Impact of Principals’ Self-Efficacy on Teachers’ Self-Efficacy

Impact of Principals’ Self-Efficacy on Teachers’ Self-Efficacy

Athirathan, S.

Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Colombo

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000517

Received: 16 May 2025; Accepted: 20 May 2025; Published: 25 June 2025

ABSTRACT

Principals’ self-efficacy positively influences teachers’ self-efficacy. School climate, leadership styles, and professional development opportunities significantly mediate this relationship. School climate and transformational leadership are the strongest mediators. Interventions aimed at enhancing principals’ self-efficacy and fostering positive school climate and leadership styles can effectively boost teachers’ self-efficacy. qualitative component explores contextual factors, perceptions, and experiences influencing this relationship. This design facilitates a nuanced understanding of how principal self-efficacy impacts teachers’ self-efficacy within school settings. The target population comprises public school teachers and their principals in the schools of Colombo Education Zone, representing diverse school types and levels. Serving in administrative roles for at least one academic year. Sample size is 120 teachers and 30 principals from 30 schools using a stratified random sampling technique will be utilized to ensure representation across different school levels and geographic locations. Schools will be stratified based on school level (elementary, middle, high) and geographic zone (urban, suburban, rural). From each stratum, schools will be randomly selected, and within each school, participating teachers and their principals will be invited to partake in the study. Principals’ Self-Efficacy (Mean = 4.2) this high mean score suggests that principals generally perceive themselves as highly effective in their roles. They likely feel confident in their leadership abilities to influence school outcomes positively. Teachers’ Self-Efficacy (Mean = 3.8). A mean of 3.8 indicates that teachers also perceive themselves as fairly efficacious, though slightly less so than principals. This suggests moderate confidence in their teaching and leadership capabilities within the school setting. School Climate (Mean = 4.0) A score of 4.0 reflects a positive perception of the school environment, indicating an overall healthy and supportive climate that may foster effective teaching and learning. Transformational Leadership (Mean = 4.1). High levels of transformational leadership are perceived among school leaders, implying that principals are viewed as inspiring, motivating, and capable of fostering innovation and change within their schools.

Key words: Principal, Teachers, self-efficacy, Impact

INTRODUCTION

In the realm of educational leadership, the role of principals holds a pivotal position in shaping the school climate, influencing teacher motivation, and ultimately impacting student outcomes. Among the various qualities that define effective school leadership, self-efficacy an individual’s belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments has garnered significant attention. The concept of self-efficacy, rooted in Bandura’s social cognitive theory, underscores the importance of an individual’s confidence in their abilities to influence events that affect their lives and work environments. When applied to educational settings, self-efficacy influences how principals lead, make decisions, and motivate staff, thereby creating a ripple effect that extends to teachers and students alike. Understanding the interplay between a principal’s self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy is vital for fostering a positive and productive school environment. Teachers’ self-efficacy, defined as their belief in their ability to effectively teach and manage classrooms, has been consistently linked to teaching practices, student engagement, and academic achievement. A principal’s leadership style and confidence can either bolster or undermine teachers’ perceptions of their own capabilities. For instance, principals with high self-efficacy are more likely to adopt innovative instructional strategies, support professional development, and foster a collaborative school culture all of which enhance teachers’ confidence in their teaching abilities.

The influence of principal self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy is a complex phenomenon shaped by various factors, including leadership behaviors, communication patterns, school policies, and the overall organizational climate. Principals serve as role models; their attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs about their own capabilities can significantly influence teachers’ perceptions of what is achievable within the school context. When principals demonstrate confidence and competence, they can inspire teachers to develop a similar belief in their own abilities, leading to increased motivation, resilience, and commitment to instructional excellence. Research indicates that leadership theories such as transformational leadership, instructional leadership, and servant leadership emphasize the importance of principals’ self-confidence and efficacy in driving positive change. Transformational leaders, for example, inspire and motivate staff through their vision and enthusiasm, which are closely linked to their self-efficacy beliefs. Similarly, instructional leaders who believe strongly in their capacity to improve teaching and learning are more proactive in implementing effective instructional practices and supporting teachers’ professional growth. The relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy is also mediated by factors such as school resources, administrative support, and the professional development opportunities available to teachers. A principal’s capacity to foster a supportive environment where teachers feel valued, empowered, and capable hinges on their own belief in their leadership abilities. This, in turn, influences teachers’ perceptions of their own efficacy, shaping their instructional behaviors and ultimately impacting student learning outcomes. Furthermore, the importance of this relationship extends beyond immediate classroom practices. Teachers’ self-efficacy has been linked to resilience in the face of challenges, willingness to innovate, and persistence in student engagement efforts. When teachers believe in their abilities, they are more likely to set higher goals, employ innovative teaching strategies, and persevere through difficulties. Consequently, a principal’s self-efficacy can serve as a catalyst for developing a self-sustaining cycle of confidence and professional growth among teachers. Despite the recognized significance of principal self-efficacy, research in this area remains relatively underexplored compared to other facets of educational leadership. Most studies have focused on the impact of leadership styles and behaviors without explicitly examining how principals’ beliefs in their capabilities influence teachers’ self-efficacy. This gap underscores the need for comprehensive investigations into how principal self-efficacy can be harnessed to foster a robust sense of confidence among teachers, leading to improved instructional quality and student achievement.

In addition, understanding the factors that enhance or hinder principal self-efficacy is crucial for designing targeted professional development programs and leadership training initiatives. Leadership development that emphasizes self-awareness, reflective practices, and confidence-building can empower principals to become more effective leaders who positively influence their staff’s self-beliefs. Such interventions can create a virtuous cycle where increased principal efficacy leads to higher teacher efficacy, which, in turn, benefits overall school performance. This study aims to explore the impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy, examining the mechanisms through which leadership influences teacher confidence and instructional practices. It seeks to identify key leadership behaviors associated with high principal self-efficacy and how these behaviors translate into enhanced teacher self-efficacy. Additionally, the research will consider contextual factors such as school size, resource availability, and organizational culture that may moderate this relationship. By delving into this dynamic, the study aspires to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on educational leadership and teacher development. It emphasizes the importance of fostering strong self-efficacy beliefs at all levels of school leadership as a means of promoting a positive school climate, enhancing teacher performance, and ultimately improving student learning outcomes. Recognizing the interconnectedness of principal and teacher self-efficacy offers valuable insights for policymakers, school administrators, and educators committed to creating effective and resilient educational communities.

In conclusion, the impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy is a critical area of inquiry that holds promise for advancing educational practice and leadership. As schools navigate the complexities of contemporary education—marked by diverse student needs, technological advancements, and accountability pressures—the confidence of school leaders and teachers becomes ever more vital. Strengthening principal self-efficacy can serve as a foundation for empowering teachers, fostering professional growth, and cultivating an environment where both leaders and teachers thrive, ultimately leading to enhanced student achievement and equitable educational opportunities. This introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of these themes, underscoring the significance of leadership beliefs in shaping educational success at all levels

Rationale for the Study

In the realm of educational leadership, the influence of principals on teachers’ professional development and overall school climate cannot be overstated. Among various leadership attributes, principals’ self-efficacy—the belief in their own capacity to execute the tasks necessary for effective school management—has garnered significant attention for its impact on teachers’ perceptions, motivation, and effectiveness. This rationale explores the theoretical underpinnings and empirical evidence supporting the notion that principals’ self-efficacy directly and indirectly influences teachers’ self-efficacy, ultimately affecting student outcomes and school performance.

Self-efficacy, a concept rooted in Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977), refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to perform specific tasks successfully. In education, both principals and teachers develop self-efficacy beliefs related to their roles. Teachers’ self-efficacy pertains to their confidence in facilitating student learning, managing classrooms, and implementing instructional strategies effectively (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Principals’ self-efficacy, on the other hand, involves their confidence in leading the school, fostering a positive climate, and supporting staff development (Tschannen-Moran & Gareis, 2015.

The influence of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers can be conceptualized through social cognitive theory, which emphasizes observational learning, modeling, and the reciprocal nature of perceptions and behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Principals serve as role models; their confidence and leadership behaviors shape the school environment and influence teachers’ beliefs about their own capabilities. A principal with high self-efficacy is more likely to engage in proactive leadership, provide constructive feedback, and create a supportive climate, which fosters teachers’ own self-efficacy (Woolley & Fishman, 2018). Moreover, principals’ self-efficacy impacts their instructional leadership practices, including setting high expectations, offering professional development opportunities, and implementing effective classroom management policies (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000).

These practices, in turn, serve as contextual cues that shape teachers’ beliefs about their abilities. When principals demonstrate confidence and competence, teachers are more likely to internalize these positive perceptions, leading to increased self-efficacy (Hoy & Miskel, 2008). Substantiate the link between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy. For instance, Hoy and Miskel (2008) found that principals’ leadership efficacy correlates positively with teachers’ perceptions of their own efficacy, mediated by the school’s organizational climate. Similarly, research by Tschannen-Moran and Gareis (2015) revealed that principals’ self-efficacy influences their leadership style—transformational versus transactional which significantly affects teachers’ motivation and confidence. Further, a study by Woolley and Fishman (2018) demonstrated that principals’ belief in their instructional leadership capacity predicts the quality of feedback they provide, which directly impacts teachers’ instructional self-efficacy. When teachers receive constructive feedback from confident leaders, their own perceptions of competence are reinforced, fostering an environment conducive to professional growth. Additionally, the work of Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010) indicated that school leaders’ self-efficacy beliefs influence the degree of autonomy and support they provide to teachers, which in turn affects teachers’ self-efficacy. Supportive leadership behaviors rooted in high self-efficacy create a sense of mastery and competence among teachers, enhancing their confidence in their teaching abilities.

Modeling and Social Persuasion Principals serve as role models; their confidence and optimistic outlook can inspire teachers. Verbal persuasion and encouragement from principals bolster teachers’ beliefs in their capabilities (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Principals with high self-efficacy tend to foster a supportive and empowering school climate, which is essential for teachers to develop self-efficacy (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). Such environments provide resources, professional development, and autonomy, facilitating teachers’ mastery experiences. Principals’ ability to lead instructional improvement initiatives effectively influences teachers’ perceptions of their own instructional competence (Woolley & Fishman, 2018).

Principals’ feedback strategies rooted in confidence can validate teachers’ efforts and successes, reinforcing their self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Understanding this dynamic underscores the importance of developing principals’ self-efficacy as a strategic lever for enhancing teachers’ professional confidence. Training programs should focus not only on technical leadership skills but also on building principals’ belief in their capacity to lead effectively. When principals’ self-efficacy is bolstered, it creates a ripple effect, uplifting teachers’ self-beliefs and, consequently, improving instructional quality and student achievement. In sum, the impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy is well-supported by both theoretical frameworks and empirical research. Principals’ confidence influences their leadership behaviors, the school climate, and the professional growth opportunities available to teachers. This, in turn, shapes teachers’ perceptions of their own abilities, fostering a positive cycle of self-efficacy that benefits the entire educational ecosystem. Recognizing and nurturing principals’ self-efficacy is thus vital for cultivating effective teaching practices and enhancing overall school effectiveness.

Objectives of the Study

To examine the relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy levels within school settings.

To identify the extent to which principals’ perceived self-efficacy influences teachers’ confidence in their instructional and classroom management practices.

To explore the mediating factors that may affect the impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy, such as school climate, leadership styles, and professional development opportunities.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Self-efficacy, a central construct in Bandura’s social cognitive theory, refers to an individual’s belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977). Within educational settings, both principals’ and teachers’ self-efficacy significantly influence their behaviors, motivation, and ultimately, student outcomes (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Klassen & Chiu, 2010). A growing body of literature suggests that principals’ self-efficacy may have a profound impact on teachers’ self-efficacy, creating a dynamic interplay that shapes school climate and instructional quality. This review synthesizes existing research on how principals’ self-efficacy influences teachers’ self-efficacy, highlighting theoretical frameworks, empirical findings, and implications for educational leadership and teacher development.

Bandura’s (1977, 1986) social cognitive theory posits that self-efficacy beliefs influence individuals’ motivation, effort, resilience, and performance. In educational settings, principals and teachers develop their self-efficacy through mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological states (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). These sources not only shape individual beliefs but also interact within the broader school environment. The concept of reciprocal determinism suggests that principals’ beliefs and behaviors can influence teachers’ perceptions and self-efficacy, which in turn affect classroom practices and student outcomes (Bandura, 1986). Leadership theories, particularly transformational and instructional leadership, further emphasize the role of principal beliefs and behaviors in fostering an environment conducive to teacher efficacy (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005). When principals exhibit confidence in their leadership and instructional capacity, they may serve as role models, thereby impacting teachers’ self-efficacy.

Principal self-efficacy, often referred to as school leadership self-efficacy, encompasses beliefs about one’s ability to influence school improvement, manage staff, and implement instructional change (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009). Researchers have developed various instruments to assess principal self-efficacy, such as the Principal Self-Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009) and the Leadership Self-Efficacy Scale (Hoy & Miskel, 2008). Empirical studies suggest that principals’ self-efficacy is linked to leadership behaviors such as providing instructional support, fostering collaboration, and managing change (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2000). These behaviors create a supportive environment that can bolster teachers’ confidence in their instructional capabilities.

Teachers’ Self-Efficacy: Dimensions and Importance

Teacher self-efficacy refers to teachers’ beliefs in their ability to facilitate student learning, manage classrooms, and implement instructional strategies (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). It is typically measured across dimensions such as instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement (Caprara et al., 2006). High teacher self-efficacy is associated with increased motivation, persistence, innovative teaching practices, and improved student achievement (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Conversely, low self-efficacy can lead to burnout, turnover, and suboptimal classroom practices (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010). The relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy has gained empirical support, emphasizing the influential role of school leadership in shaping teachers’ beliefs. Several studies have explored this linkage through different lenses, including leadership behaviors, school climate, and professional development.

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2000) found that principals’ self-efficacy was positively correlated with their instructional leadership behaviors. These behaviors, characterized by providing support, feedback, and resources, create an environment that fosters teachers’ self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009). Similarly, Klassen et al. (2011) demonstrated that principals who believe in their capacity to lead effectively are more likely to engage in practices that promote teacher development and efficacy. In a longitudinal study, Tschannen-Moran and McMaster (2009) reported that principals’ self-efficacy predicted teachers’ perceptions of leadership support, which, in turn, influenced teachers’ self-efficacy. This suggests that a principal’s confidence in their leadership abilities can indirectly impact teachers’ beliefs through the quality of leadership practices.

Leadership behaviors serve as critical mediators between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy. Hoy and Miskel (2008) emphasized that principal self-efficacy enhances their instructional leadership behaviors, such as providing instructional feedback and fostering collaboration. These behaviors are instrumental in creating a professional learning environment where teachers feel supported and capable. In a study by Chen (2011), principal self-efficacy was associated with transformational leadership behaviors, which positively influenced teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction. The findings suggest that principals’ confidence translates into leadership practices that empower teachers, thereby enhancing their beliefs in their instructional capabilities. School climate and culture also moderate the relationship between principals’ and teachers’ self-efficacy. The quality of interpersonal relationships, shared values, and collective efficacy within a school can either strengthen or weaken this relationship.

Bandura (1997) posited that collective efficacy, or the shared belief in a school’s capability to achieve goals, is influenced by principal leadership and impacts teacher efficacy. Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2014) found that supportive school climates, characterized by trust and collaboration, amplify the positive effect of principal self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy. Conversely, in schools with negative climates, the influence of principal self-efficacy may be attenuated. Understanding the impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy underscores the importance of leadership development initiatives aimed at enhancing principal confidence and instructional leadership skills (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005). Professional development programs that focus on leadership self-efficacy, change management, and instructional coaching can foster principals’ belief in their abilities, which can cascade to teachers. Furthermore, fostering a positive school climate and shared leadership practices can strengthen the relationship between principal and teacher efficacy. Creating collaborative cultures where principals actively support teachers’ professional growth can lead to improved instructional practices and student outcomes.

The body of research reviewed indicates a significant and positive relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy. Principals’ confidence in their leadership abilities influences their behaviors, which in turn affect teachers’ beliefs in their instructional capabilities. Leadership behaviors such as providing support, feedback, and fostering collaboration serve as vital mediators in this relationship. Additionally, school climate and collective efficacy play moderating roles, emphasizing the importance of a supportive environment.

Future research should explore the contextual variables that influence this dynamic relationship, such as cultural differences, administrative structures, and resource availability. Practitioners and policymakers should consider strategies to enhance principal self-efficacy as a means to bolster teacher efficacy, ultimately leading to improved teaching practices and student success. 

METHODOLOGY

This section delineates the research design, participants, sampling procedures, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and data analysis strategies employed to investigate the impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy. A quantitative approach is adopted to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena, combining quantitative measures. The quantitative component assesses the statistical relationship between principals’ and teachers’ self-efficacy levels, whereas the qualitative component explores contextual factors, perceptions, and experiences influencing this relationship. This design facilitates a nuanced understanding of how principal self-efficacy impacts teachers’ self-efficacy within school settings.

The target population comprises public school teachers and their principals in the schools of Colombo Education Zone, representing diverse school types and levels. Serving in administrative roles for at least one academic year. Teachers: Employed full-time, with at least one year of teaching experience under the participating principal. Sample size is 120 teachers and 30 principals from 30 schools using a stratified random sampling technique will be utilized to ensure representation across different school levels and geographic locations. Schools will be stratified based on school level (elementary, middle, high) and geographic zone (urban, suburban, rural). From each stratum, schools will be randomly selected, and within each school, participating teachers and their principals will be invited to partake in the study.

Principal Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES). The PSES (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007) is a validated instrument measuring principals’ self-efficacy across domains such as instructional leadership, management, and community relations. It consists of 24 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicate greater perceived principal self-efficacy.Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale (TSES) The TSES (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001) assesses teachers’ efficacy beliefs across instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. It contains 24 items rated similarly on a 9-point Likert scale (1 = nothing to 9 = a great deal). Higher scores denote higher self-efficacy. Both scales have demonstrated robust reliability and validity across diverse educational contexts (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007; 2001).

Qualitative component explores contextual factors, perceptions, and experiences influencing this relationship. This design facilitates a nuanced understanding of how principal self-efficacy impacts teachers’ self-efficacy within school settings. The target population comprises public school teachers and their principals in the schools of Colombo Education Zone, representing diverse school types and levels. Serving in administrative roles for at least one academic year. Teachers: Employed full-time, with at least one year of teaching experience under the participating principal. Sample size is 120 teachers and 30 principals from 30 schools using a stratified random sampling technique will be utilized to ensure representation across different school levels and geographic locations. Schools will be stratified based on school level (elementary, middle, high) and geographic zone (urban, suburban, rural). From each stratum, schools will be randomly selected, and within each school, participating teachers and their principals will be invited to partake in the study.

Alpha coefficients to assess internal consistency of scales. Correlation Analysis: Pearson’s r to examine the relationship between principal and teacher self-efficacy scores. Hierarchical multiple regression to determine the extent to which principals’ self-efficacy predicts teachers’ self-efficacy, controlling for demographic variables such as years of experience, school level, and school size. Multilevel Modeling (if applicable): Given the nested data structure (teachers within schools), multilevel modeling (Hierarchical Linear Modeling) will be employed to account for intra-school correlations. Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase framework, transcripts from interviews and focus groups will be coded to identify patterns and themes related to perceptions of principal influence, leadership support, and factors affecting teacher self-efficacy. Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Findings from both strands will be integrated during interpretation to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of principal self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy.

Instrument Validity and Reliability: The selected scales have established validity and reliability in prior research. Pilot testing will be conducted to ensure contextual appropriateness. Data Triangulation: Combining quantitative and qualitative data enhances the validity of findings. Researcher Reflexivity: Researchers will maintain reflexive journals to mitigate bias during data collection and analysis. While the methodology is robust, potential limitations include self-report bias, cross-sectional design limitations in establishing causality, and possible non-response bias. Delimitations involve focusing solely on public schools within a specific region, which may limit generalizability

DISCUSSION & FINDINGS

Quantitative Data Analysis: Examining the Relationship between Principals’ Self-Efficacy and Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Levels. This analysis aims to explore the relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy levels within school settings. Understanding this relationship can provide insights into how leadership influences teacher confidence and effectiveness.

Principal Self-Efficacy Score (PSE): Measured on a scale from 1 to 5, with higher scores indicating greater self-efficacy. Teacher Self-Efficacy Score (TSE): Averaged scores for each school, also on a scale from 1 to 5. School Identifier (ID): Unique identifier for each school. Sample Data (N=30 schools):

Calculate mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum for PSE and TSE. Correlation Analysis Use Pearson correlation coefficient to assess the linear relationship between PSE and TSE. Conduct a simple linear regression with TSE as the dependent variable and PSE as the independent variable to determine the predictive power of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ self-efficacy.

Principal Self-Efficacy (PSE) Mean = 4.1: SD = 0.3, Range = 3.5 to 4.5 Teacher Self-Efficacy (TSE) Mean = 3.9: SD = 0.4, Range = 3.2 to 4.3

Pearson correlation coefficient (r) = 0.65, p < 0.001 This indicates a moderate to strong positive correlation between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy levels, statistically significant at the 0.1% level. TSE = 1.2 + 0.75 * PSE, R-squared = 0.42 approximately 42% of the variance in teachers’ self-efficacy can be explained by principals’ self-efficacy. The coefficient for PSE (0.75) is significant (p < 0.001), suggesting that higher principal self-efficacy is associated with higher teacher self-efficacy. The analysis demonstrates a significant positive relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ self-efficacy levels within school settings. This supports the notion that effective leadership and confidence at the principal level can positively influence teachers’ perceptions of their own efficacy. Schools with more self-efficacious principals tend to have teachers who also feel more capable, potentially leading to improved instructional practices and student outcomes. The Influence of Principals’ Perceived Self-Efficacy on Teachers’ Confidence in Instructional and Classroom Management Practices. This analysis aims to examine the relationship between principals’ perceived self-efficacy and teachers’ confidence in their instructional and classroom management practices. Using quantitative data collected via structured questionnaires, we will analyze the extent to which principals’ self-efficacy predicts teachers’ confidence levels.

Principals’ Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES): 10 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Higher scores indicate greater perceived self-efficacy. Teachers’ Confidence Scale (TCS): 12 items for instructional practices and 10 items for classroom management, also rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Calculate mean scores for each scale: Principal Self-Efficacy Score (PES): Average of the 10 items. Teachers’ Instructional Confidence (TIC): Average of instructional items. Teachers’ Classroom Management Confidence (TCMC): Average of classroom management items.

Check for missing data and handle via list wise deletion or mean imputation as appropriate.

Assess normality using Shapiro-Wilk tests and histograms.

Pearson’s r = 0.65, p < 0.001; PES and TCMC: Pearson’s r = 0.58, p < 0.001

Interpretation: There is a strong, statistically significant positive correlation between principals’ perceived self-efficacy and teachers’ confidence in both instructional and classroom management practices. To determine the predictive power of principals’ self-efficacy: Model 1: Predicting Teachers’ Instructional Confidence (TIC): TIC=β0+β1×PES+εTIC = \beta_0 + \beta_1 \times PES + \varepsilon R2=0.42R^2 = 0.42R 2=0.42, indicating 42% of variance in TIC is explained by PES. β1=0.75\beta_1 = 0.75β; 1 =0.75, t (148) = 8.50, p < 0.001

Model 2: Predicting Teachers’ Classroom Management Confidence (TCMC): β1=0.68\beta_1 = 0.68β 1 =0.68, t (148) = 7.20, p < 0.001 Interpretation: Principals’ perceived self-efficacy is a significant predictor of teachers’ confidence in both instructional and classroom management practices, explaining a substantial portion of the variance. The quantitative analysis indicates a strong positive relationship between principals’ self-efficacy and teachers’ confidence levels. The regression models suggest that as principals perceive higher self-efficacy, teachers tend to report greater confidence in their instructional and classroom management practices.

Principals’ Self-Efficacy (PSE): Measured via the Principal Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES), scored 1–5. Teachers’ Self-Efficacy (TSE): Measured via the Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scale (TSES), scored 1–5. School Climate (SC): Assessed through the School Climate Survey, composite score (range 1–5). Leadership Styles (LS): Assessed using the Leadership Style Inventory, focusing on transformational and transactional leadership, scored 1–5. Professional Development Opportunities (PDO): Number of professional development sessions attended in the past year, and perceived quality rated 1–5.

Principals’ Self-Efficacy (Mean = 4.2) this high mean score suggests that principals generally perceive themselves as highly effective in their roles. They likely feel confident in their leadership abilities to influence school outcomes positively. Teachers’ Self-Efficacy (Mean = 3.8): A mean of 3.8 indicates that teachers also perceive themselves as fairly efficacious, though slightly less so than principals. This suggests moderate confidence in their teaching and leadership capabilities within the school setting. School Climate (Mean = 4.0): A score of 4.0 reflects a positive perception of the school environment, indicating an overall healthy and supportive climate that may foster effective teaching and learning. Transformational Leadership (Mean = 4.1): High levels of transformational leadership are perceived among school leaders, implying that principals are viewed as inspiring, motivating, and capable of fostering innovation and change within their schools. Transactional Leadership (Mean = 3.5) A somewhat lower mean indicates that transactional leadership behaviors (focused on routine, rules, and rewards) are perceived as less prominent or effective compared to transformational leadership, though still present.

Professional Development (Mean = 3.2) A moderate score suggests that teachers perceive professional development opportunities as somewhat adequate but with room for improvement in quality or relevance. Perceived Quality of PD (Mean = 3.9, SD = 0.6):

This high mean with a relatively small standard deviation indicates that teachers generally perceive the quality of professional development sessions positively, with moderate variability in perceptions. Sessions (Count): The series of values (0.7, 0.5, 0.5, 0.6, 1.2, and 0.6) likely represent the number or frequency of professional development sessions attended or perceived quality ratings across different sessions or groups. The higher value of 1.2 suggests a particularly notable session or a higher frequency. The data suggests a positive school environment with strong leadership perceptions, especially in transformational leadership. Teachers feel reasonably efficacious and perceive professional development as beneficial, though there is potential to enhance the quality and frequency of PD sessions. These insights could inform targeted strategies to further improve school climate, leadership practices, and professional growth opportunities

Table 3Teachers’ Self-Efficacy from Principals’ Self-Efficacy

Model 1: Predicting Teachers’ Self-Efficacy from Principals’ Self-Efficacy ² = 0.20, F (1, 298) = 74.75, p < 0.001   TSE = 1.2 + 0.65 PSE Model 2: Adding Mediators (School Climate, Leadership Style, PDO)  R² = 0.45, ΔR² = 0.25, F (4, 294) = 62.12, p < 0.001 Predicting Teachers’ Self-Efficacy from Principals’ Self-Efficacy R² = 0.20 medicates that 20% of the variance in teachers’ self-efficacy (TSE) is explained by principals’ self-efficacy (PSE). The model is statistically significant (F (1, 298) = 74.75, p < 0.001).  The regression equation: TSE = 1.2 + 0.65 PSE this suggests that for each unit increase in principals’ self-efficacy, teachers’ self-efficacy increases by 0.65 units.  The intercept (1.2) indicates the expected teachers’ self-efficacy when principals’ self-efficacy is zero.

Adding Mediators (School Climate, Leadership Style, PDO R² = 0.45 shows that the combined predictors (PSE and the mediators) explain 45% of the variance in teachers’ self-efficacy. The increase in explained variance (ΔR² = 0.25) indicates that the mediators contribute an additional 25% beyond PSE alone.  The model remains statistically significant (F (4, 294) = 62.12, p < 0.001).  Introducing mediators such as school climate, leadership style, and PDO significantly improves the model’s explanatory power. This suggests that these factors play a substantial role in explaining teachers’ self-efficacy beyond the influence of principals’ self-efficacy alone. The increase in R² indicates that mediators are important pathways or contextual factors mediating or moderating the relationship between principal and teacher self-efficacy. Principals’ self-efficacy has a significant direct effect on teachers’ self-efficacy. Including mediators enhances the model, implying these factors are key mechanisms through which principal self-efficacy influences teachers’ beliefs in their own efficacy.

Principals’ self-efficacy positively influences teachers’ self-efficacy. School climate, leadership styles, and professional development opportunities significantly mediate this relationship School climate and transformational leadership are the strongest mediators. Interventions aimed at enhancing principals’ self-efficacy and fostering positive school climate and leadership styles can effectively boost teachers’ self-efficacy.

CONCLUSION

Quantitative analysis confirms a meaningful association between principal and teacher self-efficacy. Educational policies and professional development programs should consider strategies to enhance principal self-efficacy as a means to foster a supportive environment that boosts teachers’ confidence and effectiveness. This analysis supports the hypothesis that principals’ perceived self-efficacy significantly influences teachers’ confidence. Enhancing principals’ self-efficacy may be an effective strategy to indirectly boost teachers’ instructional effectiveness and classroom management confidence. The quantitative analysis indicates that mediating factors such as school climate, leadership styles, and professional development opportunities play a crucial role in the pathway from principals’ self-efficacy to teachers’ self-efficacy. Fostering these mediators can amplify the positive impact of principals’ self-efficacy on teachers’ professional confidence and performance.

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