Influence of Teachers’ Preparedness on Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles Disintegrated Curriculum Implementation in Malawian Secondary Schools

Influence of Teachers’ Preparedness on Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles Disintegrated Curriculum Implementation in Malawian Secondary Schools

Harriet Chanachi-Phiri, Jonathan Chanachi, Vinnaras Nithyanantham

Education Department, DMI ST Eugene University, Lusaka, Zambia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.906000335

Received: 26 June 2025; Accepted: 30 June 2025; Published: 16 July 2025

ABSTRACT

This study examines the challenges of implementing the new secondary school curriculum in Malawi, specifically focusing on teachers’ preparedness and pedagogical strategies for teaching Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles (HEC and CT) in a disintegrated form. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach guided by constructivist theory, data were collected from 162 participants, with a subset of 8 teachers and 148 learners, through document analysis, questionnaires, classroom observations, interviews, and focus group discussions. The findings revealed significant inadequacies in teacher preparedness, which led to an overreliance on less innovative teaching strategies, showing a significant association (p > 0.05) between teacher preparedness and pedagogical choices. Furthermore, factors such as time constraints, inadequate curriculum structures, insufficient time allocation, a shortage of qualified teachers, limited administrative support, and unclear policies further influenced the choice of teaching strategies, resulting in inadequate acquisition of knowledge and skills in HEC and CT. The study concludes that restructuring the curriculum is essential for improving educational outcomes in HEC and CT in their disintegrated form, recommending the integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the adoption of innovative teaching methods, the provision of refresher courses for teachers, improved laboratory structures, and enhanced administrative and financial support to create a more conducive learning environment.

Keywords:Teacher Preparedness, Constructivist learning theory, Disintegrated Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles Curriculum, innovative teaching strategies, knowledge, and skills acquisition

INTRODUCTION

Home Economics is an elective science subject taught in Malawian secondary schools. Home Economics focuses on all aspects of our home and family satisfaction through effective and constructive use of resources (Maina & Kitainga, 2018; Dewhurst & Pendergast, 1999).  Best practices are essential to allow adequate knowledge and skill acquisition in secondary science education (Zwane & Mpofu, 2022).

Governments worldwide, including those in Malawi, have reformed education by recruiting teachers from diverse fields and reviewing curricula. Malawi’s secondary school curriculum review (2012-2013) was a strategic response to educational challenges, aiming to enhance pedagogical effectiveness and meet contemporary learning needs (Smith & de Zwart, 2010). This revised curriculum tried to address previously overlooked issues and incorporated essential contemporary knowledge and skills critical for student development and national progress (M’manga, 2017; MIE, 2013).

Despite the Malawian Secondary School Curriculum’s aim to align with global educational standards, a significant shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate resources hinders effective instruction in these essential subjects (MOEST, 2022). The assignment of non-specialist teachers to science subjects undermines educational quality. Insufficient qualified educators and resources, alongside inadequate teacher preparedness and ineffective strategies, hinder the successful implementation of the new secondary curriculum, particularly in HEC and CT (Wahome, 2005; Haapaniemi et al., 2019; Okorie et al., 2021).

The knowledge and skills acquired in these areas are essential for personal development and overall well-being (MIE, 2013). Bohm (2023) further emphasises the importance of competencies acquired through Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles, as they significantly contribute to the personal, social, and professional development of young individuals. A strong foundation in these subjects is believed to be essential for career opportunities in today’s technological society (Oppong et al., 2013; Epjavsek, 2021). Okorie and Effiong (2021) and MOEST (2022) highlight that effective teaching of HEC and CT enhances students’ career readiness. For optimal learning, a supportive environment, robust curriculum, and comprehensive teacher training are crucial (Nevenglosk et al., 2022; Alberta, 2000). Any deficiencies may hinder student engagement and outcomes. Hence, Nevenglosk et al. (2022) and Alberta (2000) caution that both the integration and disintegration of the subjects demand significant preparation in curriculum development and implementation to facilitate effective learning.

The disintegration of Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles (HEC and CT) within Malawi’s secondary curriculum limits effective pedagogy and undermines students’ practical skills necessary for personal and economic development. This highlights the need to understand how teacher preparedness, pedagogical strategies employed, factors influencing their choice of strategies, and resource availability impact teaching efficacy in these subjects. Additionally, the curriculum development and implementation of the disintegrated HEC and CT framework on student education outcomes remains underexplored.

As educational reforms aim to align the curriculum with contemporary demands and national development goals, it is imperative to investigate how best practices in teaching and learning can effectively be integrated within the disintegrated framework of HEC and CT.  Thus, this study aimed to identify barriers to effective teaching and propose evidence-based strategies, thereby addressing urgent educational needs that align with Malawi’s socio-economic goals (MOEST, 2022; MIE, 2013). By highlighting these issues, the research seeks to inform policymakers about the need for a more cohesive curriculum that aligns HEC and CT with global educational standards, ultimately enhancing students’ preparedness for a technologically advanced society and improving teachers’ effectiveness through targeted professional development.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Teacher Preparedness

Several authors have attributed different meanings to teacher preparedness in the context of the teaching and learning process. For instance, Waiti et al., (2023) Damien & Claire, (2022) described it as the extent to which a teacher is adequately equipped with knowledge, skills, and resources to deliver lessons and facilitate student learning effectively. It encompasses both preservice preparation and ongoing professional development. The findings from (Damien & Claire, 2022) revealed that 26.2% of teacher preparedness was able to affect the level of students’ academic performance, and the remaining 73.8% of students’ academic performance can be affected by other variables. Further, G. W. Chirwa et al., (2022) ,Chikwanda, (2020),Chikasanda et al. (2014). Kalande (2006), Kunkwenzu (2007), and Konzina demonstrate that teacher preparedness is a key factor in professional development and effective pedagogical choices during the teaching and learning process. A prepared teacher can effectively manage the classroom, plan engaging lessons, and foster meaningful learning experiences for students. (Waiti et al., 2023).

Research studies from Malawi and beyond suggest that hands-on approaches, such as experiments, projects, and practical work, are the most effective methods for teaching science subjects, including Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT). However, these methods are often underutilized in educational settings (Chikasanda et al., 2014; Sylvester, 2021; Chucks, 2011; MIE, 2013; & Kalande, 2006). The authors argue that a primary barrier to the effective implementation of these teaching strategies is the inadequate training and orientation provided to teachers, as well as a lack of ongoing professional development opportunities (Asiimwe, 2023). This underscores the need for a more robust framework to support educators in integrating these essential pedagogical approaches into their classrooms.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Strategies, Apart from Teacher Preparedness

Malawi’s education system comprises three tiers: basic, secondary, and tertiary education.(Bank, 2010). Recent reforms have redefined basic education to encompass early childhood, primary, and secondary education (Luzuwano, n.d.). At the primary school level, the Primary School Leaving Certificate Examinations (PSLCE), administered by the Malawi National Examination Board (MANEBO), serve as a gateway to secondary education (MOEST, 2022; World Bank, 2019; MANEBO, 2022). Transitioning to tertiary education requires successful completion of the Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE) examinations (MOEST, 2022; MANEBO, 2022; NESP, 2017).

A strong foundation in science subjects, including Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles, is vital for enhancing workforce readiness (Banda, 2020). However, recent reports indicate that students have underperformed in practical and application-based assessments, scoring only 40% in meal planning and food safety and 45% in textiles appeal and pattern development (MANEBO, 2022). These shortcomings have been attributed to inadequate teacher preparation and ineffective pedagogical strategies (Asiimwe, 2023; Chirwa et al., 2014), emphasizing the need for investment in educational resources and professional development. Implementing effective teaching methodologies that align with Constructivist principles can significantly improve student outcomes (Dewey, 2009; UNESCO, 2003).  It is strongly believed that adequate teacher preparation in integrative learning can aid meaningful learning (Haapaniemi et al., 2019)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Dewey’s Constructivist Learning Theory

This study emphasises the significance of active learner participation within a multidisciplinary curriculum, particularly focusing on Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT) in secondary education (Alberta, 2007). It investigates whether learners are placed at the centre of the educational process, thereby facilitating the effective acquisition of knowledge and skills. This inquiry is grounded in Dewey’s (2009) Constructivism Theory, which states that knowledge is constructed through individual experiences and perspectives. The theory underscores the role of learners as active participants in processing and reflecting on information, ultimately leading to logical conclusions (Bohm, 2022; & Hein, 1991).

The research explored whether learners were exposed to the teaching and learning environments and curriculum-related aspects that foster meaningful knowledge and skills acquisition. Classroom observations were conducted to assess the types of teaching strategies used to determine their effectiveness in promoting skill acquisition in HEC and CT. Additionally, the strategies observed in class helped establish whether teachers’ preparedness influenced the method used. The theory guided this study to establish an understanding of whether the methods used were influenced by other factors other than teacher preparedness. Although the constructivist theory, as outlined by Dewey (2009) and Kolb (2014), underpins an interactive learning environment for constructing knowledge, it was unclear whether the Secondary School Curriculum (SSC) provided this environment for HEC and CT students. Hence, curriculum documents, including timetables and instructional materials, were analyzed. This evaluation aimed to assess the extent to which the secondary curriculum equips students with the essential knowledge and skills in these subjects.  This helped to establish an understanding of whether these documents had an impact on the method used by teachers apart from their preparedness within a disintegrated framework, while relating to other science subjects.

In constructivist learning theory the teacher acts as facilitator to help learners construct relevant knowledge Dewy, 2009) and Kolb (2014). Within an integrated curriculum, students work collaboratively, guided by teachers who facilitate connections to real-world experiences (Meghan, 2008). This aligns with the tenets of Constructivism, emphasizing collaborative knowledge acquisition.

 However, the effectiveness of teachers, as highlighted by Mulkeen et al. (2004) and Janni et al. (2022), is contingent upon their subject knowledge (PCK). In this case, the teachers’ preparedness and influence on the pedagogical strategies was not clearly known. The theory did not clearly outline the other factors surrounding the choice and use of pedagogical strategies and the teachers’ role in preparing to be an effective facilitator in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, the study was guided by this theory gap to conduct interviews among teachers to gain a deeper insight into the possible reasons behind the strategies used in class and how these teachers were prepared. To find out whether or not the choice of teaching strategies is also influenced by other factors apart from teacher preparedness. Teacher interviews and questionnaires, alongside focus group discussions with learners, gathered insights on their experiences with HEC and CT in a disintegrated form.

Key learning goals in Constructivist Theory involve heuristic problem-solving, metacognitive understanding, motivation, creativity, and originality, all of which contribute to effective learning outcomes (Wertsch, 1997; Hein, 1991). In line with the theory, classroom observations were conducted to examine the strategies and activities used to determine their effectiveness in providing relevant knowledge and skills in HEC and CT. These observations highlighted the impact of these methods on enhancing problem-solving skills and critical thinking abilities.

Social Constructivism further asserts that learners hold increasing responsibility for their education, as they construct meaning through investigation and assessment Hein, 1991; Glasersfeld, 1989). Observations were conducted to evaluate the learning environment and learner-centered strategies that foster knowledge construction, a necessary skill for all students, including those with special educational needs. Mental engagement alongside hands-on experiences is vital, aligning with Dewey’s notion of reflective activity (Dewey, 2009).

Through this study, the position of HEC and CT regarding knowledge and skill acquisition in Malawi’s secondary school curriculum was examined, revealing the impact of teachers’ preparedness and the choice to use strategies, alongside other related factors, that influence their choices. Hence, the best instructional practices needed for effective teaching and learning of HEC and CT in the disintegrated Secondary School Curriculum (SSC) in Malawi were established.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study aimed to examine teachers’ preparedness for teaching Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT) in their disintegrated forms, focusing on knowledge and skill acquisition among learners. Additionally, it investigated how teachers’ preparedness influences their selection of teaching strategies and the factors that affect these choices.

Research hypotheses and research questions were developed to establish an understanding between teachers’ preparedness and teaching methods used to teach HEC and CT in their disintegrated form.

Hypothesis

H0: There is no association between teachers’ preparedness and teaching methods used to teach HEC and CT in their disintegrated form.

RQ1: How are teachers prepared to teach HEC and CT in their disintegrated form?

RQ2: What other factors influence teachers’ use of teaching strategies in HEC and CT when disintegrated?

This research adopted a mixed-methods research design, framed within the interpretivist paradigm with a bias towards a qualitative approach, grounded in constructivist learning theory. This approach was essential for examining the disintegrated curriculum as a dynamic process that necessitates the interaction of various systems to achieve desired outcomes. This approach enabled better triangulation of findings.  (Creswell, 2013; Dick & Carey, 2010;  Denzin & Lincoln, 2011 & Mertens, 2010). (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Sample Site, Sample Determination, and Sampling Techniques

Determining an appropriate sample size is crucial for ensuring the validity of research results. A sample is a subset of elements chosen from a larger population using systematic methods. In this study, the sample size of 163 participants was calculated using Cochran’s formula (1977), which helps researchers estimate the necessary number of participants to reach a specific level of accuracy. The sample consisted of 8 teachers, 1 ministry official, 6 head teachers, and 148 students. This selection process was especially relevant given the study’s mixed-methods research design, which involved collecting data through various methods, including document analysis, classroom observations, focus group discussions, and interviews. Data were collected from students via focus groups, while key informant interviews were conducted with subject teachers. The research focused on two educational divisions and six secondary schools in Malawi that offered Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT). The study included national co-educational and non-co-educational, conventional boarding, and day secondary schools, as well as community day public secondary schools. None from the private sector was selected because none offered HEC and CT in the selected two divisions at the time of the study. These schools were purposefully chosen through purposive sampling, in line with Mertens (2010) and Creswell (2013), who recommend targeting groups with specialised knowledge about the studied phenomenon. This method ensured that the sample included qualified educators actively teaching HEC and CT, allowing an in-depth examination of how teacher preparedness impacts pedagogical strategies and decision-making processes.

Data Analysis

In this study, we explored the intriguing connection between teacher preparedness and the teaching methods they use by employing Spearman’s rank correlation. This test was chosen because, unlike the Pearson correlation coefficient, Spearman’s rank does not assume normality of the variables and is more suitable for small sample sizes (Spearman, 1961; Spearman, 1987). For the qualitative part of the research, the sample size was determined based on data saturation, which was reached when additional data no longer produced new insights or themes Creswell, (2013); Cresswell et al., (2023); (Cresswell 2009 & Mertens 2010). Eight teachers were interviewed in this study. In each school, students were grouped into sets of at least eight, resulting in a total of 18 focus groups.

Qualitative data from interviews, focus group discussions, and field notes were recorded, typed into files, and later reduced and reconstructed through open coding. Themes such as “Teacher preparedness, frequently used strategies, curriculum-related factors,” among others, were identified. Related categories of these themes were created and systematically compared to establish relationships among them. This process eventually produced common themes, providing a basis for discussion and analysis related to the investigation’s topic: “the influence of teachers’ preparedness on the choice of teaching strategies.” This aligns with what Holiday (2001: 100) in Henning (2004) who states, that the raw data corpus is synthesized (rationalized), bringing “messy reality,” or everyday social life, into the realm of inquiry, moving it a step away from lived reality. This corpus is further “removed from reality” through thematic organization, including coding, categorizing, and extracting themes from categories. Holiday further states that processed data do not become “findings” until the themes have been discussed and argued to support a point, which should relate to a research question. Hence, the themes emerging from the interviews are outlined in the Results and Discussion section.

Additionally, the same themes were cross-checked against findings from document analysis and frequency tables, which were then graphed to detail activities and strategies used during classroom observations. Ultimately, after a thorough comparison and validation of the results, an explanation was provided regarding the position of Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles within Malawi’s disintegrated secondary school curriculum (DSSCM) in terms of knowledge and skill acquisition. Other factors affecting the choice of teaching strategies, aside from preparedness, were also identified. This approach aligns with Creswell’s (2007) mixed-methods triangulation convergence model, which enables the simultaneous collection of both quantitative and qualitative data and their continuous integration throughout analysis, interpretation, and discussion. This process enabled a deep understanding of whether HEC and CT were effectively taught within the DSSCM, ensuring that learners acquired relevant skills in Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles, in line with Dewey’s (2009) Constructivist theory and interpretivist paradigm, which guided the study.

Validity, Reliability, and Trustworthiness of Results

Validity refers to the soundness and credibility of research findings, directly affecting the strength of conclusions, while reliability relates to the reproducibility of these results (Durrheim & Wassenaar, 1999). In qualitative research, both validity and reliability are essential components of trustworthiness, as emphasized by Kunkwenzu (2007). A pilot study conducted in May 2022 at two schools helped improve study tools and estimate data collection time (Creswell, 2008). The main data collection took place from May 2023 to July 2024, utilizing data triangulation and participant validation to enhance the trustworthiness of the study, despite its limited scope to six secondary schools in Malawi.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Teacher Preparedness and the Use of Teaching Strategies

The table below outlines the subthemes and themes generated from transcribed data from the interviews by teachers.

College Preparation to Teach HEC and CT Disintegrated Curriculum

The findings from this study revealed that teachers were not adequately trained for practical work from their training colleges. The results indicated that teachers were not sufficiently prepared to handle practical lessons. This was attributed to insufficient resources and time pressures among student teachers and lecturers. This situation negatively impacts how teachers conduct themselves during lesson delivery. The studies by Kozina, (2016)  Kalande, (2006), and Kunkwenzu, (2007) on preservice teachers highlight the significance of preservice training; the results showed that the majority in these studies agreed that the feedback from their colleagues, along with the knowledge and skills imparted during training, was helpful for their professional development. The results suggest the importance of practical teaching experience in the context of professional development and the intention to pursue a career in education. The findings demonstrate that teacher preparedness is key to professional development and effective pedagogical choices during the teaching and learning process (Kozina, 2016). Most teachers echoed this sentiment in the study regarding the impact teacher preparedness has on their choice of strategies. “I believe there is a gap in the way Home Economics teachers are trained in institutions of higher learning. There is, to some extent, a lack of thorough training in the students in institutions of higher learning; for example, I was trained at (name withheld), and when I started teaching Home Economics, especially in the senior section where there are practicals and other components, I felt let down by our lecturers because they didn’t adequately prepare us for the practical aspects, like how to prepare learners for practicals in Home Economics so that they know how to handle the MSCE examinations”. (HEC and CT Teachers). To triangulate thematic interpretation, the discussion was correlated with results from data on the questionnaires on teacher preparedness.

In this study context, teacher preparedness was based on their tertiary education qualification (degree, diploma, or certificate), the program they majored in, whether they attended any training from HEC and CT in its disintegrated form, and finally, whether they attended any CPD training. Total preparedness was the average of all these metrics. A scale from 1 to 2.3 was constructed, where teachers with a rating below 1.5 were considered underprepared, those with a rating above 1.5 but less than 2.0 were considered partially prepared, and those with a rating above 2.0 were considered well prepared. Seven teachers were found to be underprepared, three teachers were partially prepared, and three teachers were well-prepared to teach HEC and CT in their disintegrated form.

On the other hand, the curriculum MIE (2013) and MIE(2001) recommended 13 teaching methods. These included questions and answers, group discussions, demonstrations, peer observation, peer evaluation, peer assessment, written exercises, case studies, role-plays, explanations, reports, pair work, projects, practical work, brainstorming, field trips, and group work. Figure 1 below shows the distribution of the methods used among different teachers.

Fig 1: Distribution of Methods used among different teachers.

Question-and-answer and explanations were the most frequently used teaching methods, as all the teachers utilised them. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the teaching methods by each teacher.

Fig 2: Distribution of the Teaching Methods by Each Teacher

Experiments, projects, practical work, role play, case studies, and field trips were rarely used, even though (Sylvester, 2021,Chucks 2011, MIE, 2013 & Kalande, 2006) suggest that these are the ideal methods of teaching science, including HEC and CT. This means that HEC and CT students were not fully exposed to the teaching methods that could facilitate adequate skill and knowledge acquisition in secondary school in their disintegrated form.

Spearman’s rank correlation was calculated for each of the ideal teaching methods of HEC and CT with the preparedness of the teachers; the results are presented in Table 1 below

The correlation coefficient for all the teaching methods of HEC and CT was positive, indicating an association between teacher preparedness and the teaching methods. However, it was strongly positive for experiments and preparedness compared to the other teaching methods, indicating a significant association between teacher preparedness and the teaching methods used. However, the sample size was small, so to test the significance of these correlation coefficients, their associated p-values were computed as shown in Table 1 above. At a 5% significance level, the correlation coefficients were not significant. Consequently, the research failed to reject the null hypothesis, concluding that there is no association between the preparedness of the HEC and CT teachers and the methods employed to teach HEC and CT in its disintegrated form.

Therefore, the study further investigated other factors influencing teachers’ method choices through interviews with teachers and students. Furthermore, some of the emerging themes are in Table 2 and have formed the basis of the discussion in this section. Based on the study’s findings, it has been revealed that teachers’ choice of teaching strategies was influenced by several factors, apart from teacher preparedness.

Factors Influencing the Use of Teaching Strategies in HEC and CT

Availability of Resources on Choice of Teaching Strategies and Students’ Performance in HEC and CT:

The study reveals that both a lack of human and material resources have negatively impacted the choice of teaching strategies and students’ performance in the Malawi National Examinations (MANEBO). For instance, MANEBO Chief examiners report (2022) revealed that there was poor performance among HEC and CT students in answering practical questions and those that required application attributed to in effective methodologies used such as in adequate practical work in most schools, in adequate use technology like COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) software in textile design. This sentiment was echoed by 6 HEC and CT teachers in this study “How can I conduct practicals without resources? Our school lacks a laboratory, so I just improvise and primarily teach theory (HEC and CT teachers).  When the laboratories are available, they mostly have outdated and few equipment. For example, this is what was stated by some teachers on the situation with laboratory structures, “Even those schools that have a Home Economics lab, their labs are old and almost being museum. And if you can see this lab (showing the Laboratory) most of the materials are not working for example, the gas cookers and refrigerator are not working. So, we have very few equipment. The CT lab is closed we don’t offer. When you request for the equipment, most schools complain about the cost. The cost of laboratory equipment, like kitchen equipment, is too high. So, most schools cannot afford it. So, this affects the performance of our students during MANEB because we teach them theory only” HEC and CT teachers 1976, 001, 200, 301. A report by MANEB (2022) and MOEST (2022) indicates that candidates in Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT) performed poorly in food and Nutrition Meal Planning, embroidery and appliqué techniques respectively, with an average score of 40%, while pattern making and design scored 45 %. These results can be attributed to ineffective teaching methods and inadequate teacher preparedness, which limited teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Consequently, many teachers in this study’s findings avoided teaching CT and often opted for Home Economics. This development led to a lack of innovative strategies that foster student engagement and critical thinking.

Time Factor, Increased Workload and Curriculum overload not reflecting the reality:

The findings indicated that Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT) were allocated insufficient time on the school timetable, with the junior section (forms 1 and 2) receiving only 2 to 3 periods of 30 to 35 minutes each, while the senior section (forms 3 and 4) was allocated 3 to 4 periods of the same duration per week. Such allocations were inadequate for practical subjects like HEC and CT, which affected teachers’ choice of teaching strategies, as well as their preparedness. The findings were opined by Ashong (2021), Okorie et al. (2021), and Beinert et al. (2021), who suggested that effective teaching of Home and Clothing and Textiles greatly depends on the teaching and learning environment in the school setting. The findings contradicted the principles of Dewey’s (2009) constructivist theory that guided this study. The theory states that knowledge is not gained merely through listening to words but through experiences in the environment. According to (Kolb, 2014a) (Kolb, 2014b), knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses about the surroundings. In this context, HEC and CT, which require significant hands-on activities and exploration, appear to be inadequately taught within the disintegrated secondary school curriculum.

Furthermore, the study revealed that the overcrowded curriculum in the secondary school system worsened these time constraints. This presented significant challenges for administrators in attempting to allocate adequate time for all subjects, particularly those that involved practical engagement. As a result, teachers frequently turned to more convenient instructional methods, such as lecturing, which allowed for the coverage of a wider curriculum within the limited time available. This was evident among HEC and CT teachers in the study who said that “When it comes to finish work then I need to rush, less activity-based approaches are used, I also make sure just follow what is the syllabus to avoid wasting time …. Otherwise, I will not finish ………. Imagine HEC periods only four periods per week so how can i teach all the content with practical work inclusive. There is mismatch on what is in the official document with what we teach…different information from different books but of similar topics. This is misleading. Some topics found in the syllabus but not in the text books, but they ask during  MANEBO….. so that’s a great challenge on how teach and what to teach (HEC and CT teachers, 12C, 1976) Here in the secondary school curriculum there are too many subjects so fitting them all with required time allocated can’t work so we just try to give a piece to all” (001, 1976, 318, 0123). The approach allows very little acquisition of relevant knowledge and skills. This implies that learners were not frequently exposed to challenging tasks, which could allow them to develop inquisitive minds and have a positive attitude towards the subject.

This situation is consistent with findings from previous research conducted by Anku, (2015); Beinert et al., (2021); Banda (2020), Chuks, (2011); Dzama, (2006) and Phiri, (2015) all of which highlight similar difficulties faced by teachers in effectively implementing curricula for science subjects, including HEC and CT, both in Malawi and internationally.

Moreover, the study highlighted that the lack of available resources and time pressures significantly influenced both what content is taught and the instructional methods employed. As articulated by one learner, “Our teacher is always tired… we have done practical work only once in Form One and only twice in Form Two. We enjoy practical work because it teaches us how to cook good meals”.

The findings from this study align with those of Lewin and Stewart (2003), who emphasize that the increasing workload for teachers harms their teaching effectiveness. Additional studies conducted by Cooper (2001), Maina and Kitainge (2018), Epjavsek (2021), and Bohm (2022) corroborate that educators often exceed their contracted hours, resulting in fatigue and professional burnout that was also observed in this study. Such exhaustion adversely impacts the teaching and learning process, contradicting the constructivist theory articulated by Dewey (2009), which emphasises the importance of mental engagement in the learning experience. Consequently, the lack of a conducive learning environment contributes to a decline in knowledge and skill acquisition among students in science, particularly HEC and CT in Malawian Secondary Schools and beyond.

CONCLUSION

This study has unveiled critical insights into the preparedness of teachers and the pedagogical strategies employed in the teaching of Home Economics (HEC) and Clothing and Textiles (CT) within the framework of Malawian secondary schools, where these subjects are taught in a disintegrated form. The findings powerfully illustrate the urgent need for a cohesive curriculum design that harmonizes effective teaching strategies with the unique needs of HEC and CT.

While teachers possess a foundational understanding of these subjects, significant gaps in their preparedness to implement innovative instructional strategies were evident. This deficiency not only impacts student engagement but also obstructs the pathways to meaningful learning outcomes. Furthermore, the identification of external factors influencing teaching practices highlights the complicated dynamics of the educational environment and underscores the necessity for supportive structures that promote effective teaching.

The research makes a noteworthy contribution to the existing body of knowledge regarding pedagogical methodologies applicable to HEC and CT. By integrating insights from previous studies and theoretical frameworks, this research advocates for a transformative revision of the secondary school curriculum, one that is aligned with best practices. This study reveals that the adoption of innovative teaching strategies is essential for equipping students with the practical knowledge and skills crucial for their personal growth and future career success.

RECOMMENDATIONS

• The Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MEOST) should prioritise Home Economics and Clothing and Textiles during curriculum restructuring to promote a cohesive learning experience.
• Emphasize connecting theoretical concepts to practical applications, preparing students for diverse career paths.
• Implement comprehensive training programs that focus on innovative teaching strategies and the integration of technology.
• Use varied evaluation methods, such as portfolios, to provide feedback and improve student performance.

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