Historical, Dialectical, and Leninist Materialism: Explaining Rural Enterprise Intentions Among Youths in Uganda’s Parish Development Model Context

Historical, Dialectical, and Leninist Materialism: Explaining Rural Enterprise Intentions Among Youths in Uganda’s Parish Development Model Context

Wasike David

Lecturer, Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Business and Management (FBM), International University of East Africa (IUEA), Doctoral Student, Faculty of Business and Management (BAM), Uganda Martyrs University (UMU), Kampala, Uganda

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000403

Received: 09 September 2025; Accepted: 17 September 2025; Published: 13 October 2025

ABSTRACT 

This paper examines the entrepreneurial intentions of rural youth in Uganda within the Parish Development Model (PDM) context. The study uses a sample of 300 youth from Eastern and Northern Uganda. It applies historical materialism, dialectical materialism, and Leninist materialism to understand how material conditions, historical legacies, and state actions influence rural business aspirations. The findings show that while state programs like the PDM offer opportunities for entrepreneurship, structural barriers, and unequal access to resources based on gender, and a history of conflict and agrarian dependence continue to shape youth entrepreneurial behavior in these areas. This study adds to the conversation on youth entrepreneurship in post-conflict societies and agrarian economies. It provides insights for policymakers who want to create more inclusive and effective youth empowerment programs.

Keywords: Youth entrepreneurship, Parish Development Model (PDM), Historical materialism, Dialectical materialism, Leninist materialism, Rural Uganda, Entrepreneurial intentions, Northern Uganda, Eastern Uganda, Material conditions.

INTRODUCTION 

The Parish Development Model (PDM), introduced by the Government of Uganda, aims to promote rural development by empowering communities. It focuses particularly on the youth as vital to local economic change. While the PDM has the potential to create economic opportunities, its ability to foster sustainable entrepreneurship among rural youth is debated. This study looks at how material conditions, historical factors, and government policies affect the entrepreneurial intentions of youth in rural Uganda, especially in the Eastern and Northern regions. Based on historical materialism, dialectical materialism, and Leninist materialism, the research suggests that even though the PDM provides some opportunities, deep-rooted structural barriers, such as limited land access, lack of capital, and gender inequality, consistently block the entrepreneurial goals of rural youth.

In Northern Uganda, the lasting effects of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) conflict, such as displacement, land fragmentation, and reduced educational access, have created severe challenges for young entrepreneurs. Many of the youth in this area grew up in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps. They continue to deal with insecure land ownership and insufficient capital, both of which weaken their ability to start and maintain businesses. In contrast, Eastern Uganda has an economy mainly based on agriculture. This restricts entrepreneurial activities mostly to farming. Young people in this region often do not have the skills needed for businesses outside agriculture. Poor infrastructure and limited market access further limit their entrepreneurial chances. This research examines how Uganda’s historical material conditions—like its colonial past, conflicts, and agrarian economy—shape the entrepreneurial intentions of youth in these two different regions. The theoretical framework relies on historical materialism, which focuses on how material conditions influence social development, and Leninist materialism, which highlights the state’s role in addressing the gaps between youth aspirations and their economic situations.

Statement of Opportunity 

The growing importance of youth entrepreneurship in boosting economic growth in rural Uganda presents a key chance to connect youth unemployment with economic empowerment. With more than 70% of Uganda’s population under 30 years old (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2023), young people can become a significant force for economic development, especially in rural areas where job opportunities are still scarce. The Parish Development Model (PDM) offers a focused way to support youth entrepreneurship by helping rural youth with financial assistance, skills training, and better market access. This approach fits with Uganda’s larger development goals stated in Uganda Vision 2040 and the National Development Plan III (National Planning Authority, 2020). These efforts could lower poverty and unemployment, particularly in the agricultural sector of Eastern Uganda and in post-conflict areas of Northern Uganda. However, major barriers like limited access to land, money, education, and gender differences in resource access pose serious challenges (Bainomugisha et al., 2021; Nabunya, 2020). Additionally, poor infrastructure and ongoing cultural norms, especially in Eastern Uganda, further block the entrepreneurial goals of youth, particularly women. Even with the PDM’s potential, tackling these deep-rooted challenges requires thorough policy changes that focus on land rights, gender equality, and education. This study provides a valuable chance to evaluate the PDM’s effectiveness and suggest policy changes to improve its ability to support sustainable youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda.

Problem Statement 

Despite the growing focus on youth entrepreneurship as a key solution to high youth unemployment and poverty in rural Uganda, significant obstacles still keep young people from engaging in entrepreneurial activities effectively. The Parish Development Model (PDM), a government initiative aimed at tackling rural poverty and economically empowering youth, has struggled to overcome deep-rooted structural barriers affecting youth entrepreneurship. These barriers include limited access to land, capital, markets, and entrepreneurial skills. They are made worse by historical issues like colonial land policies, post-conflict trauma, and gender inequality (Mamdani, 1996; Kasozi, 2018). In Northern Uganda, the aftermath of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) conflict has intensified these barriers, leaving young people with few resources, psychological trauma, and limited access to basic services (Brett, 2005). Meanwhile, Eastern Uganda relies heavily on subsistence agriculture, providing few opportunities for young people to explore non-agricultural businesses (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). Given these material and historical challenges, this study aims to look into the contradictions in the PDM’s approach to youth entrepreneurship and its effectiveness in addressing these persistent barriers.

Statement of Motivation 

This study explores the potential of youth entrepreneurship in promoting sustainable development in Uganda’s rural areas, especially in Eastern and Northern Uganda. Many young people face serious challenges, even though they make up a large part of the population. Limited access to resources, poor infrastructure, and high unemployment rates (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2023) highlight the need for policies that can unlock the entrepreneurial potential of rural youth. The Parish Development Model (PDM) is a key poverty-reduction initiative. It offers a chance to examine government efforts to address these socio-economic barriers and encourage youth entrepreneurship (Kasozi, 2018). Additionally, this research aims to understand how historical factors, like the aftermath of the Lord’s Resistance Army conflict in Northern Uganda (Brett, 2005) and the reliance on subsistence farming in Eastern Uganda (Bainomugisha et al., 2021), shape the entrepreneurial landscape for youth. Using historical materialism and dialectical materialism, the study will investigate how government initiatives like the PDM can better tackle these challenges. Despite opportunities within the PDM, structural issues such as limited access to land, capital, education, and gender inequalities continue to hold back youth entrepreneurship (Bainomugisha et al., 2021; Nabunya, 2020). The study aims to provide evidence-based recommendations to improve the PDM’s effectiveness by addressing these core issues and promoting a more inclusive policy framework that empowers rural youth entrepreneurs.

Philosophical Underpinning of the Study 

This study is based on the Marxist theoretical framework, particularly historical materialism and dialectical materialism. These concepts help us understand the material and socio-economic conditions affecting youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda. Historical materialism suggests that the economic foundation of society, which includes resources like land, capital, and labor, shapes society’s superstructure. This superstructure encompasses political systems, laws, and cultural norms (Marx, 1859). In rural Uganda, the material conditions affecting youth, such as access to land, education, capital, and technology, are crucial in shaping their entrepreneurial intentions. This framework explains why youth in Northern and Eastern Uganda face challenges like land tenure issues, lack of capital, and poor infrastructure, even with state programs like the PDM (Kasozi, 2018). According to historical materialism, these conditions are not merely individual challenges; they are deeply rooted in the economic and historical structures of society. Influences include colonial legacies, post-conflict realities, and dependence on agriculture (Brett, 2005; Mamdani, 1996).

Dialectical materialism, which builds on historical materialism, argues that social change happens through resolving contradictions within economic and social systems (Lenin, 1917). In Uganda, a key contradiction exists between the entrepreneurial goals of youth and the material barriers they face when trying to access resources needed for entrepreneurship. This contradiction drives social change and highlights the need for interventions to tackle structural inequalities. The study looks at how state-led programs like the PDM can help ease these contradictions and support entrepreneurial growth. Lenin’s idea of a vanguard party, or the state acting as an agent of change, offers an important perspective on the Ugandan government’s role in addressing these issues. However, this study also critiques the PDM’s current approach. It argues that while the state is working to reduce material disparities, deeper structural and historical inequalities must be addressed for the program to effectively promote sustainable rural youth entrepreneurship (Lenin, 1917; Bainomugisha et al., 2021).

Guiding Study Questions 

What are the material conditions affecting youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda, particularly in Eastern and Northern Uganda?

How do historical legacies, such as colonial land policies and post-conflict challenges, shape the entrepreneurial intentions of youth in Northern and Eastern Uganda?

What role does the Parish Development Model (PDM) play in addressing or worsening the material and structural barriers to youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda?

How do gender dynamics influence the entrepreneurial intentions of youth in rural Uganda, particularly concerning access to resources and support systems?

What are the contradictions within Uganda’s current rural development strategies, such as the PDM, and how can they be addressed to foster more sustainable youth entrepreneurship?

Conceptual Framework 

Source: Author, 2025

The youth entrepreneurship framework in Uganda focuses on four main components: material conditions, historical legacies and structural barriers, state interventions through the Parish Development Model (PDM), and gender dynamics. Material conditions such as access to land, capital, education, infrastructure, and market opportunities play a crucial role in shaping entrepreneurial intentions and outcomes. However, these conditions differ greatly between Northern and Eastern Uganda (Kitambo, 2025). Historical legacies, including colonial land policies, deep-seated gender inequalities, and the ongoing effects of post-conflict trauma in Northern Uganda, create significant structural barriers. These barriers affect not only material conditions but also access to resources, often resulting in gender-based disparities (Kitambo, 2025; Africa Portal, 2023).

State interventions aim to tackle these disparities by offering financial assistance, skills training, and better market access. These initiatives intend to ease the socio-economic challenges faced by young entrepreneurs (Kitambo, 2025). Still, gender dynamics complicate the situation, particularly for young women. Their entrepreneurial opportunities are limited by cultural norms, gendered land rights, and insufficient access to capital and networks. These limitations greatly impede their ability to pursue entrepreneurship (Kitambo, 2025; Africa Portal, 2023).

In summary, these interconnected factors create a complex environment influencing youth entrepreneurial intentions and outcomes in Uganda. This highlights the need for policies that simultaneously address historical legacies, material conditions, state interventions, and gender-specific challenges. The conceptual framework for this study utilizes the theories of historical materialism and dialectical materialism. This approach provides a perspective to investigate the socio-economic and historical factors affecting youth entrepreneurship within the PDM. The framework emphasizes the relationship between material conditions, historical legacies, and government interventions, leading to a complete understanding of youth entrepreneurship in Uganda.

Theoretical Framework 

This study’s theoretical framework draws on three related perspectives: historical materialism, dialectical materialism, and Leninist materialism. These theories provide a critical view of the material and social conditions that shape youth entrepreneurial intentions and actions in rural Uganda, particularly within the context of the Parish Development Model (PDM).

Historical Materialism 

Historical materialism, a key part of Marxist theory, argues that a society’s material conditions—including its economic structure and production relationships—shape its social and political institutions and individual awareness (Marx, 1859). This framework shows that youth in rural Uganda are influenced by the material conditions in their lives, such as land access, capital availability, education, and technology. The study examines how the agrarian economy in Eastern Uganda and the post-conflict recovery in Northern Uganda create specific material conditions that either promote or restrict youth entrepreneurship. For example, insecure land tenure, lack of startup capital, and limited market access shape the entrepreneurial aspirations and opportunities for youth (Kasozi, 2018; Bainomugisha et al., 2021). Historical materialism helps explain why material barriers continue to hinder youth entrepreneurial outcomes, despite government initiatives like the PDM.

Dialectical Materialism 

Building on historical materialism, dialectical materialism highlights the role of contradictions in society as a key driver of historical change (Lenin, 1917). According to this perspective, social and economic systems develop by resolving conflicts between opposing forces. For youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda, the inconsistency between the ambitions of youth and the material barriers they face creates a situation that needs intervention. This study uses dialectical materialism to investigate how state-led initiatives, like the PDM, can tackle these contradictions through policies aimed at improving access to resources, skills, and markets for rural youth. It assesses whether the PDM effectively addresses these contradictions and helps transition youth from traditional, subsistence livelihoods to entrepreneurial activities.

Leninist Materialism and the Role of the State 

Leninist materialism expands on dialectical materialism by stressing the state’s active role in resolving conflicts and promoting social change. Lenin argued that the state plays a crucial part in managing class struggles and mediating conflicts between the ruling and oppressed classes (Lenin, 1917). In rural Uganda, the state—through policies like the PDM—acts as a change agent responsible for addressing material inequalities and supporting youth entrepreneurship. This study looks at how the Ugandan government’s actions through the PDM can help bridge the gap between the aspirations of youth and the material challenges they face. It also critiques the state’s effectiveness in balancing the needs of rural youth, especially considering historical legacies such as colonial land policies and the aftermath of conflict in Northern Uganda (Brett, 2005; Mamdani, 1996).

The Role of Gender and Structural Inequality 

While historical materialism and dialectical materialism emphasize material and economic factors, gender is vital in shaping entrepreneurial outcomes. Gender inequalities, particularly regarding land ownership, access to capital, and network connections, disproportionately affect young women in rural Uganda, especially in Eastern Uganda (Nabunya, 2020). This study incorporates feminist economic theory to highlight the gendered aspects of entrepreneurship and how patriarchal systems and cultural beliefs limit opportunities for young women. It uses these theoretical perspectives to explore how material conditions and gender inequalities shape youth entrepreneurial intentions, especially in rural areas where women’s economic contributions are often overlooked (Nabunya, 2020).

LITERATURE REVIEW 

This literature review looks at key themes related to youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda, focusing on Eastern and Northern Uganda, within the framework of the Parish Development Model (PDM). It combines both global and local studies, examining material conditions, historical factors, gender dynamics, and government interventions to understand the challenges and opportunities for youth entrepreneurs in these regions.

Material Conditions Affecting Youth Entrepreneurship in Rural Uganda

Material conditions significantly influence the entrepreneurial landscape for youth in rural Uganda. Major challenges include limited access to land, capital, education, and markets. In Northern Uganda, land access is particularly urgent due to the land fragmentation caused by years of conflict. This situation has left many youth without secure land tenure (Brett, 2005). Access to financial capital also remains a major obstacle. Kasozi (2018) notes that microfinance programs and government loans often do not reach rural areas or are not designed specifically for youth entrepreneurs. Furthermore, education and technical skills are essential for entrepreneurial success. However, many rural youth, especially in Eastern Uganda, depend on subsistence farming, hindering their ability to pursue various entrepreneurial opportunities. As Bainomugisha et al. (2021) mention, the lack of formal entrepreneurial education and skills training worsens the challenges youth face when moving to non-agricultural enterprises.

Historical Legacies and Their Impact on Entrepreneurial Intentions

Historical factors, such as colonial land policies and the aftermath of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) conflict, continue to shape the entrepreneurial environment for youth in Northern and Eastern Uganda. Colonial land policies favored individual land ownership over communal tenure, leading to land fragmentation and making it hard for rural youth to secure productive land (Mamdani, 1996). The LRA conflict further worsened this issue by displacing many people, disrupting livelihoods, and leaving numerous youth with limited resources (Brett, 2005). Youth who grew up in Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps face additional psychological and economic challenges that affect their entrepreneurial ambitions (Mamdani, 1996).

In Eastern Uganda, a past focus on subsistence agriculture has resulted in an economy that lacks the diversity needed for youth to participate in non-agricultural entrepreneurial activities. The colonial focus on cash crop production for export still impacts the region’s economic structure, limiting entrepreneurial options for young people (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). These historical legacies remain significant obstacles to sustainable entrepreneurship for youth in both regions.

The Role of the Parish Development Model (PDM) in Addressing Barriers to Youth Entrepreneurship

The Parish Development Model (PDM) is a government initiative aimed at improving the lives of rural Ugandans, with a special focus on empowering youth and reducing poverty. The model includes financial support, skills training, and market access to tackle the material and structural challenges that impede youth entrepreneurship (Kasozi, 2018). However, whether the PDM effectively addresses these challenges is debatable.

Bainomugisha et al. (2021) argue that while the PDM has helped many rural households, it often overlooks essential structural barriers, such as gender inequalities and access to capital, which restrict youth entrepreneurship. Women, in particular, encounter cultural and institutional barriers that limit their access to land, credit, and decision-making opportunities, even though the PDM includes initiatives for women entrepreneurs (Nabunya, 2020). Moreover, the PDM’s implementation challenges, including limited capacity and fragmented interventions, hinder its ability to create a lasting impact, especially in conflict-affected Northern Uganda (Kasozi, 2018). Problems like inadequate infrastructure, poor market connections, and insufficient access to financial services continue to be significant hurdles despite PDM efforts.

Gender Dynamics and Their Influence on Youth Entrepreneurship

Gender dynamics are critical in shaping youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda. In many parts of Eastern Uganda, cultural norms and land tenure systems restrict women’s involvement in entrepreneurial activities. Nabunya (2020) highlights that women in rural areas often lack land ownership and are excluded from important decision-making processes, limiting their business opportunities. Even with government interventions like the PDM, women face substantial obstacles, including limited access to finance, cultural expectations, and domestic responsibilities, which reduce their time and resources for entrepreneurship.

Furthermore, gendered job divisions often push young women into low-paying, informal jobs, while young men typically have better access to trade and commercial agricultural opportunities. This disparity in access to resources and opportunities further hampers the entrepreneurial success of rural youth, leading to uneven development across genders in rural areas (Nabunya, 2020).

Contradictions in Rural Development Strategies and Their Implications for Youth Entrepreneurship

Despite its focus on youth empowerment and poverty reduction, Uganda’s rural development strategies, including the PDM, show several contradictions that weaken their effectiveness. These contradictions are especially visible in land access, capital availability, and gender equality. While the PDM aims to tackle youth unemployment and poverty, it does not fully address the social and economic inequalities that limit youth entrepreneurial potential (Kasozi, 2018). In Northern Uganda, ongoing challenges from conflict recovery, poor infrastructure, and limited market access make it difficult for youth entrepreneurs to succeed, even with PDM support (Brett, 2005).

From a theoretical viewpoint, Leninist materialism suggests that state-led programs must connect the aspirations of youth with the material challenges they face to be effective (Lenin, 1917). This highlights the need for policy reforms that not only meet the immediate needs of youth entrepreneurs but also address deeper structural inequalities that obstruct their long-term success. To support more sustainable youth entrepreneurship, the government must focus on comprehensive solutions that address land access, financial support, and gender inequality, along with strengthening the implementation and effectiveness of initiatives like the PDM.

Knowledge Gap 

Despite the growing recognition of youth entrepreneurship as a key part of Uganda’s development agenda, significant gaps remain in understanding how historical legacies, material conditions, and gender dynamics shape entrepreneurial intentions in rural Uganda, especially in Eastern and Northern Uganda. While existing research has examined the role of microfinance, education, and skills training in promoting youth entrepreneurship (Bainomugisha et al., 2021), there is limited focus on how historical and material factors uniquely affect youth in different regions. Additionally, the Parish Development Model (PDM) has not been thoroughly evaluated for its regional differences and its effectiveness in addressing gender and structural inequalities in rural communities. Most research has focused on urban entrepreneurship or ignored the conflict-related challenges in Northern Uganda. This has resulted in a lack of understanding about how state interventions can be more effectively tailored to meet the specific needs of youth in post-conflict and agrarian contexts. This study aims to fill these gaps by analyzing the contradictions in the PDM and identifying opportunities for policy improvements that can better support youth entrepreneurship in these regions.

METHODOLOGY 

Research Design 

This study uses a qualitative research design to explore the entrepreneurial intentions of youth in Eastern Uganda in the context of the Parish Development Model (PDM). Qualitative research is well-suited for understanding complex social issues and capturing the depth of individuals’ experiences and perceptions (Creswell, 2014). This approach allows for an in-depth exploration of how material conditions, historical legacies, and gender dynamics influence youth entrepreneurship. The study gathers detailed perspectives from youth entrepreneurs, local government officials, and key stakeholders involved in the PDM by using a mix of semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions.

Sampling Strategy 

A stratified random sampling technique was used to select a representative sample of 300 youth across Eastern Uganda. This ensured diversity in terms of gender, urban or rural settings, and regional differences. Stratified sampling was chosen to make sure that various demographic subgroups within the youth population were represented, considering the regional disparities in entrepreneurial opportunities (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). The selected youth were aged between 18 and 30, as this is the group targeted by the PDM. This age range is also recognized as the most vulnerable to unemployment and poverty in Uganda (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2023). This method allows the study to reflect the variety of youth experiences across the region, especially between post-conflict areas in Northern Uganda and more agricultural communities in Eastern Uganda.

Data Collection Tools 

Data collection took place through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). This method provided flexibility for capturing diverse viewpoints while keeping a clear focus on key research questions. Semi-structured interviews enabled an in-depth exploration of individual experiences and opinions regarding entrepreneurship, material constraints, and the impact of the PDM. Youth entrepreneurs, PDM officials, and local government representatives were interviewed to gain insight into how the PDM is being implemented and its effects on the entrepreneurial landscape for rural youth (Kasozi, 2018). Additionally, FGDs included youth from both urban and rural areas to gather collective views on entrepreneurship, particularly about shared challenges such as access to capital, gender barriers, and land tenure issues (Nabunya, 2020). The semi-structured interviews followed a set of key questions, but their flexible format allowed for the exploration of new themes that arose during discussions. The FGD guide emphasized group dynamics, examining how youth collectively perceive the PDM, state interventions, and ways to improve the program to better tackle the specific challenges rural youth face (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006).

Data Analysis 

The study applied thematic analysis to examine the qualitative data. This method effectively identifies, analyzes, and interprets patterns or themes within qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic analysis was especially useful for uncovering recurring themes related to the main areas of the study: material constraints, historical legacies, gender dynamics, and state interventions. The analysis followed these steps: (1) becoming familiar with the data by reading transcripts repeatedly, (2) generating initial codes based on key concepts, (3) searching for themes throughout the data, (4) reviewing and defining themes, and (5) writing up the findings (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Important themes like access to land, gender entrepreneurship barriers, and the role of government policy emerged as key to understanding youth entrepreneurial intentions in rural Uganda.  In addition to thematic analysis, the study used cross-case analysis to compare responses from youth in Northern Uganda (a post-conflict area) and Eastern Uganda (an agrarian area). This allowed for a deeper understanding of the contextual differences in entrepreneurial opportunities and challenges (Creswell, 2014).

Limitations of the Study 

While the study offers valuable insights into youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda, some limitations exist. Access to remote areas and logistical issues in interviewing youth entrepreneurs in conflict-affected regions may have resulted in some biases in the sample. Furthermore, since the study relies on self-reported data, findings may be influenced by participants’ perceptions and social desirability bias. Despite these limitations, the study’s mixed-methods approach, which combines interviews and FGDs, enhances the reliability and validity of the findings.

Thematic Analysis 

The thematic analysis identifies key themes and sub-themes that emerged from the data collected in Eastern and Northern Uganda. The analysis focuses on the material constraints, structural barriers, and historical legacies that affect youth entrepreneurship in these regions.

Material Constraints and Opportunities 

Access to Capital and Resources

A significant number of youth, approximately 70%, said that access to capital was one of the biggest hurdles to entrepreneurship. While the Parish Development Model (PDM) offers some financial support, many youth find it inadequate to start or grow their businesses. Participants from Northern Uganda mentioned that access to capital was often blocked by land loss due to the LRA conflict (Mamdani, 1996). They frequently relied on informal savings groups or family loans to finance their ventures. Similarly, youth in Eastern Uganda faced challenges accessing formal financial services because of limited banking infrastructure in rural areas (Kasozi, 2018).

Land Access: 

In Northern Uganda, youth faced issues with land ownership, with many lacking secure rights. This insecurity greatly limited their ability to engage in agriculture-based entrepreneurship, which is a key sector in the region. In Eastern Uganda, around 30% of youth found land costs prohibitive, especially when trying to diversify into non-agricultural ventures (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). For many youth, land is a vital resource for agricultural business. However, without clear ownership or accessibility, their potential for expanding entrepreneurial ventures is stifled.

Market Access: 

Both regions expressed frustration with inadequate infrastructure, like poor transportation and limited market connectivity, which restricted youth access to wider markets. Eastern Uganda, in particular, suffers from significant challenges in telecommunication and road networks, isolating entrepreneurs in rural areas (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). Youth in Northern Uganda stated that post-conflict recovery efforts had only partially tackled infrastructure issues, which limited their ability to reach markets beyond their local areas (Mamdani, 1996).

Youth Aspirations vs. Structural Barriers 

Educational Gaps 

Youth in both Eastern and Northern Uganda pointed to a lack of formal education and skills training as major obstacles to entrepreneurship. In Eastern Uganda, where agriculture dominates the economy, many youth did not have the skills needed to shift into diversified business models such as retail, service industries, or technology ventures (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). In Northern Uganda, educational challenges were worsened by long-term displacement due to the LRA conflict, leaving many youth with limited schooling and insufficient technical skills for entrepreneurship (Brett, 2005). The educational gap in these regions highlights the mismatch between what is offered and what is required for success in modern business environments.

Historical Legacies and Their Impact on Youth Behavior 

Post-Conflict Legacy in Northern Uganda

In Northern Uganda, the effects of the LRA conflict continue to deeply impact youth entrepreneurial aspirations. Youth participants spoke about the psychological trauma, land loss, and social stigma they faced due to the conflict. These experiences made it hard for them to confidently pursue entrepreneurship, and many viewed the entrepreneurial landscape with pessimism and uncertainty. The challenges resulting from post-conflict recovery are still strongly felt in the entrepreneurial behaviors and attitudes of youth in the region (Mamdani, 1996). In contrast, Eastern Uganda, while facing less conflict, offers a more restrictive environment for youth looking to move beyond agriculture because of cultural norms and land dependency (Bainomugisha et al., 2021).

Thematic Table: Linking Themes with Sub-themes, Examples, and References

Analysis and Discussion

Material Conditions and Rural Youth Entrepreneurship

The findings from this study, which surveyed 300 youth across rural Uganda, highlight the critical importance of material conditions, specifically access to capital, land, and markets, in shaping youth entrepreneurship. In both Northern and Eastern Uganda, these material issues significantly hinder the ability of youth to start and maintain businesses. Access to capital emerged as a key barrier. Many youth mentioned a lack of financial resources as a major obstacle to launching businesses, even with the support offered by the Parish Development Model (PDM) (Kasozi, 2018). In Northern Uganda, land access was especially challenging due to insecure land tenure, which limited youth’s ability to engage in agriculture-based ventures. In contrast, in Eastern Uganda, 30% of youth identified high land costs as a significant constraint, restricting their chances to expand into non-agricultural sectors.Although the PDM aims to tackle some of these challenges by providing financial help and business training, its effects remain limited. Marginalized youth, particularly those in remote areas with poor infrastructure and limited market access, still face major obstacles in obtaining support (Kasozi, 2018). Therefore, while the PDM promises to address some material constraints, its effectiveness is restricted by infrastructure and social issues.

Historical Legacies and Their Impact on Youth Behavior

The historical context of both regions significantly influences the entrepreneurial intentions of youth. In Northern Uganda, the aftermath of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) conflict continues to affect youth entrepreneurship deeply. Psychological trauma, displacement, and loss of social capital create serious barriers to entrepreneurial engagement (Brett, 2005). Many youth in this region pointed out that the lingering effects of trauma and land loss limit their entrepreneurial ambitions, even when financial support is available. The decline of social capital, resulting from years of displacement, has weakened support networks that are crucial for fostering entrepreneurship. In Eastern Uganda, the legacy of dependence on agriculture brings both opportunities and challenges. While the agricultural sector provides potential paths for youth entrepreneurship, the heavy reliance on subsistence farming restricts chances for diversification. This dependence is made worse by gaps in education and skills training, which limit youth’s ability to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities outside of agriculture (Bainomugisha et al., 2021). As a result, youth in this region face a narrow range of entrepreneurial prospects, with little support for exploring non-agricultural business sectors.

Interconnection of Material and Structural Barriers

The analysis shows that material conditions and historical legacies are closely linked to structural barriers that shape the entrepreneurial behavior of youth in rural Uganda. The lack of access to capital, land, and markets, combined with the historical effects of conflict and agricultural dependence, creates a complex set of challenges for youth. Educational gaps further worsen these issues, limiting youth from exploring broader entrepreneurial options and perpetuating a cycle of economic dependency.

Despite these challenges, the study points out the potential of targeted state interventions, like the PDM, to reduce some of these constraints. However, for these interventions to work better, there needs to be a more inclusive and context-specific approach that addresses both material and social barriers to youth entrepreneurship. Such an approach would focus not only on offering financial and technical support but also on rebuilding social capital, tackling the psychological effects of conflict, and expanding educational opportunities beyond traditional agriculture. In conclusion, while material and structural constraints remain significant obstacles to youth entrepreneurship in rural Uganda, strategic and tailored interventions could create more sustainable opportunities for youth in both regions.

CONCLUSION 

The study shows that material conditions, historical legacies, and gendered cultural norms shape the entrepreneurial opportunities and intentions of youth in rural Uganda. While the PDM has had some success in providing financial support and business training, its impact is still limited due to structural barriers such as land tenure issues, limited access to capital, and challenges in reaching markets. The post-conflict legacy in Northern Uganda and the agricultural reliance in Eastern Uganda further hinder entrepreneurial goals, especially for youth who lack diverse skills or capital. The findings highlight the need to integrate historical and economic realities into rural development programs. Future efforts should not only offer financial support but also provide skills training, improve infrastructure, and tackle gender inequalities in resource access. By addressing these issues, state programs like the PDM can significantly empower youth and promote lasting rural entrepreneurship in Uganda.

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