From Stress to Strategy: Scalable and Inclusive HRM Strategies for Mental Health Reform in Nigeria’s Evolving Workforce

From Stress to Strategy: Scalable and Inclusive HRM Strategies for Mental Health Reform in Nigeria’s Evolving Workforce

¹Lolo Teddy Adias, ²Aziba-anyam Gift Raimi, ³Morufu Olalekan Raimi

¹Department of Business Administration, Bayelsa State Polytechnic, Aleibiri. Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

²Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

³Niger-Delta Institute for Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases (NDIERID), Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State. Nigeria.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.914MG00120

Received: 13 July 2025; Accepted: 17 July 2025; Published: 01 August 2025

ABSTRACT

Background: Workplace stress has become a critical public health and organizational concern in Nigeria, with an estimated 75% of employees experiencing significant work-related stress, well above the global average. This burden is intensified by labor policy gaps, cultural stigma, economic instability, and limited organizational investment in mental health. While Human Resource Management (HRM) strategies are gaining traction, their adoption remains low, particularly in underserved sectors like construction, retail, and the informal economy. Objective: This study aims to evaluate the prevalence and sector-specific drivers of workplace stress in Nigeria; examine the effectiveness and constraints of existing HRM interventions; analyze cultural, structural, and legal barriers to implementation; and propose scalable, context-sensitive solutions tailored to Nigeria’s diverse workforce. Methods: A narrative review approach was adopted, drawing on literature from 2018 to 2024 sourced via PubMed, PsycINFO, AJOL, Scopus, and grey literature. Forty-two empirical and policy-relevant studies were included across healthcare, banking, construction, retail, and informal sectors. Thematic coding using NVivo 12 and a gap analysis framework guided data synthesis. Findings were triangulated with international evidence and validated through expert review. Results: Stress prevalence was highest in healthcare (35%), retail (32%), and banking (29%). Women, youth, and informal workers face elevated stress risks. Effective HRM interventions, such as Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), flexible work options, and peer support systems, remain underutilized due to cultural stigma, leadership apathy, weak labor law enforcement, and limited cost-benefit data. Uptake of digital mental health tools (23%) is low, largely due to digital illiteracy. Promising scalable strategies include faith-based EAPs, stigma-reduction campaigns, mobile clinics, and community-anchored mental health initiatives. Conclusion: Workplace stress in Nigeria reflects deep-seated socio-cultural and systemic challenges. While several HRM solutions show potential, they must be localized, gender-responsive, and legally embedded to ensure uptake and sustainability. This study provides a strategic framework for advancing workforce mental health through adaptable, culturally grounded, and cost-conscious HRM practices.

Keywords: Workplace Stress; Mental Health; Human Resource Management (HRM); Burnout; Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs); Flexible Work Arrangements; Stigma Reduction; Digital Mental Health Tools; Occupational Health Policy; Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION

Workplace stress and mental health challenges have become pervasive issues in Nigeria, with far-reaching implications for employees and organizations alike [1, 2]. Empirical evidence suggests that Nigerian workers face unique stressors, including economic instability, job insecurity, and demanding work environments, which contribute to heightened anxiety and burnout [3-5]. Alarmingly, recent surveys indicate that 75% of Nigerian employees experience work-related stress, with 60% reporting persistent feelings of overwhelm [6]. These trends underscore the urgent need for systemic interventions to safeguard employee well-being and organizational productivity [7-9]. The repercussions of unmanaged workplace stress extend beyond individual health, significantly impacting business performance [10, 11]. Nigerian companies lose an estimated ₦10 billion annually due to absenteeism, presenteeism, and stress-related health complications [2, 12]. Sectors such as banking, healthcare, and retail are particularly affected, with burnout rates exceeding 25% in high-pressure roles [13, 14]. Without effective mitigation strategies, organizations risk reduced employee engagement, higher turnover, and long-term financial losses [15, 16]. Despite the severity of these challenges, mental health remains a stigmatized topic in many Nigerian workplaces [17, 18]. Cultural beliefs often associate mental health struggles with weakness or spiritual causes, discouraging employees from seeking help [19-25]. Consequently, only 15% of Nigerian workers have access to employer-provided mental health resources [26]. This stigma perpetuates a cycle of silence, where stress and psychological distress go unaddressed until they escalate into crises [27-29]. A handful of Nigerian organizations have begun implementing HRM strategies to address workplace stress, such as flexible work arrangements, counseling services, and wellness programs [30, 31]. However, these initiatives are often ad hoc, underfunded, or limited to multinational corporations [32, 33]. For instance, only 8% of Nigerian companies provide mental health training for managers, leaving many ill-equipped to support distressed employees [34]. Furthermore, remote work policies, while beneficial have blurred work-life boundaries, inadvertently increasing stress for some workers [35]. The burden of workplace stress is not evenly distributed across industries [36, 37]. Healthcare workers, for example, report 16% burnout rates due to emotional exhaustion and inadequate staffing [9, 38]. Meanwhile, employees in Nigeria’s informal sector who constitute over 80% of the workforce lack access to structured mental health support [39, 40]. Even within formal sectors, disparities exist: urban workers face stress from long commutes, while rural employees grapple with job insecurity and limited healthcare access [41-58].

Nigeria’s socio-cultural context presents unique challenges to mental health management [59, 60]. Traditional HR practices often prioritize productivity over well-being, reinforcing a “work-hard” mentality that dismisses stress [61, 62]. Additionally, gender disparities exacerbate stress, with women facing 8% higher burnout rates due to caregiving responsibilities [63]. Legal frameworks are also inadequate; Nigeria lacks comprehensive workplace mental health policies, leaving employees vulnerable to exploitation [2, 64]. Recent global disruptions, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and economic recessions, have intensified workplace stress in Nigeria [35, 65]. Studies indicate a 40% rise in stress levels post-pandemic, driven by job insecurity, salary cuts, and remote work challenges [66]. Younger employees (aged 18–28) are particularly affected, reporting 27% burnout rates higher than older colleagues [14]. These trends highlight the need for HRM strategies that are adaptive, resilient, and inclusive of diverse employee needs [16, 67]. While studies on workplace stress in Nigeria are growing, critical gaps persist [34, 42]. First, most research focuses on specific sectors (e.g., healthcare, banking), neglecting SMEs and informal workers [32]. Second, there is scant evidence on the cost-effectiveness of digital mental health tools in low-resource settings [34]. Third, the role of Nigerian labor laws in protecting employees from stress-related harm remains underexplored [64]. Addressing these gaps is essential for developing culturally relevant, scalable interventions [68, 69]. Effective HRM strategies must go beyond token wellness programs to embed mental health support into organizational culture [28, 67]. This includes training managers to recognize distress, fostering open dialogue, and integrating mental health into performance metrics [19, 33]. Case studies from Nigerian firms show that companies with mental health programs experience 11% lower attrition [70]. However, success hinges on leadership commitment, employee participation, and continuous evaluation [12, 71]. Thus, this narrative review aims to: examine the prevalence and drivers of workplace stress in Nigeria, evaluate current HRM interventions and their limitations, analyze cultural, economic, and policy barriers to mental health support, and propose actionable, evidence-based strategies for Nigerian organizations. By synthesizing global best practices with localized research, this study provides a roadmap for policymakers and HR professionals to enhance employee well-being, reduce turnover, and boost productivity.

METHODOLOGY

Study Design

This narrative review adopts a qualitative synthesis approach to analyze workplace stress and HRM strategies in Nigeria, aligning with established frameworks for integrative reviews [3]. Unlike systematic reviews, this methodology prioritizes thematic depth over statistical aggregation, enabling exploration of socio-cultural, economic, and organizational nuances [1, 2]. No primary data collection was conducted for this study; the design is rooted in a narrative review methodology based on secondary sources.

Databases and Keywords

A systematic search was conducted across:

1. Global databases: PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus (2018–2024), using Boolean combinations: (“workplace stress” OR “burnout”) AND (“HRM strategies” OR “mental health interventions”) AND (“Nigeria” OR “Africa”).
2. Regional repositories: African Journals Online (AJOL), Nigerian Research Databases, and institutional reports (e.g., WHO Nigeria, ILO).

Literature Selection Process

The review identified 168 records through database searches (PubMed, PsycINFO, AJOL), supplemented by 32 additional sources from grey literature, government reports, and industry white papers (e.g., WHO Nigeria, McKinsey). After duplicate removal, 150 records were screened based on inclusion criteria, with 78 full-text articles assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, 42 studies met all criteria and were included in the final synthesis, prioritizing Nigerian-specific empirical studies (2018–2024) and policy analyses (see Figure 1 for PRISMA flowchart).

Figure 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram that visually summarizes the screening and selection process used in this narrative review.

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

Table 1: Selection Criteria for Nigerian HRM Workplace Studies (2018–2024)

Thematic Analysis

Extracted data were categorized using NVivo 12, with codes mapped to the four objectives:

1. Prevalence: Industry-specific stress rates (e.g., 27% burnout in retail) [14].
2. HRM Effectiveness: ROI of interventions (e.g., 11% lower attrition with mental health programs [70].

Validation

1. Triangulation: Cross-verified global data (e.g., WHO) with Nigerian studies [37].
2. Expert Consultation: Two Nigerian occupational health specialists reviewed HRM recommendations.

Gap Analysis Framework

To address “what we don’t know”, gaps were identified using:

Table 2: Key Gaps in Nigerian Workplace Interventions: Analysis & Evidence

Limitations and Mitigations

Table 3: Study Limitations and Mitigation Strategies in Nigerian HRM Research

Thus, this study is based solely on a narrative synthesis of secondary data drawn from published literature and grey sources. While this approach allows for comprehensive, multi-sectoral insights and theoretical grounding, it does not include primary fieldwork or empirical data collection. Consequently, the findings are subject to the limitations inherent in secondary data, including publication bias, variability in study quality, and gaps in local specificity. Future research should incorporate primary data through key informant interviews, sector-specific workforce surveys, and organizational case studies to validate the findings and test the feasibility of proposed HRM interventions. Additionally, longitudinal tracking of mental health indicators and cost-effectiveness data in Nigerian workplace settings would help generate stronger evidence for policy adoption and return-on-investment calculations.

RESULTS

Prevalence and drivers of workplace stress and mental health issues among Nigerian employees.

The table 4 and figure 2 together provide a comprehensive picture of burnout trends in Nigeria across key industries, contrasted against global averages. Overall, 75% of Nigerian workers report experiencing stress, significantly higher than the global average of 22%. Industry-specific breakdowns show that the healthcare sector in Nigeria has the highest burnout rate at 35%, more than double the global benchmark of 16%. Retail (32%), banking/finance (29%), and construction (28%) also display elevated rates. These figures are largely driven by local challenges such as economic instability, job insecurity, and systemic policy failures including poor enforcement of labor protections, lack of health insurance, and insufficient occupational safety regulation. The accompanying bar chart (Figure 2) visually reinforces these disparities, showing that burnout rates in Nigeria exceed global averages across nearly all surveyed industries with the sole exception of the technology sector, where burnout is slightly lower. This anomaly may reflect the sector’s relatively recent growth in Nigeria and the possibility of more flexible work structures. Nonetheless, gender and age disparities persist: women experience 8% higher burnout (vs. 5% globally), largely due to caregiving burdens and workplace bias, while younger workers face unique stressors linked to career uncertainty and financial insecurity. Urban workers also report 22% higher stress levels than rural counterparts, driven by long commutes and high living costs. Importantly, digital mental health adoption remains low, with only 23% of Nigerians using mental health apps like Wellhub, underlining the limited access to traditional support systems. Thus, the key takeaway is that burnout in Nigeria is not just a workplace issue but a systemic public health concern exacerbated by socio-economic and policy deficits. Its significance to the overall study lies in highlighting the urgent need for culturally and contextually tailored HRM strategies. The data validates the proposed interventions in Table 4 such as flexible work policies, faith-based EAPs, and mobile clinics, by linking them directly to the documented stressors. In real-world terms, these findings can inform government labor policy, influence organizational wellness programs, and shape investments in digital mental health platforms. Prioritizing mental health in HR planning is no longer optional; it is critical to workforce sustainability and national productivity.

Table 4: Prevalence, Drivers, and Global Comparisons of Workplace Stress in Nigeria

Sources: Mckinsey [14]; Nwakanma et al., [37]; WHO [76]

Figure 2: Burnout Rates by Industry in Nigeria vs. Global Averages. It visually compares industry-specific burnout rates in Nigeria to global benchmarks, based on the cited data sources.

Effectiveness of current HRM strategies in addressing mental health in Nigerian workplaces.

The table 5 and Figure 3 together evaluate various Human Resource Management (HRM) strategies based on their cost, effectiveness, and adoption in Nigeria. Among the strategies assessed, Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) stand out with the highest reported effectiveness, 30% reduction in absenteeism, but also the highest cost at ₦50,000 per employee per year. In contrast, more affordable strategies like Peer Support Networks (₦8,000) and Digital Mental Health Tools (₦10,000) report modest effectiveness rates of 19% and 14%, respectively. Flexible Work Arrangements (₦15,000) and Mental Health Training (₦25,000) offer a strong middle ground in terms of both cost and reported outcomes. Adoption rates remain relatively low across the board in Nigeria, with the highest being just 23% for digital tools, underscoring a significant gap in organizational readiness and investment. Figure 3 visually illustrates the cost-effectiveness trade-off of each strategy. EAPs appear as an outlier with both high cost and high effectiveness, while strategies like Flexible Work Arrangements and Peer Support Networks cluster in the lower-cost, moderate-effectiveness quadrant. Wellness programs, although relatively expensive (₦35,000), yield the lowest effectiveness (11%), suggesting a poor return on investment if implemented in isolation. These findings align with the limitations noted in the table, such as poor infrastructure hindering flexible work, low digital literacy limiting app usage, and stigma affecting EAP uptake. Notably, some strategies like Managerial Support Systems lack enough adoption data despite demonstrating strong outcomes, indicating a potential area for further exploration. The key takeaway is that while no one-size-fits-all solution exists, a strategic mix of lower-cost, culturally adapted interventions may yield better value for Nigerian organizations. This insight is central to the overall study’s goal of identifying scalable and context-sensitive HRM strategies for workplace mental health in Nigeria. Hence, the real-world implications include guiding HR leaders and policymakers in prioritizing interventions based not just on global best practices but on cost-effectiveness and local feasibility. For example, rolling out Peer Support Networks and Flexible Work Arrangements could serve as entry points before scaling to more resource-intensive programs like EAPs. These findings support evidence-based planning, potentially transforming mental health outcomes in Nigeria’s workspaces.

Table 5: Human Resource Management (HRM) Strategies for Addressing Workplace Stress in Nigeria

Figure 3: Cost vs. Effectiveness of HRM Strategies in Nigeria, visualizing the trade-offs between implementation cost and reported impact. Bubble size reflects the strategy’s adoption rate.

Identify barriers to implementing mental health programs in Nigerian workplaces.

Table 6 presents a comprehensive overview of the key barriers to implementing mental health programs in Nigerian workplaces, drawing from national surveys, sectoral insights, employee testimonies, and regional comparisons. The most prominent challenges include cultural stigma, leadership resistance, policy gaps, resource limitations, digital infrastructure deficits, lack of evaluation metrics, and gender disparities. These barriers manifest differently across sectors and states, with particularly high prevalence in manufacturing, agriculture, and rural health settings. For instance, while 68% of employees nationally conceal mental health issues, this figure rises to 74% in Kano’s manufacturing sector. Employee voices vividly illustrate these realities, underscoring how stigma, poor leadership engagement, and systemic neglect inhibit progress. The key takeaway from the table 6 is the interconnectedness of structural, cultural, and organizational factors that hinder mental health integration in the workplace. While some barriers, like cultural stigma, require community-based and faith-driven strategies, others such as policy and infrastructure deficits demand systemic reform and public-private investment. The table 6 highlights that interventions such as faith-leader partnerships, employee-led innovations, and media-based public awareness campaigns show promising success rates and return on investment when tailored to local contexts. Strategies adapted from global benchmarks in India and Brazil also demonstrate strong potential for engagement and impact when localized effectively. This analysis is significant to the overall study as it not only identifies the multifaceted nature of workplace mental health barriers in Nigeria but also aligns them with actionable solutions grounded in empirical data. The potential real-world applications are far-reaching: organizations can use these insights to design inclusive, culturally sensitive mental health policies; policymakers can integrate faith-based and employee-driven models into national frameworks; and civil society can leverage the evidence for advocacy and education. Ultimately, addressing these barriers can improve employee well-being, enhance productivity, and contribute to a healthier, more resilient workforce in Nigeria.

Table 6: Barriers to Implementing Mental Health Programs in Nigerian Workplaces

Propose evidence-based HRM strategies tailored to Nigeria’s socio-economic context.

Table 7a-d presents a framework of evidence-based HRM strategies tailored to Nigeria’s socio-economic realities, focusing on improving workplace mental health. The six primary strategies, Digital Mental Health Platforms, Faith-Based Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), Mobile Clinics, Peer Networks, Flexible Work Policies, and Stigma Reduction Campaigns are contextualized through indigenous adaptations, sector-specific applications, costs, return on investment (ROI), and implementation challenges. Each strategy is further linked to regional compatibility, pension investment pathways, popular culture endorsements (e.g., Afrobeats artists), and integration with traditional rulers, refugee populations, and the NYSC Mental Health Corps. This holistic design ensures alignment with Nigeria’s cultural, economic, and institutional landscape. The key takeaway from table 7a-d is the clear demonstration that mental health interventions in the Nigerian workplace are not only feasible but also economically viable and culturally adaptable. For instance, flexible work policies show the highest ROI (₦5.80 per ₦1 invested) and broad appeal across banking, tech, and rural sectors, while faith-based EAPs deliver significant stigma reduction and trust enhancement when backed by traditional and religious institutions. The strategic use of local influencers, pension-backed financing, and national structures like NYSC ensures multi-level buy-in, particularly when supported by measurable success indicators such as adoption rates, reduced absenteeism, and improved help-seeking behavior. The significance of these findings to the overall study lies in their practical implications: they offer a localized roadmap for employers, policymakers, and community leaders to embed mental health into the fabric of organizational HR practices. Hence, the real-world applications include deploying Danfo-based mobile clinics in construction-heavy states, launching multilingual chatbots in rural clinics, and using traditional rulers to drive community-level campaigns. These interventions can directly improve employee well-being, reduce productivity losses, and transform mental health from a stigmatized topic into a mainstream HR priority, paving the way for a healthier, more resilient Nigerian workforce.

Table 7a: HRM Strategies for Workplace Mental Health in Nigeria

Table 7b: Nigerian Workplace Mental Health Strategy Matrix: State Compatibility, Investment Options & ROI.

 Table 7c: Implementation Phases and Investment Options

Community and National Integration Avenues

• Traditional Leaders: Decrees, endorsements, and stigma scorecards (ROI: 4.3x)
• Refugee Support: Interfaith trauma healing, job therapy, multilingual USSD (ROI: 2.8x)
• NYSC Mental Health Corps: First responder training, workplace audits, CDS facilitation (ROI: 5.1x)

Table 7d: Tracking Impact: Stakeholder-Specific KPIs and Evaluation Methods

DISCUSSION

Contextualizing Burnout and HRM Interventions in Nigeria: A Synthesis of Sectoral Evidence

 The present study’s findings on elevated burnout levels among Nigerian workers particularly in healthcare, retail, banking, and construction align closely with earlier studies documenting high occupational stress across multiple sectors. Ilesanmi & Afolabi [18] and Nwakanma et al. [37] similarly identified critical burnout among healthcare professionals due to poor infrastructure and staff shortages, confirming the 35% burnout rate observed in this dataset. Ekwere & Nwokike [28] reported systemic burnout among financial service professionals linked to workload pressure, consistent with this study findings in the banking sector. Additionally, Barinem et al. [62] highlighted poor labor protection and wage delays as key stressors in construction, echoing this study construction sector results. The gender and age disparities uncovered in this study also reflect those noted by Amah [67], who found younger employees and women disproportionately affected by workplace stress. Finally, the urban-rural divide in stress levels supports prior research by Okafor & Eze [33] and Kobani & Amah [11], who attribute urban worker stress to poor commuting infrastructure and rising urban living costs. The underutilization and limited effectiveness of mental health support tools, despite their increasing necessity, also finds strong grounding in existing literature. Adelekan et al. [34] noted that although digital mental health tools are gaining traction, adoption is hampered by digital illiteracy and skepticism among employees mirroring this finding that only 23% of Nigerian workers engage with mental health apps. Similarly, Eze et al. [68] and Onyeizugbo [19] emphasized that Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), despite their effectiveness, remain underutilized due to stigma and poor managerial support. This stigma is also well-documented by Gureje & Lasebikan [17], who highlighted its long-standing impact on mental health resource use in Nigeria. Our findings on flexible work arrangements and their relatively high impact on stress reduction correlate with Balogun & Adeoye [30] and Imoisili & Ogbuabor [32], who both emphasized infrastructure and cultural resistance as limiting factors. Additionally, Okonkwo & Adewale [16] and Ugwu et al. [69] noted that wellness programs are largely perceived as non-essential perks rather than strategic necessities, just as this study reported low effectiveness and adoption rates for such interventions. From an HRM strategic lens, the effectiveness of low-cost, high-impact interventions like peer support networks and managerial support systems observed in this study echoes broader scholarship calling for relational and participatory stress-reduction mechanisms. Akinbode & Fagbohunde [4] and Amah [67] both stress the importance of leadership engagement and supportive work environments in reducing stress. This is further reinforced by the findings of Okafor & Eze [33], who demonstrated how mental health training for managers in Lagos firms improved employee morale and job satisfaction. Ekwueme & Nwankwo [10] supported this view, showing that organizational investment in such programs reduced absenteeism. Furthermore, the present study’s emphasis on tailoring interventions to contextual realities aligns with Akintayo (2020) [61] and Kahn et al. [79], who argued that imported stress management models are often misaligned with African work cultures. Nwankwo & Eze [15] concluded that sector-specific HRM policies are more impactful when informed by localized data, further validating the current study’s sectoral approach. Collectively, these correlations strongly justify this study’s findings and reinforce its policy and practical implications for addressing burnout in Nigeria’s evolving workforce.

HRM Strategy Cost-Effectiveness for Mental Health in Nigeria: A Literature-Grounded Perspective

The findings from Table 5 and Figure 3, which prioritize HRM interventions based on cost, effectiveness, and adoption, resonate strongly with existing Nigerian and African workplace studies. The notable success of Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) in reducing absenteeism aligns with Onyeizugbo [19] and Ekwueme and Nwankwo [10], both of whom reported statistically significant improvements in employee retention and attendance following EAP implementation. However, the high cost of EAPs (₦50,000 annually) has limited widespread adoption, a challenge also noted by Okonkwo and Adewale [16], who described wellness programs as financially burdensome when not integrated into broader HR strategies. Similarly, Gifford et al. [71] highlighted low ROI for stand-alone wellness initiatives, supporting this study’s conclusion that such programs, despite their popularity, often underperform. Moreover, stigma surrounding mental health, as previously established by Gureje and Lasebikan [17] and reiterated by Uzochukwu and Onwujekwe [20], continues to impair adoption of EAPs and counseling services, despite their proven efficacy. This aligns with the present study’s caution that cultural readiness and perception management are as critical as funding in determining program success. Also, Flexible Work Arrangements (FWAs), which offered a reasonable cost-effectiveness balance (₦15,000 with 22% effectiveness), also mirror past literature emphasizing their strategic value. Yusuf and Adedokun [31] found that FWAs significantly improved mental well-being among Nigerian employees, especially younger professionals. Their findings are supported by Imoisili and Ogbuabor [32], who noted similar gains in productivity and morale among SMEs that adopted hybrid or shift-based models. Likewise, Salami [29] and Balogun and Adeoye [30] underscored how reduced commute times and increased autonomy helped mitigate stress. However, these authors and this study acknowledge infrastructural and managerial resistance as key limitations to wider implementation. International Labour Organization [40] and Kobani and Amah [11] similarly flagged these institutional barriers, suggesting a systemic lag in adapting workplace environments to modern flexibility demands. While FWAs are cost-effective and increasingly desired, real-world adoption remains slow without supportive leadership and robust IT infrastructure. Peer Support Networks and Digital Mental Health Tools, both identified as affordable but moderately effective interventions in this study, are also gaining scholarly validation. Barinem et al. [62] and Ilesanmi and Afolabi [18] identified peer-based interventions as critical first-line defenses, particularly in environments where formal psychological support is either unavailable or stigmatized. This study’s digital tool adoption rate of just 23% is consistent with Adelekan et al. [34], who reported similarly low engagement in Lagos workplaces due to digital literacy gaps and lack of employer promotion. Nonetheless, the cost-benefit appeal of these interventions remains strong, a point echoed by WHO Nigeria (2023) [76] and Kahn et al. [77], who emphasize the scalability of digital mental health support in low-resource settings. Furthermore, the absence of adequate adoption data for strategies like Managerial Support Systems, despite their strong reported outcomes, reflects concerns raised by Nwankwo and Eze [15] and Zammuto and Goodman [60] about under-reporting and limited evaluation frameworks in Nigerian firms. These findings confirm that a context-sensitive blend of low-cost, scalable, and socially acceptable interventions is key to achieving long-term mental health sustainability in Nigerian workplaces.

Barriers to Implementing Mental Health Programs in Nigerian Workplaces: Insights from Integrated Evidence and Comparative Literature

The identified barriers to implementing mental health programs in Nigerian workplaces such as cultural stigma, leadership resistance, and policy gaps are widely corroborated in the literature. Gureje and Lasebikan [17] earlier documented the deep-seated stigma around mental illness in Nigeria, a finding reaffirmed in more recent studies that show how stigma leads to concealment and underreporting in workplaces [18, 32]. Barinem, Amah, and Okocha [62] also noted that poor managerial engagement significantly hinders mental health support structures. Similarly, Uzochukwu and Onwujekwe [20] reported inadequate HRM responsiveness to psychological distress in public institutions, aligning with this study’s findings on systemic neglect. Kobani and Amah [11] highlighted leadership apathy and poor mental health literacy among senior management as critical setbacks. Furthermore, Ekwere and Nwokike [28] found that burnout remains prevalent due to limited mental health policies, reinforcing this study’s observation that policy gaps remain a persistent challenge. This convergence underscores the urgent need for a multisectoral response to these entrenched barriers. Similarly, resource limitations and infrastructure deficits further complicate mental health integration in Nigerian organizations, particularly in under-resourced sectors like agriculture and healthcare. The International Labour Organization [40] and WHO Nigeria [76] both underscore infrastructural underdevelopment, including inadequate funding and lack of digital mental health frameworks. Ekwueme and Nwankwo [10] observed that companies with limited resources often deprioritize mental health initiatives, even when facing high absenteeism. Adelekan et al. [34] found that digital mental health tool adoption is mostly limited to urban centers due to poor internet infrastructure and digital illiteracy echoing the digital divide identified in the table 6 above. Nwakanma et al. [37] showed that healthcare workers in rural hospitals frequently face burnout, a result of systemic neglect and absence of mental health support. Likewise, Gifford et al. [71] highlighted that while wellness initiatives may be introduced, their effectiveness is minimal without sustainable investment. These findings align with the study’s call for targeted investment and adaptive strategies that consider local infrastructure realities. Lastly, the findings highlight how promising solutions such as faith-leader partnerships, employee-driven innovations, and culturally tailored awareness campaigns offer a way forward ideas validated in several recent works. The Nigeria Interfaith Council [78] emphasizes the positive impact of religious institutions in reducing stigma and fostering safe spaces for dialogue, echoing this study’s recommendations for faith-based engagement. Okonkwo and Adewale [16] also advocate for integrating mental health into corporate wellness programs, particularly when combined with leadership training. Zammuto and Goodman [60] and Salami [29] found that employee-driven strategies like peer support and safe reporting systems improve workplace climate and reduce psychological distress. Yusuf and Adedokun [31] further support flexible work arrangements as context-appropriate models that enhance mental well-being. WHO Nigeria [76] and Kahn et al. [77] argue for public-private synergy in policy formulation and scaling of interventions, reinforcing this study’s systemic reform agenda. These multiple convergences suggest that while barriers remain profound, a context-sensitive, collaborative, and localized approach has the potential to transform workplace mental health in Nigeria.

Evidence-Based Human Resource Management Strategies to Improve Workplace Mental Health in Nigeria

The integrated HRM framework presented in this study confirms that culturally adapted, sector-sensitive, and economically feasible interventions are critical for mental health programming in Nigerian workplaces. The demonstrated success of digital mental health platforms, particularly when deployed via chatbots and mobile apps in local languages, aligns with Adelekan et al. [34], who documented increased adoption rates in Lagos firms when tools were tailored to local digital literacy levels. This complements the findings of Okafor & Eze [33], who reported that the effectiveness of digital tools improved when coupled with manager training in mental health literacy. Moreover, the strategy of leveraging pension investment pathways echoes WHO Nigeria’s [76] policy brief showing that integrating mental health ROI into fiscal planning frameworks significantly increases government and employer buy-in. These results are reinforced by Yusuf & Adedokun [31], who found that flexible work arrangements reduced stress levels among Nigerian tech workers, and Balogun & Adeoye [30], who documented a ₦4.20 ROI in mental health spending across formal sector banks. Similarly, Gureje & Lasebikan [17] highlighted how stigma remains a barrier, but integration with respected community leaders reflected in the use of traditional rulers and Afrobeats influencers can reduce discrimination. Lastly, the alignment of these strategies with NYSC structures supports earlier conclusions by Animasahun & Olawale [36], who emphasized that youth-driven interventions enhance engagement and destigmatization in mental health programs across urban and rural sectors. The strategy of faith-based Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) stands out as both a trust-building and stigma-reducing mechanism in Nigeria’s religiously inclined workforce. The Nigeria Interfaith Council [78] confirmed that mental health messaging framed in spiritual terms experienced 67% higher trust levels among employees than secular counterparts, consistent with findings from Onyiezugbo [19] and Okonkwo & Adewale [16], who demonstrated higher utilization rates of religious-affiliated wellness services in banking and oil sectors. Animasahun & Olawale [36] similarly found that stress-reduction outcomes were significantly higher in banks that incorporated spiritual counseling components into EAPs. Furthermore, the current study’s emphasis on peer networks and stigma campaigns echoes Eze et al. [68], who reported that Abuja-based organizations saw a 40% increase in counseling uptake when peer ambassadors were trained in basic mental health literacy. Complementary findings by Anyanwu & Okafor [13] and Akintayo [61] emphasize that HRM systems that validate indigenous coping mechanisms and support structures are more likely to sustain psychological well-being. This is further supported by Amah [67], who argued for hybrid models of support integrating professional counseling with traditional community-based support systems which is mirrored in our hybrid mobile clinic and peer network proposals. Taken together, these studies validate our strategic focus on integrating local values, faith structures, and informal institutions into formal HRM programming. From a policy and organizational management perspective, the emphasis on flexible work policies, mobile clinics, and community-level campaigns is grounded in both empirical evidence and organizational theory. The strong ROI (₦5.80 per ₦1) of flexible work models reported in this study confirms the findings of Ugwu et al. [69], who documented increased productivity and reduced absenteeism in Nigerian banks implementing remote options. This is consistent with Akintayo [61], who showed that work-life balance policies significantly mediate stress in manufacturing firms, and with Olawale [59], who linked flexibility to lower burnout rates among Nigerian professionals. Additionally, mobile mental health units especially when integrated into high-traffic zones like markets or construction sites mirror the approach supported by Nwakanma et al. [37] and Ekwueme & Nwankwo [10], both of whom highlighted how proximity to care services increased help-seeking among public hospital and corporate employees. These mobile clinics, when branded with popular cultural icons and backed by traditional rulers, mirror strategies supported in Gifford et al. [71] and Ogbuabor & Okoronkwo [79], who stress the need for localized outreach strategies. Lastly, the relevance of cross-sector application from health to tech to agriculture is supported by Kahn et al. [77], who emphasized the need for context-driven HRM interventions across Africa’s diverse work environments. The convergence of this study’s framework with these extensive prior findings confirms its relevance, feasibility, and scalability across Nigeria’s socio-economic landscape. Thus, the ROI figures presented in this study such as ₦5.80 per ₦1 invested in flexible work arrangements are intended to be illustrative rather than predictive. These estimates were derived from international literature and modeled to reflect Nigerian contextual relevance, including sectoral wage levels and mental health service delivery costs. However, they have not yet been empirically validated in Nigerian firms. Future research is recommended to conduct firm-level economic evaluations to substantiate these projections and guide scalable investments in workplace mental health programs.

Mental Health Challenges in Nigeria’s Informal Economy: The Overlooked Majority

Nigeria’s informal sector accounts for over 80% of the national workforce, yet remains critically underrepresented in workplace mental health policy and research. This sector includes open-air market vendors, transport workers, rural artisans, and cooperative laborers whose livelihoods often lack regulatory protections, stable income, and access to occupational health services. In open-air markets, vendors face chronic stress linked to overcrowding, insecurity, debt cycles, and environmental exposure. Studies such as Ikwuegbu et al. [80] found that 62% of traders in Lagos Island markets reported symptoms consistent with burnout and anxiety. Commercial transport workers especially urban taxi, okada, and keke riders report high levels of work-related stress due to daily traffic congestion, harassment, fuel price volatility, and job insecurity. A study by Eboh & Akintunde [81] observed that 47% of Lagos-based commercial drivers screened positive for psychological distress using GHQ-12. In rural cooperatives, particularly among agricultural or fishing collectives, stress often stems from climate variability, loss of harvests, lack of health coverage, and traditional norms discouraging help-seeking. In Rivers State, Amadi et al. [82] documented how male farmers experienced “silent depression,” exacerbated by economic instability and family burden. Despite these stressors, mental health is often seen as a private or spiritual issue in informal sectors, with workers more likely to seek help from faith leaders or traditional healers than formal psychological services. Structural interventions such as mobile mental health outreach [44, 47, 83], cooperative-based peer support groups, and literacy-integrated mental health awareness have shown early promise in community-based pilots [84]. The lack of labor protections, stigma, and informal employment dynamics demand HRM approaches tailored to flexibility, community trust, and cultural norms distinct from those used in structured corporate environments (figure 8). Ignoring this majority workforce risks deepening mental health inequalities and undermining national productivity and resilience goals.

Table 8: Contrasting Workplace Stressors and HRM Strategies in Nigeria’s Formal and Informal Sectors

The table 8 shows comparative summary of stressors and HRM responses across Nigeria’s formal and informal employment sectors, based on the reviewed literature [80-84].

Phased and Resource-Scaled Adaptations of Mental Health Interventions

To address the budgetary limitations, political uncertainties, and institutional capacity gaps that often hinder mental health interventions in Nigeria, this outlines “minimum viable models” for key HRM strategies identified in the study. These simplified prototypes are designed to serve as low-cost, scalable entry points that allow organizations and policymakers to test effectiveness, build stakeholder support, and refine interventions prior to large-scale implementation [85-91]. First, for the proposed Mental Health Corps, which mirrors a NYSC-style deployment of mental health professionals, a more feasible starting point would be to partner with public universities offering degrees in social work and clinical psychology. By engaging interns and final-year students under professional supervision, organizations can offer basic mental health education and screening services in workplaces and communities. This approach provides practical training opportunities for students while filling service gaps in resource-limited settings. In addition, the ambitious idea of pension-funded mental health clinics can initially take shape through union or trade-association-led wellness workshops. These can be hosted in existing community halls, health centres, or cooperative spaces and funded through modest contributions from pension boards and labor groups [89-94]. This phased model reduces infrastructure costs while demonstrating proof of concept and utility, particularly in reaching informal or semi-formal worker populations. Moreover, digital interventions such as Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) can begin with WhatsApp-based support groups or USSD tools that deliver regular mental health tips, allow self-assessments, and connect users to referral points. These tools are low-cost, scalable, and familiar to many users, especially in informal economies with limited digital literacy (table 9 and figure 4). Similarly, the introduction of workplace mental health KPIs and audits can be initiated using simplified HR toolkits, such as Google Forms or SMS-based annual well-being surveys. These lightweight tools provide baseline data and early feedback without requiring high-level IT infrastructure or costly consultancy services.

Table 9: Scalable Mental Health Interventions with Tiered Implementation Options

Figure 4: Minimum viable Models for Mental Health Interventions in Nigeria

Cultural Framing and Religious Integration

Gender plays a significant role in shaping workplace stress dynamics in Nigeria. Women disproportionately experience stress due to maternal discrimination, unpaid care burdens, and limited access to maternity leave and workplace accommodations. Childcare responsibilities often result in reduced work productivity and heightened burnout, particularly in the informal sector where support policies are nearly absent. Furthermore, workplace gender-based violence (GBV), ranging from verbal harassment to physical threats is widely underreported due to fear of retaliation, cultural stigma, and lack of grievance mechanisms. HRM strategies must therefore integrate gender-responsive frameworks, including clear anti-GBV policies, flexible leave systems, and access to mental health support tailored to women lived experiences. Comparative insights from other African contexts reveal shared challenges and divergent innovations in managing workplace mental health [84-94]. In Kenya, digital mental health platforms such as MindCare Africa have been piloted in SMEs, offering cost-effective access to counseling. South Africa’s Employment Equity Act mandates the inclusion of psychosocial risks in workplace health and safety audits, giving legal weight to mental health protection. Meanwhile, Ghana has integrated mental health modules into its National Occupational Safety and Health Policy, although enforcement remains weak. These examples show that regional HRM innovations are emerging, yet enforcement, stigma, and capacity remain common barriers similar to the Nigerian experience. Cross-country learning platforms could therefore enhance policy harmonization and innovation diffusion.

POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK GAPS

Despite the passage of the Mental Health Act [95] in Nigeria, its implementation has remained largely fragmented. While the Act mandates protections against discrimination and calls for the integration of mental health into general healthcare services, it notably lacks operational Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) tailored to workplace mental health. As a result, there is a clear disconnect between the legal framework and practical enforcement mechanisms within occupational settings, leaving a significant policy gap in promoting psychological well-being at work. Furthermore, the current labor inspection systems in Nigeria are ill-equipped to address this gap. These systems often lack the tools, training, and authority required to assess mental health risks in the workplace. In practice, routine inspections rarely evaluate psychosocial hazards, rendering mental health invisible in compliance regimes. However, there is room for strategic alignment with broader national development frameworks. Specifically, the National Strategic Health Development Plan II (NSHDP II) recognizes mental health as part of primary healthcare delivery, and the National Social Protection Policy (NSPP) addresses socioeconomic vulnerabilities but still fails to explicitly cover psychological well-being. To bridge these gaps, targeted policy reforms are urgently needed. First, Nigeria should institutionalize mental health audits within labor inspections, drawing on international occupational health and safety models. Second, workplace mental health KPIs must be clearly defined, monitored, and reported across both public and private sectors. Finally, joint funding mechanisms between the Federal Ministries of Health and Labor should be established to allocate resources effectively, with inter-governmental responsibilities clearly articulated. These reforms must also address the structural limitations imposed by federalism, where state-level political commitment and budget alignment often diverge from national mandates. Without such alignment, translating legal intent into measurable workforce outcomes will remain a challenge.

IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND INTERVENTIONS

The findings of this study underscore the urgent need to institutionalize workplace mental health as a national policy priority, particularly through the full operationalization of Nigeria’s Mental Health Act [95]. Despite its passage, the Act lacks actionable Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and mechanisms for workplace enforcement, leaving critical gaps in occupational mental health protections. To address this, policymakers should integrate mental health audits into routine labor inspections, define enforceable KPIs tied to organizational performance, and ensure inter-ministerial coordination between the Ministries of Health, Labor, and Finance. Furthermore, workplace mental health should be embedded into the Decent Work Agenda, the National Strategic Health Development Plan (NSHDP II), and the National Social Protection Policy (NSPP). These platforms offer opportunities for cross-sectoral alignment and budgetary mainstreaming of psychosocial well-being, especially for underserved populations in the informal and rural economies. In translating policy to practice, a phased intervention strategy is recommended. This includes piloting minimum viable models such as university-led mental health internships, union-based wellness workshops, and low-cost digital platforms, as scalable starting points. To ensure inclusiveness, policies must account for gender-specific vulnerabilities, such as workplace harassment, maternal discrimination, and childcare stressors, which disproportionately affect women. In addition, regional insights from Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa suggest that legal mandates, digital innovation, and public-private partnerships can drive sustainable mental health programming. Incentives such as tax breaks, pension-linked funding, and employer recognition schemes could catalyze broader adoption of flexible work policies, faith-based engagement, and culturally embedded interventions. By prioritizing implementation feasibility, political commitment, and fiscal alignment, Nigeria can build a resilient, inclusive mental health system that protects both formal and informal sector workers.

CONCLUSION

This study affirms that workplace mental health challenges in Nigeria are systemic, rooted in persistent cultural stigma, inadequate infrastructure, weak enforcement mechanisms, and socio-economic inequalities. Yet, the findings demonstrate that practical, context-appropriate solutions exist and can be effectively implemented. From low-cost peer support systems to more structured options like Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) and mobile mental health clinics, a diverse range of strategies has proven both feasible and scalable within Nigeria’s multi-sectoral labor environment. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of sector-specific interventions, the strategic engagement of traditional and religious institutions, and the application of data-driven evaluation frameworks to inform planning and measure impact. When these approaches are adapted to local needs, they can yield measurable reductions in burnout, absenteeism, and occupational stress-related health conditions, contributing to a healthier and more resilient workforce. In light of the current policy and institutional gaps, there is an urgent need to integrate workplace mental health into Nigeria’s broader Decent Work Agenda. Reforms should include the development of mental health metrics and KPIs in future labor laws, along with the institutionalization of mental health audits in labor inspection routines. Most critically, the government must establish inter-ministerial task forces, particularly between the Ministries of Labor and Health, to ensure accountability, resource allocation, and coordinated implementation of workplace mental health policies. These combined actions are essential not only to protect worker well-being but also to enhance national productivity and human capital development.

RECOMMENDATIONS

To address the systemic workplace mental health challenges identified in this study and advance inclusive HRM reforms, the following tiered recommendations are proposed:

1. Short-Term Actions (0-1 Year)

• Standardized HR Training: Immediately roll out sector-specific capacity-building programs for HR managers and supervisors on mental health screening, referral, and stigma reduction. These should include modules on recognizing early signs of stress and conducting supportive conversations using standardized dialogue scripts.
• Stigma Reduction Campaigns: Launch coordinated anti-stigma initiatives in partnership with Nollywood actors, faith leaders, and influencers. Messaging should normalize mental health discourse in culturally resonant formats (e.g., drama series, sermons, radio jingles).
• Pilot Minimum Viable Models: Initiate low-cost pilots such as:

• University psychology interns deployed to workplaces
• Union-hosted wellness workshops in existing halls
• WhatsApp/USSD-based check-ins and referral tools

• Gender-Sensitive Implementation: Integrate childcare support, GBV referral pathways, and maternal protections into workplace wellness toolkits to address the unique vulnerabilities of women workers.

2. Mid-Term Actions (1-3 Years)

• • Expand Access in Informal Sectors: Scale mobile mental health clinics, peer-led support groups, and community-based Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) across underserved areas such as construction sites, markets, and rural cooperatives.
  • Develop National Mental Health KPIs: The Federal Ministry of Labor, in collaboration with Health and Finance Ministries, should define and monitor workplace mental health indicators across sectors. These metrics must be gender-sensitive and disaggregated by region and employment type.
  • ROI Validation Studies: Collaborate with private sector firms, pension boards, and academic institutions to conduct field-based ROI assessments of key HRM interventions (e.g., flexible work, wellness audits), ensuring that business cases are locally grounded.

3. Long-Term Actions (3⁺ Years)

• • Legal Reform and Policy Integration: Amend Nigeria’s labor law to explicitly include mental health rights, protections against discrimination, and mandatory compliance with mental wellness audits during labor inspections.
  • Institutionalize Inter-Ministerial Task Forces: Create a standing national committee on workplace mental health to oversee implementation, cross-sectoral budget alignment, and enforcement of standards at federal and state levels.
  • Regional Alignment and Knowledge Exchange: Establish formal knowledge-sharing platforms with peer countries (e.g., Kenya, Ghana, South Africa) to adopt and adapt successful HRM and mental health integration models, particularly those addressing informal employment dynamics.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Mental health is an increasingly urgent public health concern in Nigeria, with burnout and stress now affecting over 75% of the workforce. The findings show a clear association between poor mental health and reduced productivity, elevated absenteeism, and diminished job satisfaction. These outcomes not only jeopardize individual well-being but also threaten national productivity and economic growth. By adopting contextually grounded HRM strategies such as mobile clinics and digital platforms, Nigeria can bridge the treatment gap and provide scalable access to mental health services. Moreover, interventions that are inclusive of gender, age, and rural-urban diversity hold promise for equity in mental health access and outcomes, ultimately contributing to a more resilient health system and labor market. Thus, graphically it is represented (Figure 5 below) as:

Figure 5: Improving Mental Health in Nigeria

STUDY LIMITATIONS

This narrative review provides a broad synthesis of workplace mental health issues and HRM interventions in Nigeria, yet several limitations constrain the depth and generalizability of its findings. First, the study relies exclusively on secondary sources, with no primary fieldwork or stakeholder interviews conducted. This introduces potential biases due to the self-reported nature of the underlying studies, especially in areas such as mental health stigma, organizational culture, and informal sector representation. Second, the evidence base remains heavily skewed toward urban and formal-sector contexts, overlooking the lived experiences of Nigeria’s vast informal workforce, including market traders, transport workers, and rural cooperatives. As a result, while the findings offer strategic insights, they may not fully capture the psychosocial dynamics and intervention feasibility in underserved environments. Third, the return-on-investment (ROI) projections referenced throughout this study are illustrative rather than predictive, derived from modeling and literature extrapolation due to limited Nigeria-specific economic evaluations. Fourth, several proposed interventions such as the NYSC-style Mental Health Corps or pension-backed clinics are innovative but face potential implementation hurdles linked to political will, inter-ministerial coordination, and funding inconsistencies. Lastly, Nigeria’s evolving post-COVID labor market, new health legislation, and inflationary pressures mean that contextual variables affecting workplace stress and HR responses may shift rapidly. Future research should prioritize primary, mixed-method investigations that include key informant interviews, rural sampling, and sector-specific impact evaluations, particularly in the informal economy and among marginalized worker populations.

Disclosure statement:

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Funding:

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Authors Contribution:

All authors contributed equally to conceptualization, validation, writing review and editing.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to express their appreciation to all anonymous reviewers, for feedback and discussions that helped to substantially improve this manuscript.

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