Impact of Radio Advocacy Campaigns on Gender Disparity and Sexual Harassment among Female Civil Servants in Southwest Nigeria

Impact of Radio Advocacy Campaigns on Gender Disparity and Sexual Harassment among Female Civil Servants in Southwest Nigeria

Adekoya, Olufunmilayo Adebomi, Oyewo, Oyeyinka, Omole, Funke

Adeleke University, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90600037

Received: 15 May 2025; Accepted: 24 May 2025; Published: 27 June 2025

ABSTRACT

Gender based violence is a social phenomenon that has become an issue of concern to many scholars in recent times, as women are more affected compared to the men. This study examined the impact of gender-based violence (GBV) radio campaigns on gender disparity and sexual harassment among women in the civil service in Southwest Nigeria, specifically in Ekiti, Ondo, and Osun states. Using Feminist Media Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Social Role Theory, the research adopted a mixed-methods approach, involving 388 survey respondents and six in-depth interview participants. Findings revealed widespread gender disparity, with 45.9% of respondents experiencing workplace inequality and 42.8% facing salary or promotion biases. Sexual harassment was also prevalent, with 28.4% encountering it occasionally and 14.4% frequently. Notably, 79.9% were exposed to GBV radio campaigns, which significantly enhanced awareness (Spearman’s rs = 0.521, p < 0.01). Further analysis confirmed that campaigns positively influenced perceptions (Pillai’s Trace = 0.328, F = 15.987, p < 0.001). However, cultural barriers, ineffective reporting mechanisms (70.9%), and inconsistent policy enforcement limited behavioural change. Interviews highlighted the campaigns’ role in raising awareness, empowering victims, and promoting institutional changes. Yet, fear of retaliation and weak policy enforcement persisted. The study concludes that while GBV radio campaigns are effective for raising awareness, they require stronger policy backing, cultural adaptation, and enhanced media-NGO collaborations for sustained impact, The study recommended that government bodies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and advocacy bodies work together to broaden the reach and frequency of gender-based violence (GBV) radio campaigns. An effective policy framework on gender equality and anti-harassment in public service and private sector organizations is necessary to enforce accountability over GBV issues. Radio stations can work more effectively with gender equality organizations, women advocate, and civil society organizations to implement GBV campaigns.

Keywords: Gender-based violence, radio campaigns, sexual harassment, gender disparity, Nigeria civil service.

INTRODUCTION

Media campaigns play an essential role in combating gender-based violence (GBV) in Nigeria by increasing public awareness, influencing societal attitudes, and advocating for policy reforms. These campaigns function as catalysts for societal transformation, fostering discourse on the urgent need for structural and behavioural change (Olayinka, 2024).

The role of the media in addressing GBV goes beyond mere reportage; it also serves as an essential tool for advocacy and awareness campaigns led by both government and non-governmental organisations. Didiugwu and Akinyemi (2023) asserts that the media’s portrayal of GBV influences public perceptions and policies while simultaneously providing a platform for educational interventions and programme implementation.

Media campaigns have been instrumental in raising awareness about intimate partner violence and influencing attitudes toward gender norms. However, their direct impact on reducing violent behaviour remains difficult to measure due to challenges in tracking behavioural change associated with media interventions (WHO, 2019). Although incidents of GBV perpetrated against women and girls by family members, acquaintances, and religious leaders frequently receive media coverage, cases occurring in workplace settings are underreported. In recent years, however, there has been growing recognition of workplace-related GBV, perpetrated superiors and colleagues.

Radio is viewed as an open and flexible mass media with broad access in all settings (i.e., offices, farms, cars, etc.),

Radio, as a versatile medium of mass communication with its wide accessibility whether in offices, farms, vehicles, or other locations has been recognized as a powerful tool for disseminating information on GBV prevention, particularly in rural, unreached areas and various laces due to the epileptic power supply in Nigeria.

According to Olayinka (2024), radio has the capacity to reach many audiences, making it an ideal platform for raising awareness and educating communities on GBV.  Ndep et al. (2022) also highlight that radio campaigns can shift gender norms, garner support for attitudinal change, and motivate positive behaviour change.

Various radio campaigns have been launched across Nigeria to inform the public about the importance of GBV issues and to promote prevention efforts. Government agencies, NGOs and media organizations have used these campaigns to raise awareness around and catalyse community action and involvement (Ekanem & Ekpenyong, 2019, as cited in Olayinka, 2024).

One of these initiatives is the 16 Days of Activism Against Gender-Based Violence, which is an annual campaign which runs from November 25, the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women, to December 10, International Human Rights Day. In the 2024 16 Days Campaign, the campaign was ‘Every 10 minutes a woman is killed: #NoExcuse. UNiTE to End Violence against Women’, which highlights the urgent global problem of violence against women and girls. In Nigeria, this time is filled with an abundance of awareness activities joined together by NGOs and women’s rights groups.

Meanwhile, the UN Women in Nigeria has actively engaged in media partnerships to form coalitions against GBV, working alongside NGOs, civil society organizations (CSOs), and women’s associations such as the Nigeria Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ). These efforts leverage media platforms to drive advocacy, featuring activities such as awareness walks and talk shows aimed at educating people on the importance of eradicating GBV. Workshops facilitated by experts have provided safe spaces for discussions on various forms of violence against women and girls.

The Orange the World campaign, launched by UN Women, has further contributed to raising awareness about GBV through its advocacy slogan, “Say NO to violence against women and girls” (Chima et al., 2023, as cited in Olayinka, 2024). The HeForShe initiative, also spearheaded by UN Women, focuses on engaging men and boys in the fight against GBV, dismantling gender stereotypes, and promoting gender equality. Since its launch in Nigeria in 2017, the initiative has gained momentum, leading to increased awareness and policy advocacy.

Additionally, the Break the Silence campaign, initiated by the Nigerian government, emphasizes the importance of survivors speaking out against GBV. The campaign’s slogan, “Break the silence on violence against women and girls!” reinforces the urgency of addressing underreported cases of abuse, particularly in the workplace. UN Women (2022) supports this initiative as a crucial step in ensuring justice for victims.

Gender-based violence is a pervasive issue worldwide, Nigeria is not an exception. The necessity to investigate and address GBV, particularly within Nigeria’s civil service sector, is underscored by the widespread prevalence of gender-based violence globally. Gender Based Violence (GBV) refers to any harmful act or conduct directed at an individual or group of people based on their gender, which causes physical, sexual, psychological, or economic harm or suffering (UNCHR, 2023).

While media campaigns have largely researched, however, there is a scarcity of empirical literature on the role of radio advocacy in institutional GBV in the Nigerian civil service, especially in southwestern Nigeria. This lack of research is especially troubling considering that gender inequalities and unequal power relations associated with patriarchal dominance in public institutions are accentuated with the normalisation and hiding of workplace GBV.

Therefore, this study aims to specifically explore the role of radio advocacy for addressing institutional gender-based violence for female civil servants in Southwest Nigeria. The examination of female civil servants in Nigeria is justified by the staggering forms of both subtle and overt gender discrimination demonstrated in government and related public institutions which plainly discourages many female workers from feeling safe, productive and seeking recognition for their performance or seeking promotions.

Statement of the problem

Gender-based violence (GBV) remains a major concern in Nigeria, with about 30% of women aged 15 to 49 having experienced physical or sexual violence (UN Women, 2023). This concern in workplace is hardly cover in the literature, where gender disparity and sexual harassment impacts negatively affect not only the psychological wellbeing of individual victims but also their job satisfaction and career advancement (Fawole, 2022). Media campaigns typically, especially radio programs, have proven influential in building awareness and changing people’s attitudes toward GBV (UNHCR, 2023), but little is known about their effects in institutional and workplace contexts—especially in the civil service in Nigeria.

High-profile awareness campaigns such as HeForShe, the 16 days of Activism, or #MeToo have made a great contribution to gender related discourse and social change but have provided limited empirical evidence about the actual impact of awareness raising on workplace culture and behaviours (Zeisler, 2016). In the Southwest region of Nigeria (Ekiti, Ondo, Osun) gender inequality and sexual assault continues to exist even in the face of widespread awareness campaigns; hence, it raises questions about the relationships between awareness raising and behaviour change.

Equally, previous studies have predominantly centered on the general public’s awareness and largely either used qualitative or quantitative methods alone, ultimately creating methodological and contextual gaps on the institutional impact of radio-based GBV campaigns. Accordingly, this study intends to establish the efficacy of a radio advocacy campaign on gender disparity and sexual harassment among female civil servants in Southwest Nigeria, using evidence to inform strategic institutional and policy approaches to target the civil service.

Objectives of the Study

• To assess the level of exposure of women in civil service to GBV radio campaigns.
• To examine the extent to which women in the civil service in Southwest Nigeria experience gender disparity and sexual harassment.
• To ascertain the extent to which GBV radio campaigns have influenced the perceptions and behavioural change of women in civil service.

Research Questions

Based on the objectives of this study, the following research questions were used to guide the study.

• What is the level of exposure of women in civil service to GBV radio advocacy campaigns on gender disparity and sexual harassment?
• To what extent do women in the civil service in Southwest Nigeria experience gender disparity and sexual harassment?
• iii.  To what extent have GBV radio advocacy campaigns influence the perceptions and behavioural change of women in civil service towards gender disparity and sexual harassment?

Research Hypothesis

The following hypotheses will be tested at 0.05 level of significance in line with the objectives:

H₀₁: There is no significant relationship between GBV radio advocacy and gender disparity among female civil servants in Southwest Nigeria.

H₀₂: There is no significant relationship between GBV radio advocacy and sexual harassment against female civil servants in Southwest Nigeria.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Review

Gender-Based Violence, Gender Disparity, and Sexual Harassment

Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to harmful acts directed at individuals based on their gender and is a manifestation of systemic gender inequalities and power imbalances within society (World Health Organization [WHO], 2021). It encompasses physical, psychological, sexual, and economic violence, with women being the primary victims due to systemic gender inequality (Odejide & Oyesanya, 2021).

According to Okebiorun and Ojeomogha (2022), the bulk of this violence is found among women and is evidenced in abuse-related forms such as violence, coercion, molestation, sexual harassment, bullying, emotional and physical intimidation, or assault. Workplace GBV includes sexual harassment, discrimination, and exploitation, which create hostile work environments and limit women’s professional growth (Smith & Brown, 2022).

Similarly, gender disparity refers to the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender, manifesting in various aspects of society, including economic opportunities, education, healthcare, and professional advancement. It encompasses inequities such as disparities in employment opportunities, barriers to leadership positions, wage gaps, workplace discrimination, and biased job assignments (Morgenroth & Ryan, 2018; Westbrook & Saperstein, 2015; Makama, 2013).

Within the Nigerian civil service, gender disparity is particularly evident in the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions, limited employment opportunities, and systemic biases that hinder women’s career progression. Discriminatory practices contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequalities. Kameri-Mbote (2002) asserts that gender equality pertains to the equal dignity, rights, opportunities, and worth of men and women across different spheres of life.

In professional settings, gender disparities are observable in employment opportunities, wage differentials, and leadership representation. A 2024 analysis conducted by the Central Statistics Office in Ireland revealed that men reported higher median weekly incomes than women, underscoring the persistence of the gender pay gap. Additionally, the study found that women were significantly underrepresented in senior leadership roles, highlighting systemic barriers to career advancement (The Sun, 2024).

Sexual harassment, on the other hand, is a pervasive issue that encompasses unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature, all of which contribute to creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment. Within the Nigerian civil service, sexual harassment is often reinforced by power dynamics, wherein individuals in authoritative positions exploit their subordinates, leading to significant psychological and professional repercussions for the victims.

A study conducted by Daramola (2023) highlights the widespread prevalence of workplace sexual harassment in Nigeria and its detrimental impact on employees’ well-being and productivity. The study emphasizes the absence of a comprehensive legal framework explicitly addressing workplace sexual harassment, leaving many victims without adequate channels for redress. This legislative gap contributes to the underreporting of cases and perpetuates a culture of silence and impunity (Daramola, 2023).

The Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) have recognised sexual harassment as a form of abuse of office. Olugasa (2022) notes that individuals in positions of authority often exploit their power to solicit sexual favours, an act that constitutes both a moral and legal violation. The ICPC Act criminalizes such conduct, prescribing penalties for public officers who misuse their positions for personal gratification. However, enforcement of these legal provisions remains inconsistent, and numerous cases go unreported due to fear of retaliation or societal stigma (Olugasa, 2022).

Media interventions, particularly radio campaigns, have played a crucial role in addressing gender-based violence, gender disparity and sexual harassment by raising awareness and encouraging victims to report incidents. For example, the #MeToo campaign, sought to break the silence surrounding gender-based violence in Nigeria. This campaign provided a platform for survivors to share their experiences and educated the public on these pressing issues. Although not exclusive to the civil service, such initiatives highlight the potential of media campaigns in shaping societal attitudes and behaviours regarding sexual harassment (African Constituency Bureau, 2023).

Overview of Media, Radio Broadcasting and Awareness Campaigns

Media refers to the various channels through which communication is disseminated to a broad audience. Mass media, as an essential component of modern society, includes platforms such as television, radio, newspapers, and digital outlets. The evolution of mass media has been driven by technological advancements, enabling the rapid dissemination of information and shaping public opinion (Kobani &Johnbull, 2021).  Mass media serves multiple functions, including educating, informing, entertaining, and influencing societal perceptions.

Meanwhile, radio remains one of the most accessible and influential mass communication platforms, particularly in developing countries where literacy levels may limit access to print media (Ahmad & Anthony, 2021). As an auditory medium, radio facilitates the dissemination of information across vast geographical areas, reaching audiences in remote locations (Ojiakor et al., 2021).

Its affordability, ease to power without electricity and ease of use make it a preferred medium for education and advocacy. Moreover, radio transcends linguistic and literacy barriers, allowing people from diverse backgrounds to access crucial information (Ekwueme, 2021).

Hence, curbing this menace require a dedicated efforts such as radio awareness campaigns.

Radio campaigns serve as a powerful tool for addressing GBV by fostering awareness, changing societal attitudes, and promoting legal and policy responses. In Nigeria, radio programmes often feature expert discussions, survivor testimonies, and advocacy messages to challenge harmful gender norms (Wang & Lee, 2021). These campaigns encourage victims to report GBV cases and seek justice while pressuring policymakers to enforce gender-sensitive legislation (Garcia & Patel, 2021).

Meanwhile, the use of media, especially radio, as an instrument of social change is rooted in communication theories that consider awareness and the capacity of media to create change in attitudes. Agenda-setting and social learning theories are two examples of this framework, which suggest that repeated exposure through media can shift public discourse and impact behaviour. Radio campaigns that address gender-based violence (GBV) provide an opportunity to phase social norms and to encourage critical discussions about gender equality and violence. Frequently, these campaigns will articulate broader frameworks for action – as in, frameworks that reflect concepts of empowerment, participatory communication and media advocacy, which consider media as informative and, at times, transformational (Nasir & Saemah, 2021).

Theoretical Framework

This study draws on Feminist Media Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Social Role Theory, each of which allows for distinctly differing understandings in determining how GBV radio advocacy campaigns may affect perceptions, behaviours, and institutional processes in Nigeria’s civil service.

Feminist Media Theory

Feminist Media Theory developed by Liesbet van Zoonen in 1994, argues that media reflects and helps to produce the socially dependent relations of gender. This theory also emphasizes how media simultaneously reinforces patriarchal beliefs and gender roles or provides space within which authentic representation and advocacy may be offered (Asemah, Nwammuo, & Nkwam-Uwaona, 2017). In this study, feminist media theory provides a lens for examining how GBV radio campaigns enact gender, challenge harassment, and advocate for gender equity in civil service, similarly, it relates to objective two, that is, exploring how media actions associated with GBV radio campaigns may shape civil servants’ perceptions and behaviours.  The feminist media theory has also been utilized to facilitate critical analysis of the production of GBV radio advocacy campaigns who produces or designs the campaigns, which voices are given prominence, and whether feminist aims are co-opted or genuinely pursued. The feminist media theory also addressed whether GBV radio campaigns are solely representations of deployed female empowerment strategies or whether they engage men as active allies in making workplaces safer.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

This theory was developed by Albert Bandura in 1977. Social Learning Theory (SLT) proposes that people learn through observation, imitation and modelling, particularly if it is positive through reinforcement. In the case of the present study, SLT provides a way to explore how civil servants could possibly adopt new attitudes and behaviours regarding GBV radio advocacy campaign by consuming radio content. The key components of SLT: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation offer measures on how well campaigns produce behaviour change. Also, this corresponds with the second objective that examines behaviour change on the part of civil servants. Radio content depicting dramatized experiences of harassment, survivor testimony, or interviews with respected public officials can act as a modelling experience. If the listener can identify with those modelling and perceives practical strategies to change, they may enact similar behaviours in their workplaces.

Social Role Theory

Again, Social Role Theory was proposed by Alice Eagly in 1987. It asserts that gendered behaviours arise through socialization, expectations related to occupational roles, and institutional frameworks rather than from biology alone. It recognizes that men and women in organisations behave according to power and cultural stereotypes an organisation’s objectives will produce unexpected outcomes if the way gendered behaviours are influenced by aspirations do not conform to the expectation of one gender in one occupation or the other.

In Nigeria’s civil service, Social Role Theory helps explain why women are rarely found in technical or leadership roles as a result of how gender determines occupational choice. Patterns from traditional gendering will have caused and impacted perceptions of and responses to initiatives in the areas of GBV.

Social Role Theory informs objective 3 which looks to conduct an analysis of GBV radio advocacy and its influence on workplace policy. In terms of this type of analysis it supports an evaluation of whether the GBV radio campaigns were challenging the allocation of traditional roles and whether or not the campaigns could influence institutional changes that encourage gender awareness.

Conclusively, by integrating Feminist Media Theory, Social Learning Theory and Social Role Theory, this study provides a comprehensive framework for analysing how GBV radio campaigns impact workplace gender dynamics. Feminist Media Theory helps in evaluating how media campaigns portray and challenge patriarchal structures, the Social Learning Theory helps explain how women in civil service exposed to GBV radio campaigns may internalize and act upon messages promoting workplace gender equality and reducing sexual harassment while Social Role Theory provides insight into how GBV radio advocacy campaigns shape workplace policies and behaviours.

Empirical Review

The empirical literature on Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in workplace settings reveals several consistent patterns, particularly in the Nigerian civil service context. Studies demonstrate that GBV manifests in multiple forms including sexual harassment, discrimination, disparity in promotions, and psychological violence. Research by Okafor, et al. (2023), Knowledge and attitude toward media campaigns against gender-based violence among Nigerian women in Southeast, Nigeria. The study examined the level of exposure, cognitive status as well as determinants of attitudes toward gender-based victimization. The study found that social economic facets like academic achievement, religion, cultural factors among others affect attitude toward gender-based violence.

Adekunle (2022), examined the role of the media in tackling the menace of GBV in The Gambia, the challenges faced and how the challenges could be addressed, using focus group and key informant interviews as research methods the study findings showed that the media does not give adequate attention to sensitising and educating the public on gender-based violence and is also wanting in the area of following up cases of GBV. The study recommended that all available strategies be employed for the sensitisation and education of the public on GBV and media practitioners be empowered to adequately tackle GBV.

Similarly, Obayi (2021) examined the mass media and gender-based violence in Imo State. The survey method was adopted for the study of a sample size of 385. The study further revealed that adequate awareness campaigns, enlightening programme, media programmes/reports on the need for the abolition of harmful social practices were the factors that can aid media efforts in actualizing perceptive/attitudinal change on gender-based violence.

Orji, et al (2020) in the study on “Perception of The Influence of Television Broadcast’s in The Campaign Against Discrimination and Violence Among Women in Mbaitoli Local Government, Imo State, Nigeria” found out that exposure to television broadcasts do not significantly influence women’s participation in the campaign against discrimination and violence among them. The study by Didiugwu & Akinyemi (2023) “The Role of Broadcast Media in Creating Awareness of Domestic Violence in Enugu State”, the study concluded that the broadcast media has a special role to play in stemming the tide of domestic violence through frequent coverage, follow-up reported cases of domestic violence and proper awareness creation on the effect of domestic violence-related issues. Oriana Binik (2020) “The Effectiveness of Communication Campaigns on Violence Against Women: Suffering, Between Reality and Representation”, findings showed that the image of the woman as victim of violence incites more of a reaction, makes one think more, and is associated with a greater level of engagement. Ikems and Nwoziri (2023), “A Comparative Study of Radio and Television Stations in Rivers State Coverage of Gender Related Issues”, findings reveal that broadcasting in Nigeria is not sensitive enough to gender based issues seeing that the number of gender-related programmes broadcast in all four stations of study was relatively small compared to the overall number of programmes broadcast.

Odionye and Okoli (2021) findings from the research on “Influence of Television Broadcasts in the Prevention of Violence Against Women in Delta State, Nigeria”, revealed the rate of violence against women in Delta State has reduced due to constant television messages. Also, Oladimeji (2018) in a study on “Media Portrayal of Gender Based Violence: A Perception Study in Uitenhage, Eastern Cape South Africa”, the study revealed that there is an association between people’s exposure to the media and their violent behaviour which is attributed to the messages conveyed by the media.

Gap in the Literature

Despite a growing body of research examining gender-based violence (GBV) and the role of the media in addressing it, significant gaps remain. Limited scholarly attention has been given to the influence of gender-based radio campaigns on gender disparity and sexual harassment among women in the civil service. Existing studies have predominantly focused on media and gender-based violence against women particularly on domestic violence and intimate partner violence, often neglecting comparative analyses that evaluate the relative effectiveness of various media channels in shaping public attitudes and behaviours toward GBV. There is a paucity of empirical data on media impact in workplace-related GBV scenarios, limiting the scope for comprehensive policy formulation. This gap in the literature underscores the need for an in-depth exploration of the effectiveness of radio-based interventions in shaping public attitudes and institutional practices.

Thus, this study seeks to investigate the influence of GBV radio campaigns on gender disparity and sexual harassment among women in the civil service in Southwest Nigeria. Specifically, it aims to; assess whether media campaigns lead to actual behavioural changes in public service institutions, identify gaps in existing media strategies in addressing GBV, workplace harassment, and gender inequality an explore barriers to effective implementation, including cultural resistance, policy enforcement, and institutional limitations. By addressing these gaps, this study will contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of gender-based radio campaigns in promoting gender equity and mitigating workplace harassment in the civil service sector.

METHODOLOGY

A mixed-methods research design comprising both quantitative and qualitative approaches was utilized in this study. This methodology was able to create a holistic understanding of the role of gender-based violence (GBV) radio advocacy campaigns on female civil servants in selected states in southwestern Nigeria. The mixed-methods design had the potential to triangulate the data gathered, which added to the depth, validity, and reliability of the findings created.

In the same way, the target population included female civil servants in federal, state, and local governments in Ekiti, Ondo, and Osun States. A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted to ensure that there was coverage of representative range across the geographical and administrative representation.

For the first stage a LGA was selected at random from each senatorial district in the three states for the study, producing nine Local Government Areas overall. The combined eligible female civil servant population in the selected areas was 58,741, as follows: Ekiti State (17,681), Ondo State (19,643), and Osun State (21,417).

The sample size was determined using Yamane’s (1967) formula for a finite population:
n = N / (1 + N(e²))

Where:
– n = sample size
– N = total population (58,741)
– e = margin of error (0.05)
The calculated sample size was 398, which was then proportionally distributed across the three states using:
k = (n / N) × A
Where:
– k = number of respondents per stratum
– A = stratum population size
This method ensured equitable representation proportional to the population size in each state.

Two main data collection instruments were employed, that is, a questionnaire was developed to elicit quantitative data with respect to objective 1 and 2 of the study. It contained closed-ended items made up of questions concerning their experience with, and perceptions of, GBV radio advocacy campaigns, and rating scaled via a five-point Likert scale. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews for qualitative data were conducted with five a purposively sampled key informants (two each from Ondo and Osun States, and one from Ekiti State) (the second participant from Ekiti was indisposed and could not be interviewed due to time limit of the research). The selection of two representatives per state, was because of their expertise, knowledge, advocacy experiences, and experiences. The interviews addressed objective 3 aimed to provide nuanced positions to enrich the interpretative perspective of the study.

The instruments were content and face validated by experts in gender communication, and development studies to ensure appropriateness, clarity, and overall alignment with the objectives of the study. A pilot test was conducted with 40 female civil servants in Ogun State (a non-sampled location) to test reliability.

The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient calculated from participant questionnaires yielded a value of 0.802, indicating a suitable level of internal consistency.

The data were collected in two phases; first, the researcher and trained nine research assistants administered the questionnaire to the respondents in official working hours, and second, the key informants were interviewed in-person and virtually depending on their availability and accessibility.

Quantitative data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 25). Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, frequencies, percentages, and standard deviations) were calculated and inferential statistics (e.g. chi-square and regression) were conducted to explore relationships and test research hypotheses.

Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis, which included verbatim transcription, coding, categorizing, and identifying emerging themes. Analysis was informative about the contextual factors that influenced the implementation and reception of GBV radio advocacy campaigns within a civil service organizational structure.

FINDINGS

This section presents the analysis and discussion of data collected through both quantitative and qualitative methods, offering a comprehensive understanding of the impact of GBV radio advocacy campaigns on women in the civil service in Southwest Nigeria. Quantitative data were gathered from 388 respondents using structured questionnaires, while qualitative insights were obtained through in-depth interviews with six participants from civil servants. Quantitative analysis was performed using SPSS version 25, while qualitative data were analysed using NVivo 12.

Analysis of Research Questions

Table 1: Responses on the level of exposure of women in civil service to GBV radio advocacy campaigns on gender disparity and sexual harassment

Source: Field Survey 2025

This table sought respondents’ exposure to GBV radio advocacy campaigns. The data revealed that a significant proportion of the respondents 310, representing 79.9%, affirmed exposure to radio advocacy campaigns. Conversely, 78 respondents, representing 20.1%, reported no exposure to such campaigns. This high percentage of exposure implies the widespread reach and influence of radio as a medium for disseminating social change messages. It suggests that radio campaigns remain a powerful tool for public enlightenment, particularly in rural and semi-urban communities where traditional media are still trusted.

Table 2: Responses on the extent to which women in the civil service in Southwest Nigeria experience gender disparity and sexual harassment in workplace.

LE – Large Extent, ME- Moderate Extent, LE- Little Extent NS- Not Sure and N- Never

4.1.6: Experience of Gender Disparity in the Workplace

Source: Field Survey 2025

Analysis: The table sought respondents’ experience of gender disparity in the workplace. The table highlights notable gender disparities within the workplace, particularly regarding gender and salary inequality. A significant proportion of respondents (45.9%) and (42.8%) have experienced or observed gender disparity and issues related to salary, promotion, or roles, signaling a deeply ingrained issue. Despite this, a large portion (42.5%) believes there are equal opportunities for promotions and leadership roles, while only 5.2% perceive a lack of equality in these areas. However, when it comes to career advancement, 19.8% of respondents feel opportunities are not equally distributed. The table also reveals mixed opinions regarding office policies to address gender inequality, with 28.9% supporting the existence of such policies, while 27.8% remain uncertain. This suggests that while some progress has been made, substantial gaps in addressing gender inequality persist, warranting further research into workplace practices and policy effectiveness.

Table 3: Experience of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace

Source: Field Survey 2025

Analysis: Table 3 presents respondents’ experiences with sexual harassment in the workplace. A significant portion of participants indicated exposure to various forms of harassment, with 28.4% observing or experiencing it occasionally, and 14.4% stating it occurs often. Notably, 28.9% reported that harassment of women occurs occasionally, while 15.7% said it happens often, suggesting that such behaviour is not uncommon. Harassment from colleagues (27.8%) and supervisors (25.3%) is also frequently reported. Unwanted physical contact (30.9%) and inappropriate gestures or jokes (27.1%) are among the most commonly encountered forms. Alarmingly, 41.2% of respondents rarely experience propositions involving offers of benefits for sexual favours, indicating such misconduct persists subtly. While 27.1% acknowledge that preventive measures exist occasionally, 21.9% report no such measures. Overall, the data underscores the prevalence and normalization of sexual harassment, emphasizing the need for stronger institutional policies and a more proactive approach to workplace safety and gender equity.

RQ 3: Participants qualitative responses on the extent to which GBV radio advocacy campaigns have influenced their perceptions and behavioural change in civil service towards gender disparity and sexual harassment.

The youngest participant was 37 years old, while the oldest was 50 years old, majority of the participants were civil servants. Also, all the informants/participants were women. Similarly, most of the participants were first-degree/ HND certificate holders. Specifically, the interview mainly answers to the research questions 3. GBV radio advocacy campaigns have played a critical role in shaping and shifting perceptions among women and, more broadly, within the civil service towards gender disparity and sexual harassment. Across the Southwest states, participants noted that these campaigns have normalized discussions around gender rights, challenged discriminatory norms, and enhanced mutual respect among colleagues. Similarly, majority of the participants pointed out that exposure to GBV actually influence their perceptions towards GBV which led to their awareness, knowledge and full understanding. Some of their submission testifies to this fact:

“GBV radio advocacy campaigns have greatly influenced my view… What was regarded as norms are seen as old.” (Participant 1)

“”GBV radio campaigns have changed how we think about gender issues… Some offices are setting up gender committees.” (Participant 3)

“GBV radio campaigns subtly reinforce positive perceptions… They validate women’s experiences.” (Participant 4)

“GBV radio campaigns have people change the way they think… Harassment is now discussed more openly.” (Participant 5)

Equally, substantial number of the participants noted a lot of corresponding impact of radio advocacy campaigns on broader societal perceptions of gender disparity. They established these positions:

“Certain ministries have initiated gender sensitivity training and established clearer reporting procedures… The Ministry of Justice introduced an anonymous reporting system… “GBV radio campaigns have gradually influenced societal perceptions… Community leaders have begun addressing these topics in local forums.” (Participant 1)

“Departments have introduced clear guidelines and confidential reporting systems… A desk on Women Affairs has been established…”Radio campaigns have shaped broader societal perceptions… Local groups have organized forums to deliberate on gender issues.” (Participant 2)

“Programs like ‘E gbayi ye wo’ have taught men how to treat women fairly… These programs are challenging old stereotypes.” (Participant 3)

“A subtle strengthening of equitable workplace policies… Open dialogues about gender equality are becoming normalized.” (Participant 4)

“People are beginning to understand that harassment is wrong… Gender fairness is good for all…”A gender response desk was suggested at a staff meeting… This would never have happened five years ago.” (Participant 5)

Thus, the analysis reveals that GBV radio advocacy campaigns have significantly influenced the perceptions of women in civil service toward gender disparity and sexual harassment across Southwest Nigeria. Participants consistently reported that these campaigns have increased awareness, reshaped outdated norms, and empowered women to challenge injustices. The campaigns have normalized public discourse on gender issues, validated women’s experiences, and encouraged greater openness in addressing workplace harassment. Furthermore, their impact extends beyond individuals, prompting institutional changes such as gender sensitivity training, anonymous reporting systems, and the establishment of gender desks. The campaigns have also sparked broader societal reflection, fostering a gradual shift toward gender equity.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Although there is widespread awareness of GBV radio advocacy campaigns among women in the civil service (79.9% based on quantitative results showing some exposure to GBV radio advocacy campaigns), the qualitative responses indicate that mechanisms for enforcing policy remain unclear at best or weak or unreliably applied at a minimum. There is a huge gap between the intent to introduce policy, implement it, and to address gender disparity and sexual harassment in policy and gender disparity in service delivery reform in the workplace where they work each day (some respondent’s work environment).

From the findings of this research, there has been a fluctuating, but insightful relationship between GBV radio advocacy campaigns and gender-related outcomes in the civil service among women in Nigeria. The quantitative research reports a high level of awareness of GBV radio advocacy campaigns that identified statistically significant changes in perceptions and reported experiences. In contrast qualitative findings also identified gaps with policy enforcement where there were little or non-existent institutional accountability.

The quantitative analysis indicated 79.9% reported exposure to GBV radio advocacy campaigns indicating a large penetration of media initiatives representing GBV and reflecting the reach of these media campaign initiatives. There was also substantial coverage of awareness based on the results of the inferential statistical tests used to examine some degrees of causal relationships.

Spearman’s rank correlation analysis indicated a significant negative association between GBV radio advocacy campaigns and gender disparity (rs = -0.411, p < 0.05), meaning the more likely that respondents were to exposed to GBV through active campaigns that they were less likely to experience gender discrimination at work. This evidence is sufficient to reject the null hypothesis. Furthermore, a strong positive association between GBV radio advocacy campaigns and women’s perceptions of GBV was found in stepwise multiple regression (β = 0.527, p < 0.001). The campaigns respondents had heard significantly positively affected their awareness and understanding of gender-based violence sufficient to reject the null hypothesis regarding the perceptual impact of GBV campaigns.

In-depth interview participants talked about institutional apathy, no enforcement will, fear of retaliation, and lack of channels to report confidentially, as barriers to policy enforcement. One participant said it best: “There are policies, but reporting harassment can ruin your career. No one wants to be the scapegoat.” The analysis utilizes Social Role Theory which shows how outdated gender stereotypes frequently shape jobs and workplace behaviours. Outdated stereotypes that make backlash for women simply speaking out stronger, mean that when women report, women are classified as troublemakers or not good team players, as it is expected that women will just follow the rules made by men. Similarly, Feminist Media Theory provides the supporting critique (Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaona, 2017), as sometime media efforts such as GBV radio advocacy campaigns provide some challenge to prevailing gender narratives but are often reinforced by the structures responsible for enforcement of workplace policies toward gender participation at the same time. Media campaigns are similarly capable of oppressing women’s overall participation when senior management and human resource officials dismiss or downplay sexual harassment. The strength of using media campaigns suffers from being marginally appropriated to media environment. This is also similar to other structures as media campaigns often can go so far, but if organizations do not change the way they advocate for engagement through commitment, both media and organizations structurally enact their own processes. Both studies acknowledge that poverty is systemic and encourages and limits women’s overall worth in their community. Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaona (2017) state organizational commitment to urgency meaning must transform from media commitments to organizational mobilizations, otherwise meanings of equality are marginally appropriated through superficial involvement. Lastly, identity must benefit marginalized communicating the positive visibility within the global scope only then use significant efforts through positional identity to establish relationships of participatory process, preferably of organizational involvement be appropriate to resistance to institutional structure.

From the standpoint of Social Learning Theory, campaigns may model behaviours we desire (e.g., denouncing GBV) but behaviour change is weakened when perpetrators are not met with institutional consequences. Reinforcement, an important aspect of sLT, is important. Without an observable punishment for harassment, or reward for reporting harassment, civil servants is unlikely to model the behaviours presented in the radio materials.

This finding is consistent with evidence-based studies such as: Adekunle (2022) who found media actions are often not reinforced with legal or institutional actions in The Gambia; Obayi (2021) whose work in Imo State showed that while awareness was raised through campaigns, structural factors (like institutional complicity) would be barriers to any meaningful change; and indeed, Didiugwu & Akinyemi (2023) to point out the media needs to not only raise awareness, but also encourage institutional accountability and legal enforcement.

Moreover, Okafor et al. (2023) noted cultural and religious influences that result in attitudes toward GBV, and could obstruct policy adherence in conservative institutions. These cultural influences may interact with other aspects of inadequate monitoring and enforcement systems such that policies are mere formalities rather than policies to remedy issues.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

This study investigated the impact of GBV radio advocacy campaigns on gender disparity and sexual harassment among women in civil service in Southwest Nigeria. The findings demonstrate that GBV radio advocacy campaigns have effectively raised awareness, challenged traditional gender norms, and encouraged women to report harassment. However, while these campaigns have led to positive attitudinal changes, actual behavioural changes remain limited due to persistent cultural and institutional barriers. Qualitative insights revealed that although women are more aware of their rights and are encouraged to speak out, factors such as fear of victimization, lack of trust in reporting systems, and inadequate institutional support continue to hinder effective behavioural change. These findings underscore the transformative potential of radio campaigns in promoting gender equality, but also highlight the need for more targeted and sustainable strategies to achieve lasting impact. The study emphasizes the critical role of radio as an accessible platform for social change, particularly in regions with limited digital access. Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

• Broaden Campaign Reach: Government and NGOs should increase the reach and frequency of GBV radio campaigns, especially in rural areas, to ensure continuous
• Culturally Relevant Content: Campaigns should be tailored to reflect local cultural contexts and involve community leaders to enhance acceptance and
• Strengthen Policy Implementation: Establish clear policies on gender equality and anti-harassment, ensuring accountability and support systems for victims in     both public and private sectors.
• Collaborate with Gender Organizations: Radio stations should partner with gender equality organizations to design data-driven and needs-based GBV

Future research should investigate the long-term behavioural impact of sustained radio campaigns through longitudinal studies that track changes over extended periods. Research focusing on male perspectives and experiences would provide a more comprehensive understanding of gender dynamics in the workplace. Studies examining the effectiveness of different message formats, timing, and delivery methods would help optimize radio campaign strategies. Comparative analyses across different regions of Nigeria would illuminate how cultural contexts influence the reception and impact of GBV messaging. Investigation into the role of new media platforms and their integration with traditional radio could identify innovative approaches for reaching younger audiences. Finally, research on the relationship between institutional policies and reporting behaviours would help identify effective frameworks for creating safer workplace environments.

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