findings support the hypothesis that the observation of delinquent behaviors among peers particularly substance use can influence adolescents to engage in other forms of delinquency, including theft and robbery.

Online game addiction and theft (robbery case). Table 3.2 shows the test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of the respondents in terms of observation and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency. A series of point biserial correlations were conducted in order to determine if there are any relationships exist among these variables. Among the perceived involvement juvenile delinquency in terms of online game addiction, only theft or robbery case (r=0.20, p-value=041) had a significant relationship with the perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students. This implies that the students perceived engagement in vices of juvenile delinquent students in terms of observation influence their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency in online game addiction.

The analysis reveals a significant relationship between online gaming addiction and delinquent behaviors, such as theft or robbery, with a correlation coefficient of 0.20 and a p-value of 0.041. This suggests that, at the 0.05 significance level, there is an association between the perception of online gaming addiction and increased likelihood of involvement in delinquency. This finding is consistent with existing literature that highlights the potential psychological and social factors that contribute to such behaviors. Online gaming addiction may lead to various negative outcomes, including social isolation, poor academic performance, and exposure to risky behaviors. The immersive nature of online games, where virtual rewards and progress often require extensive time investment, may result in neglecting personal responsibilities and social norms.

In some cases, these effects could trigger or intensify criminal behaviors, such as theft, either to support gaming habits or as a response to frustration. Supporting research indicates that excessive exposure to violent video games can increase aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which may manifest in delinquent activities like theft or robbery (Labana et al., 2020). Moreover, internet gaming addiction has been associated with impulsive behavior, social isolation, and a greater likelihood of engaging in illegal or socially disruptive activities, including stealing and property damage (Limone et al., 2023). Additionally, the consumption of violent media, including online gaming, has been linked to desensitization to aggression, thereby increasing tendencies toward aggressive and criminal behavior in youth (Kaya et al., 2023).

Table 3.2. Test of relationship between the perceived engagement in vices of delinquent students of the respondents in terms of observation and their perceived involvement in juvenile delinquency

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study aimed to examine the relationship between engagement in vices and juvenile delinquency among secondary school students aged 18 and above in Kabacan, Cotabato. Utilizing a descriptive-correlational design, 100 students from four secondary schools were surveyed regarding their awareness of various vices and involvement in delinquent behaviors. Statistical tools—including frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and Pearson correlation—were employed to analyze the data and assess the strength of the relationships.

The results indicated that students were generally aware of common vices such as smoking, alcoholism, gambling, illegal substance use, and online game addiction. Among these, online game addiction and smoking emerged as the most prevalent, whereas gambling and illegal substance use were less frequently reported.

Delinquent behaviors such as truancy, use of obscene language, vandalism, and theft were also observed, with truancy being the most commonly reported. Notably, the analysis revealed significant correlations between certain vices and specific delinquent behaviors—for instance, gambling was associated with truancy, alcoholism with theft, and illegal substance use with gang-related activities. However, many correlations, particularly those involving online game addiction, were not statistically significant.

From a psychological and social standpoint, these findings suggest that peer influence, emotional coping mechanisms, and social acceptance may underpin students’ engagement in vices. Adolescents might engage in risky behaviors such as drinking or gambling to fit in, cope with stress, or gain a sense of control. Similarly, delinquent behaviors can be influenced by a lack of adult supervision, disrupted family environments, and negative peer associations.

These observations underscore the multifactorial nature of juvenile delinquency. While vices may play a role, they are not the sole determinants. Broader contextual and individual factors significantly contribute to behavioral outcomes among youth.

Conclusion

Based on the findings, it can be concluded that while some vices, such as gambling and alcoholism, are moderately associated with juvenile delinquency, their influence is not as strong or direct as commonly assumed. Online game addiction, despite its high prevalence, showed only a minimal and statistically insignificant association with delinquent behavior.

The study highlights that students’ perceptions and observations of vices within their social environments contribute to their understanding of delinquent behaviors. However, not all vices translate into direct delinquency. More importantly, external influences such as peer pressure, family relationships, school support systems, and socio-economic conditions play a crucial role in shaping youth behavior.

Across all vices—smoking, alcoholism, gambling, and illegal substance use—peer dynamics and diminished awareness of consequences emerge as central factors contributing to delinquent behaviors. Whether through impulsivity fueled by alcohol, desensitization from gambling, or normalized deviance via smoking, adolescents navigate these behaviors within social structures that reinforce risk-taking. Integrating awareness programs aimed at educating youth about the consequences of such behaviors may be essential in reducing delinquency and fostering positive social norms.

These findings emphasize the need for a holistic, systems-based approach to addressing juvenile delinquency—one that considers both behavioral patterns and the broader environment in which adolescents develop. it can be concluded that engagement in vices such as gambling and alcoholism do not greatly influence juvenile delinquency, while other vices, such as online game addiction has the slim chance to create juvenile delinquent students. The results indicate that students’ perceptions and observations of vices within their social circles contribute to their understanding of delinquent behaviors, but not all vices lead directly to delinquent actions. External factors such as peer pressure, family dynamics, and socio-economic conditions were identified as underlying influences that shape the engagement in vices and subsequent delinquency. These findings emphasize the need for holistic interventions that address both the individual and environmental factors contributing to juvenile delinquency. Moreover, the study underscores the importance of creating a supportive ecosystem where students can thrive without resorting to harmful behaviors.

Recommendation

This study serves as a baseline for understanding juvenile delinquency in schools, emphasizing the moderate influence of vices such as gambling and alcoholism, along with external factors like peer pressure, family dynamics, and socio-economic conditions. Based on these findings, it is recommended that schools implement comprehensive intervention programs that strengthen guidance and counseling services, reinforce school policies, and actively involve parents and the community in addressing these issues. Additionally, fostering peer support programs, student-led initiatives, and enrichment activities such as sports, arts, and financial literacy can provide constructive alternatives to harmful behaviors.

To further mitigate juvenile delinquency, the study advocates for coordinated actions among schools, families, and community stakeholders. Schools should raise awareness of the consequences of vices and delinquent acts while offering mentorship and counseling services to help students navigate personal and social challenges. Parents are urged to foster open communication, monitor their children’s activities, and educate them on the dangers of vices and the importance of healthy peer relationships. Meanwhile, policymakers and community leaders should create and support programs that reduce minors’ access to gambling and substance abuse. Collaborative efforts among these groups are essential in establishing safe and structured environments for youth.

Future research should explore the long-term effects of vices on delinquency using larger and more diverse samples to enhance the study’s applicability. By addressing the multifaceted nature of juvenile delinquency, stakeholders can create supportive environments that reduce delinquent behavior and promote positive youth development.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bailey, S. L., & Ziegler, P. L. (2019). The relationship between substance use and criminal behavior. Journal of Criminal Justice, 58, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.09.005
2. Baker, M. L. (2021). Truancy reduction: keeping students in school. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED468296
3. Balsa, A. I., Giuliano, L. M., & French, M. T. (2021). The effects of alcohol use on academic achievement in high school. Economics of Education Review, 30(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2010.06.015
4. Beck, F., Legleye, S., & Peretti-Watel, P. (2018). Alcohol use and school absenteeism among adolescents: The role of individual and contextual factors. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 53(4), 415-423. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agx110
5. Bickel, W. K., & Marsch, L. A. (2021). Toward a behavioral economic understanding of drug dependence: Delay discounting processes. Addiction, 96(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961736.x
6. Bishop, A. S., Fleming, C. M., & Nurius, P. S. (2020). Substance use profiles among gang-involved youth: Social ecology implications for service approaches. Children and Youth Services Review, 119, 105600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105600
7. Bonomo, Y. A., Bowes, G., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., & Patton, G. C. (2020). Adolescent alcohol use: A potential catalyst for risky behaviors. Addiction,115(5), 789–799. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.001345
8. Bradley, B. J., & Greene, A. C. (2023). Do health and education agencies in the United States share responsibility for academic achievement and health? A review of 25 years of evidence about the relationship of adolescents’ academic achievement and health behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(5), 523–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.008
9. Brown, R., & Peterson, K. (2021). Impact of gambling awareness on school absenteeism among adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 50(6), 479-492. https://doi.org/10.1542/pir.16-1-12
10. Browning, C. R., & Lichter, D. T. (2018). Property crimes in urban neighborhoods: The roles of social ties and neighborhood structural characteristics. Criminology, 42(2), 463–492. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00555.x
11. Buckley, L., Chapman, R., & Sheehan, M. (2022). Adolescent involvement in anti-social and delinquent behaviours: Predicting future injury risk. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 48, 518–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2012.02.010
12. Burgess, A. W., & Waldo, G. L. (2018). Alcohol and crime: A cross-national review. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(3), 699-718. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735617708943
13. Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A. M., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2018). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 98–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203260102
14. Cauffman, E., & Steinberg, L. (2018). Adolescent risk-taking and the law. In J. L. Harris (Ed.), Advances in clinical child psychology (pp. 43–71). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-23825-2_3
15. Chen, L., Lu, R., Duan, J., Ma, J., Zhu, G., Song, Y., Lau, P. W. C., & Prochaska, J. J. (2021). Combined associations of smoking and bullying victimization with binge drinking among adolescents in Beijing, China. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.698562
16. Chiu, H., & Vargo, E. J. (2021). Bullying and other risk factors related to adolescent suicidal behaviours in the Philippines: a look into the 2011
17. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/research-design/book258274
18. Decker, S. H., & Van Winkle, B. (2019). Life in the gang: Family, friends, and violence. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2019.02.010
19. Dembo (2023). Juvenile delinquency. The American journal of the medical sciences, 241, 126–130. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000441-196101000-00015
20. Dennermalm, N., Karlsson, P., & Ekendahl, M. (2022). Risk factors for substance use in Swedish adolescents: A study across substances and time points. Nordisk alkohol- & narkotikatidskrift : NAT, 39(5), 535–552. https://doi.org/10.1177/14550725221108792
21. Dishion, T. J., & Tipsord, J. M. (2021). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189–214. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100412
22. Doran, N., McChargue, D., & Cohen, L. (2017). The impact of substance use on adolescent aggression and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 654–666. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.654
23. Dumrique, D. O., & Castillo, J. G. D. (2018). Online Gaming: Impact on the academic performance and social behavior of the students in Polytechnic University of the Philippines Laboratory High School. KnE Social Sciences, 3(6), 1205. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v3i6.2447
24. Duncan, S., & Ainsworth, T. (2021). Risk-taking behaviors and gang involvement: The impact of environmental factors on adolescent violence. Journal of Adolescent Research, 35(4), 450-467. https://doi.org/10.1159/000471853
25. Elujekwute, E. C. (2021, October 13). Influence of Home and School Environments on Students’ Academic Performance in Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Elujekwute (Phd) | Sapientia Foundation Journal of Education, Sciences and Gender Studies. https://sfjesgs.com/index.php/SFJESGS/article/view/217/0
26. Ervasti, J., Kivimäki, M., Puusniekka, R., Luopa, P., Pentti, J., Suominen, S., Vahtera, J., & Virtanen, M. (2022). Association of pupil vandalism, bullying and truancy with teachers’ absence due to illness: A multilevel analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 50(3), 347–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011.11.006
27. Esbensen, F. A., & Huizinga, D. (2017). Gangs, drugs, and delinquency in a survey of urban youth. Criminology, 31(4), 565–589. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e328349bb92
28. Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2020). A social-ecological model of bullying prevention and intervention. Handbook of bullying in schools, 61-74. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412939645
29. Estoro, F. P. (2023). Juvenile crimes in Tarlac City: A case study – IJCRT. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts. https://doi.org/10.1108/jmhtep-012019-0006
30. Farrington, D. P. (2019). The development of offending and antisocial behavior: Key findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(6), 929–964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01342.x
31. Felson, M., & Boba, R. (2020). Crime and everyday life: Insights and implications for society (4th ed.). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507306498
32. Fernández-Suárez, A., Herrero, J., Pérez, B., Juarros-Basterretxea, J., & Rodríguez-Díaz, F. J. (2018). Risk factors for school dropout in a sample of juvenile offenders. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01993
33. Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Ormrod, R., & Hamby, S. L. (2020). Trends in childhood violence and abuse exposure: Evidence from two national surveys. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(3), 238–242. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.9
34. Foote, R., & Woodward, J. D. (2013). A preliminary investigation of obscene language. The Journal of Psychology, 83(2), 263–275. 89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118×6900100105
35. Gakh, M., Coughenour, C., Assoumou, B. O., & Vanderstelt, M. (2020). The Relationship between School Absenteeism and Substance Use: An Integrative Literature Review. Substance use & misuse, 55(3), 491–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1686021
36. Gardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2019). Peer influence on risk-taking, risk preference, and risky decision-making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 41(4), 625–635. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625
37. Gatti, U., Tremblay, R. E., & Vitaro, F. (2016). Substance use and delinquency in adolescence: A longitudinal study of risk factors. European Journal of Criminology, 10(4), 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370813482227
38. Ginsburg, G. S., & Silverman, W. K. (2016). Treating adolescent substance use disorders: A review of the literature and clinical interventions. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(4), 464–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.02.001
39. Glaser, C. (2018). ‘We must infiltrate thetsotsis’: school politics and youth gangs in Soweto, 1968–1976. Journal of Southern African Studies, 24(2), 301–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.03.004
40. Grande-Gosende, A., Richard, J., Ivoska, W., & Derevensky, J. (2019). The relationship between bullying victimization and gambling among adolescents. International Gambling Studies, 20(1), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459795.2019.1652669
41. Grant, J. E., Potenza, M. N., Krishnan-Sarin, S., Cavallo, D. A., & Desai, R. A. (2021). Stealing among High School Students: Prevalence and Clinical Correlates. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671850/
42. Green, B. (2018). Obscenity, censorship, and juvenile delinquency. University of Toronto Law Journal, 14(2), 229. https://doi.org/10.2307/825324
43. Gupta, R., & Derevensky, J. (2020). Adolescent gambling and delinquency: A closer look at the role of financial stress. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31(4), 907-920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-015-9573-4
44. Gutierrez, F. C., & Shoemaker, D. J. (2017). Self-Reported Delinquency of high school students in Metro Manila. Youth & Society, 40(1), 55– 85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118×07309986
45. Harris, K., & Thompson, C. (2019). The intersection of gambling and crime: A psychological study of adolescent theft behaviors. Crime & Justice Journal, 33(2), 190-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104292
46. Harris, T. R., & Ensminger, M. E. (2019). Social relationships and risky behaviors: The role of family structure and peer groups. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(1), 32–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.09.012
47. Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G. (2020). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6(2), 73–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01325432
48. Henry, K. L., & Huizinga, D. H. (2017). School-related risk and protective factors associated with truancy among urban youth placed at risk. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(6), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-007-0115-7
49. Henry, K. L., & Thornberry, T. P. (2019). Truancy and escalation of substance use during adolescence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(1), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2010.71.115
50. Huang, J., Jacobs, D. F., & Derevensky, J. L. (2019). Sexual Risk-Taking behaviors, gambling, and heavy drinking among U.S. college athletes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(3), 706–713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9521-7
51. Inman, R. W. (2015). Risk behavior in adolescence: A psychosocial framework for understanding and action. Journal of Adolescent Health, 12(8), 597–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/1054-139X(91)90007-K
52. Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (2019). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X14528776
53. Jocano, F. L. (2014). Youth in a changing society. Youth & Society, 1(1), 73–https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.03.015
54. Johnson, K. D. (2015). School vandalism and break-ins – united states department of justice. https://portal.cops.usdoj.gov/resourcecenter/RIC/ Publications/cops-p076pdf
55. Kadir, H. A. (2022). School Gangs of Yogyakarta: mass fighting strategies and masculine charisma in the city of Students. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 13(4), 352. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1973.9915614
56. Kaltiala-Heino, R., Rimpelä, M., Rantanen, P., & Rimpelä, A. (2020). Bullying at school—an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders. Journal of Adolescence, 23(6), 661–674. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2000.0351
57. Kandel, D. B. (2018). The role of alcohol use in criminal behavior: A review of recent research. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(2), 193-208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854817747401
58. Kaufman, S. J. (2021). Symbols, frames, and Violence: Studying Ethnic War in the Philippines1. International Studies Quarterly, 55(4), 937– 958. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2011.00689
59. Kaya, A., Türk, N., Batmaz, H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2023). Online gaming addiction and basic Psychological Needs among Adolescents: the mediating roles of meaning in life and responsibility. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 22(4), 2413–2437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-022-00994-9
60. Kiwujja, V., & Mugisha, J. F. (2019). Sexual risk associated with gambling among the youth in Rubaga Division, Kampala. The International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 34(4), 1456–1468. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpm.2804
61. Knirnschild, J. (2015.). The Gender Differences in Perceived Obscenity of Adolescent Health, 39(4), 570. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01993
62. Kryszajtys, D. T., Hahmann, T. E., Schuler, A., Hamilton-Wright, S., Ziegler, C. P., & Matheson, F. I. (2018). Problem Gambling and Delinquent Behaviours Among Adolescents: A Scoping Review. Journal of gambling studies, 34(3), 893–914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-018-9754-2
63. Labana, R. V., Hadjisaid, J. L., Imperial, A. R., Jumawid, K. E., Lupague, M. J. M., & Malicdem, D. C. (2020). Online Game Addiction and the Level of Depression Among Adolescents in Manila, Philippines. Central Asian journal of global health, 9(1), e369. https://doi.org/10.5195/cajgh.2020.369
64. Lee, J., & Wang, Y. (2020). Gambling and juvenile delinquency: Understanding the financial motives behind theft. Journal of Criminology, 48(5), 564-577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2019.08.011
65. Lee, J., Choi, M., Holland, M. M., Radey, M., & Tripodi, S. J. (2022). Childhood Bullying Victimization, Substance Use and Criminal Activity among Adolescents: A Multilevel Growth Model Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 770. https://doi.org/10.1080/14442213.2012.697188
66. Lesieur, H. R., & Klein, R. H. (2017). Pathological gambling among high school students. Addictive Behaviors, 12(2), 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057079808708578
67. Limone, P., Ragni, B., & Toto, G. A. (2023). The epidemiology and effects of video game addiction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychologica, 241, 104047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104047
68. Martinez, J., & Hawkins, R. (2018). The links between adolescent gambling and risky sexual behaviors. Journal of Gambling Studies, 34(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-018-9796-2
69. Martins, S. S., Lee, G. P., Kim, J. H., Letourneau, E. J., & Storr, C. L. (2018). Gambling and sexual behaviors in African-American adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 39(5), 854–860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.02.002
70. Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. (2021). Structural Models of Personality and their Relation to Antisocial Behavior: A Meta‐Analytic Review. Criminology, 39(4), 765–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00940.x
71. Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2021). Personality disorders and delinquency: A review of the literature and future directions. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15(5), 505–518. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.15.5.505.18947
72. Molina, R. (2016, September 6). Sign the petition. org. https://www.change.org/p/teenagers-teenage-vices
73. Mooss, A. D. (2018). Gambling behaviors among youth involved in juvenile and family courts (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University). https://doi.org/10.57709/1234210
74. Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (2019). Impact of adolescent drug use on the development of substance use and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98(3), 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.98.3.331
75. Nwanosike, C. L., Ujoatuonu, I. V. N., Kanu, G. C., Ike, O. O., & Okeke, T. J. (2022). Social Bullying Among Undergraduates: The Roles of Internet Gaming Disorder, Risk-Taking Behavior, and Internet Addiction. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 830794. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.830794
76. Olubiyi, O., Futterer, A. C., & Kang-Yi, C. D. (2019). Mental health care provided through community school models. The Journal of Mental Health Training, https://popcenter.asu.edu/sites/default/files/problems/vandalism/PDFs/Ty pdf
77. Olweus, D. (2017). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320501700304
78. Page, R. M. (2015, September 1). Perceptions of the prevalence of cigarette smoking by peers: A study of Taiwanese, Filipino, and Thai high school students. Taipei Medical University. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(87)90019-0
79. Patel, D. R., & Luckstead, E. F. (2020). Sport participation, risk taking, and health risk behaviors. Adolescent medicine (Philadelphia, Pa.), 11(1), 141–155. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10640343/
80. Pemberton, S., & Wolter, A. (2019). The relationship between alcohol consumption and school attendance among adolescents. Journal of School Health, 89(5), 402-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12805
81. Perren, S., & Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger, E. (2022). Peer victimization and bullying. The Oxford Handbook of Bullying, 282-298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610387144
82. Rana, M., Gupta, M., Malhi, P., Grover, S., & Kaur, M. (2020). Prevalence and correlates of bullying perpetration and victimization among school-going adolescents in Chandigarh, North India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 62(5), 531. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_444_19
83. Rigby, K. (2022). Bullying in schools and what to do about it. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(4), 340-350. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2013.849971
84. Robers, S., Kemp, J., Truman, J., & Snyder, T. D. (2013, June). Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2012. Retrieved from National Center for Education Statistics: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013036.pdf
85. Salmivalli, C., & Voeten, M. (2018). Bullying and victimization in the school context: A developmental perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(1), 85-96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025417751282
86. Šarić Posavec, J., Rotar Pavlič, D., & Kralik, K. (2023). Prevalence of alcohol consumption among high school students: A cross-sectional study. Nursing open, 10(4), 2309–2318. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.1484
87. Schmengler, H., Peeters, M., Kunst, A. E., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Vollebergh, W. (2022). Educational level and alcohol use in adolescence and early adulthood—The role of social causation and health-related selection—The Affect Age at First Sex? Evidence from Cebu, Philippines. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.03.015
88. Shader, M. (2023). Risk factors for delinquency: An overview. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https://www.ojjdp.gov
89. Shek, D. T. L., & Lin, L. (2017). Use of foul language among Chinese adolescents: developmental change and relations with psychosocial competences. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(3), 313–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.10.010
90. Smith, A., & Jensen, M. (2020). Adolescent gambling behaviors and school disengagement: Exploring the role of truancy. Journal of Education and Risk Behaviors, 44(2), 100-112. https://doi.org/10.1177/14550725221108792
91. Smith, L. A., & Jones, R. (2018). Peer influence and risk-taking behaviors in adolescent gangs: A sociological analysis. Journal of Youth Violence, 28(3), 210-225. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002796
92. Smith, P. K., & Sharp, S. (2016). Bullying in schools: Overview and development of anti-bullying interventions. Psychology in Education Review, 26(1), 7-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.05.011
93. Staff, N. A. (2023, August 28). Aggression in Teens: What it means and how to support them. Newport Academy. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010770
94. Sullivan, C. J., & Vander Beken, T. (2020). Substance abuse and crime: A critical review. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 115, 60-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2020.01.002
95. Suryaningrat, R. D., Siahaan, F. M. M., & Riantoputra, C. D. (2020). Teachers’ aggressive behaviors: what is considered acceptable and why? Heliyon, 6(10), e05082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05082
96. Thornberry, T. P., & Krohn, M. D. (2023). Peers, drug use, and delinquency. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 218–233). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2015.11.009
97. Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Smith, C. A., & Howard, G. J. (2023). Gangs and delinquency in developmental perspective. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1961.tb05034.x
98. Tolan, P. H., & Gorman-Smith, D. (2020). Family and community factors in the development of adolescent delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9360-7
99. Upadhyay, U. D., & Hindin, M. J. (2016). Do Perceptions of Friends’ Behaviors https://hub.tmu.edu.tw/en/publications/perceptions-of-the-prevalenceof- cigarette-smoking-by-peers-a-study
100. Vassallo, S., Smart, D., & Sanson, A. (2020). The association between substance use and truancy in adolescents. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 53(2), 182-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865819877445
101. Vaughn, M. G., Maynard, B. R., Salas-Wright, C. P., Perron, B. E., & Abdon, A. (2013). Prevalence and correlates of truancy in the US: Results from a national sample. Journal of Adolescence, 36(4), 767–776.
102. Vieno, A., Gini, G., & Santinello, M. (2021). Different forms of bullying and their association to smoking and drinking behavior in Italian adolescents. Journal of School Health, 81(7), 393–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00607.x
103. Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Ladouceur, R., & Tremblay, R. E. (2021). Gambling, delinquency, and drug use during adolescence: mutual influences and common risk factors. Journal of gambling studies, 17(3), 171–190. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1012201221601
104. Vulgar, Profane and Derogatory – Language Usage among U.S. University Students. eGrove. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/umurjournal/vol3/iss1/4/
105. Wayne County, Tennessee. Digital Scholarship @ Tennessee State University. https://digitalscholarship.tnstate.edu/dissertations/AAI3187593/
106. Weber, F., Elfenbein, D. S., Richards, N. L., Davis, A. B., & Thomas, J. T. (2019). Early sexual activity of delinquent adolescents. Journal of Adolescent. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01993
107. Williams, G. C., Battista, K., deGroh, M., Jiang, Y., Morrison, H., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2020). Longitudinal associations between bullying and alcohol use and binge drinking among grade 9 and 10 students in the COMPASS study. Can J Public Health, 111(6), 1024–1032. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00319-0
108. Wilson, H. A., & Rytina, S. (2020). Alcohol and crime: The link between alcohol and theft. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 44(7), 1460-1472. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.14361
109. Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (2022). Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety. The Atlantic Monthly, 127(2), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1093/tcbh/hwm038
110. Zhu, X. (2024). The influence of technology: Internet gambling among college students. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2024.2404733
111. Zimring, F. E., & Johnson, D. (2019). Stealing and shoplifting in adolescents: Patterns and prevention. Journal of Criminology, 43(2), 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrim.2005.02.001
112. Zuckerman, M., & Kuhlman, D. M. (2017). Personality and risk-taking: Common biosocial factors. Journal of Personality, 68(6), 999–1029. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00129